DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

SYSTEMATIC PRESENTATION OF DERIVATIVES

IN THE DICTIONARY OF STANDARD LITHUANIAN

KEYWORDS: derivative, explanatory dictionary, systematicity, base word, dictionary entry.

A dictionary is not just any collection of words, but one organized according to lexicographic principles and providing its user with the information they need (KTŽ 240). Dictionaries differ in their purpose, scope, selection of data, the nature of that data and the methods used to present it, their mode of use, and so on. By external form, dictionaries are divided into traditional (printed, paper) and electronic dictionaries; the latter, in turn, also fall into two types: digitized printed dictionaries (electronic versions of paper dictionaries) and original electronic dictionaries created on the basis of databases (Jakaitienė 2005: 38–40; 293–296).

Perhaps the most important feature common to all dictionaries is systematicity.

The systematization of the lexicon is one of the functions of contemporary practical lexicography (Морковкин 1993: 37). In particular, in electronic lexicography based on databases, systematicity is one of the essential principles of lexicography and one of the main requirements for a good dictionary. Both the microstructure and macrostructure of a dictionary must be systematic. The latter also includes how headwords are presented—as separate entries or by incorporating derivatives in one form or another into entries for base words (Jakaitienė 2005: 35).

In explanatory dictionaries (more often printed ones, as well as their electronic versions), it is customary to present some derivatives, especially regular ones, in the entry for the headword (which is often also called a nest, although this is by no means a derivational nest of the headword, since it does not include all derivatives of the headword or show the relationships among those derivatives).

The entry for another (base) lexical unit usually includes:

verbal and nominal abstracts—names of actions and properties,

names of agents or of bearers of nominal properties,

adverbs,

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reflexive verbs and nouns,

diminutives,

words with negation and so on.

Here are a dozen or so examples from various explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language. They show that several types of included derivatives may occur in the same entry (in the examples, these are underlined¹):

gérti, gėria, gėrė

1. to swallow liquid, quench one’s thirst: The cow drinks from the bucket. To drink water, milk. A drinking cup (from which one drinks). Drinking water (which one drinks, suitable for drinking). ‖ figurative: To breathe dust, smoke, a stench (to inhale). To drink tobacco (to snort, sniff).

2. to consume alcoholic drinks, to drink heavily: When he hasn’t been drinking, he’s a good man. He still drinks.

3. to draw in, absorb; to penetrate, seep: The sponge absorbs water. The wind blows right through (permeates). | reflexive: Water seeped quickly into the sand.

◊ He complains (about leaky shoes).

gérėj‖as, ~a dkt. (1)

gérik‖as, ~ė dkt. (2)

gérimas (2)

gérimasis (1) [DŽ₆ₑ];

to breathe, breathes, breathed verb (1) (of someone) to inhale and exhale: There is a lot of smoke in the room; there is no air to breathe. ◊ He is breathing heavily. • negative not breathe breathing noun (1,1) [MLKŽ];

to listen, listens, listened intransitive K; SD343,279, R, BPII157, M [...]

4. refl. to agree, come to an understanding: The father and the children do not get along Rm. [...] [LKŽₑ];

clear‖, ~i (3)

1. clearly visible, bright, clear: ~i light. Clear sky.

2. having good eyesight: ~ios eyes.

3. easy to perceive, understand: Clear writing. Clear pronunciation. A clear question. As clear as day. As clear as the palm of one’s hand (very clear).

4. perceptive: A clear mind. A clear head.

clearly adv.: The moon shone brightly. To lay everything out clearly.

clearly adv.

clarity (1)

clarity (2) [DŽ₆ₑ];

small‖, ~à (4)

ant. large.

1. small in extent or size (height, length, width): A small child. Small potatoes. A small room, garden, town. A short person. A small stream. He is a little shorter. How tiny he is! He escaped from among the small ones, but did not catch up with the big ones (proverb).

¹When quoting dictionary entries, an effort is made to preserve their original form; omitted parts of entries are marked [...].

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2. young, not yet grown: Children are still ~i. She left ~iukės, ~utėlius like sparrows. Give me the knife, don’t be m. (don’t get irritated).

3. sparse: A small group. A small family. What little work there is here! From a big cloud, little rain (tts.).

4. mild, weak: Mild cold. Mild pain.

5. unimportant, insignificant, inconsequential: A minor mistake. A small gift. Minor merits, achievements. It’s a small problem that you don’t know how to do it—you’ll learn.

6. of low social standing: Though a lowly person, he doesn’t yield to the great lords (tts.).

◊ Without much of ~a (almost, nearly). ~a ką (it doesn’t matter, it means nothing). To be ~esniām (to give way). A lot ~a (approximately).

~aĩ prep.

~ỹn adv.: Health is going ~ỹn (declining).

~ùmas (2) [DŽ₆ₑ];

trobà fem. (3) [...]

1. [...] dwelling house, cottage: [...] A dwelling hut NdŽ. [...] There was a little hut at the edge of the forest trobelytė Sk. Mažon trobelūkėn he lives there Kb. [...] They cobbled the little hut together—it collapsed right there, fell apart, rotted Yl. [...] We have to give Kazimieruo [a share] trobalėlei to build Krt. She had received land from her homeland and built such a trobalìkę Pln. [...] Work those lands as far as you like, just don’t demolish my trobikės Pžrl. There used to be several trobìkės, but now it has expanded, and become a big city Vdk. A little hunched hut trobytėlė Šts. Trobùlėlė (derog.) Šts. Such a little trobùtėlė has now been built LŽ. She built herself a trobùkę Alv. [...] The old man built a trobelùkę DrskŽ. I built myself a trobùžę on the water JD20. Trobeliùkštėlė the tiniest KlvrŽ. The messengers had right before their eyes a downright comically small, square little trobelýtę, like a goose pen Vaižg. [...] [LKŽₑ];

tirp||ùs, ~ì (4)

1. easily dissolving: Insoluble impurities. ~i (~ioji) coffee.

2. which melts quickly and easily: Fat is a ~t. substance.

~ùmas (2) [DŽ₆ₑ].

Dictionaries of other languages also commonly include various derivatives in the entries for base words. They also contain entries for derivative types that are not mentioned here; this depends on the grammar and word-formation characteristics of the particular language—for example, in Russian and Polish dictionaries, imperfective verbs are often included in the entries for perfective verbs. A few examples:

similar -ais, similar -ā, adv.; similarly adv. 1. Having approximately the same properties or characteristics as something else. The daughter resembles her mother. Similar temperaments. They have similar voices. Similar geographical conditions. 2. Equivalent, corresponding (usually reciprocally). A partner. To speak as an equal to an equal. // Equal (in size, value). Cut the cake into equal portions. Divide equally. Exact change colloq. – a sum of money that exactly matches the amount due. ◊ similarity n. [MLVVe];

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APPLE n. Fruit of the apple tree. Juicy, sweet, sour, rosy apple. Apple core, seeds, peel. Apple juice, jam, compote. Dried apples. Rosy as an apple. – having a healthy complexion, with a healthy blush (usually of the cheeks or face). The apple of the eye. – the main component of the eye, a round body in the eye socket. ◊ Apple of discord. – the cause of a dispute./ little apple, -sha; little apple; little apple. [LVV];

GRANDFATHER, -a; m. 1. The father of one's father or mother. 2. Colloq. An old person, an elderly man. 3. pl.: grandfathers, -s. People who lived in ancient times, ancestors. Grandfathers and great-grandfathers; fathers and grandfathers (ancestors). [...] < Granddad, -i; gen. pl. -doks, dat. -dkam; m. Affectionate (senses 1–2). Grandfather's, -a, -o. Grandfather's, -a, -o. Grandfatherly, -aya, -oye. An old-fashioned method (old, tried and tested). Granddad, -dka; m. Colloq. (sense 2). Grandpa, -i; m. Affectionate (senses 1–2). Grandpa's, -a, -o. Grandfather (see). In grandfatherly fashion, adv. [БТСРЯ];

DICTIONARY, -я, m. 1. A collection of words (usually in alphabetical order) and fixed expressions with explanations, definitions, or translations into another language. Explanatory dictionary. Encyclopedic dictionary. Phraseological dictionary. Bilingual dictionary. Terminological dictionary. Dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms. Dictionary of morphemes (explaining the meaning of word parts). 2. sing. The vocabulary of a language, as well as the words used in a particular work, in the works of a particular writer, or in general by a particular person. The richness of the Russian vocabulary. Pushkin's poetic vocabulary. He has difficulty expressing himself in English: his vocabulary is very poor. ‖ dimin. little dictionary, -а, m. (sense 1). ‖ adj. dictionary-related, -ая, -ое. Dictionary entry (a short section of a dictionary devoted to an individual word or phraseological unit appearing as its headword). Vocabulary. [ТСОШ];

BUILD¹, -ою, -о'ишь; -о'енный; imperfective 1. what. To erect, construct a structure or building, as well as a construction or machine. Build a house. Build a dam. Build ships, locomotives. It is easier to destroy than to build (proverb). 2. what. To create, establish, organize. Build a new way of life, a new life. Build one's prosperity on something. Build a family. 3. what. To form mentally. Make plans. Make various proposals. Form a hypothesis. Create illusions for oneself. 4. what. To organize on the basis of something. Base a report on accurate data. Base one's tactics on something. 5. what. To express, formulate. Construct a sentence correctly. Construct a system of proofs. 6. what. To draw according to given dimensions (specialized). Construct a triangle. Construct a truncated cone. 7. what. To do something (in accordance with the meaning of the following noun) (colloq.). Make faces (grimace). Make eyes (flirt, using one's eyes). Pull faces (grimacing, give one's face an unnatural expression). 8. whom (what) into what. To represent oneself or someone else as someone or something (colloq., disapproving). Make oneself out to be a simpleton, a fool. Make a child out to be a child prodigy. ‖ perfective build, -ою, -оишь; -оенный (sense 1), construct, -о'ю, -о'ишь; -о'енный (senses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6), and make, -о'ю, -о'ишь; -о'енный (senses 7 and 8). ‖ noun construction, -и, f. (sense 1), construction, -я, n. (sense 1 obsolete, senses 2, 4, 5 and 6) and construction, -и, f. (sense 1). ‖ adj. construction, -ая, -ое (sense 1). Building season. Construction materials. Construction site. [ТСОШ];

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kabaret

1. «satirical entertainment performance; also: a venue where such performances take place»

2. «an absurd or surreal situation»

• kabaretowy • kabaretowość • kabarecik • kabareciarz, kabarecista [SJP];

pacha

1. «the hollow between the inner side of the arm and the side of the chest»

2. «an armhole in a garment; also: the part of a garment located at the hollow under the arm»

• pachowy • paszka [SJP];

drink someone unconscious imperfective Xa, drunk – sip imperfective I, ~any 1. «to get someone drunk to the point of unconsciousness» 2. «to sip up a liquid, especially its top layer»: Birds sipped dew from the leaves. to get drunk – to get drunk repeatedly «to become drunk on alcohol, to be intoxicated» [NSJP];

attentive [...] adj. [...] 1 paying attention; observant 2 considerate, courteous, devoted, etc. [an attentive husband] – SYN. THOUGHTFUL – atteńtive|ly adv. – atteńtiveness n. [WNWD];

hairstyle [...] n. a special style of hairdressing, often distinctive and fashionable – hair´styl´ing n. – hair´styl´ist n. [WNWD].

The examples show that derivatives are included in the entries of their base words by presenting them:

• as a separate lexeme (e.g., reflexive verbs),

• as a separate shade of meaning (e.g., reflexive verbs),

• in illustrative usage examples (e.g., diminutives, words with negation),

• at the end of the entry, after all information about the headword (e.g., verb and noun abstracts, agent nouns, adverbs); sometimes (more often in electronic dictionaries) they are written on a new line.

At the Institute of the Lithuanian Language, the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (hereafter BŽ) is nearing completion using new methods; its conception emphasizes the principle of systematicity (Liutkevičienė 2010: 141). Efforts are also made to adhere to it when presenting derivatives, which, in terms of lexical independence, are equivalent to other lexical headwords. Therefore, information about them must be no less detailed, comprehensive, and precise, and this cannot be achieved by any of the aforementioned methods of presenting derivatives as subentries. Thus:

• abstracts (e.g., miauktelejimas, priglaudimas, paskiepijimas, broliavimasis, audringumas, aukštybė, brangybė, brolystė),

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• diminutives (e.g., ausėlė, balandėlis, namūkas),

• adverbs (e.g., aiškiai, nuosekliai, aiškyn, garsyn),

• agent nouns (e.g., griežikas, auklėtojas),

• words containing negation (except verbs, e.g., nedarnà, nedaugelis, nedidelis, neblogas, neblogai, neginčijamai)

and other derivatives (except reflexive verbs and verbs with the prefix ne-) are presented in the same way as all other lexical units in BŽ, i.e., they are given separate entries. In these, derivatives appear as headwords and thus enter the alphabetical sequence of all lexical units, making them easy to find². Systematicity is also maintained in the presentation of information about the accentuation of derivatives: as with other nouns, their accent paradigms are indicated; it should be noted that diminutives presented as subentries are usually given without marking their accent paradigms, even though these often differ from the accent paradigms of the base words in whose entries the diminutives are included (see the cited entries for mažas, trobà in DŽ_6e and LKŽ_e). In BŽ derivative entries, all the meanings intended for inclusion are identified on the basis of usage and arranged accordingly; each lexeme is marked with the appropriate grammatical, lexical, stylistic, usage-domain, and other labels, and illustrated with typical usage examples demonstrating its semantic and syntactic combinability. Thus, information about derivatives is not limited to recording their relationship to the base word; data on derivatives are just as detailed and comprehensive as those on other lexical headwords.

Most importantly, only a separate entry can present the semantic structure of a derivative, the hierarchy of meanings and their shades, the relationships among them, and their connections with the meanings of base words (in the case of abstracts). Presenting a derivative as a subentry does not explain or reveal its semantics (or explains them inadequately or inaccurately). For instance, agent nouns often derive not from all, but only from some of the meanings of their base verbs. Dictionary users will not learn this if the derivative is merely entered at the end of the base word’s entry; for example, the nouns ėjėjas, ėjėja, which would derive from the 5th, 6th, or 23rd meaning of the verb eiti, could only be imagined as occasionalisms:

² The alphabetical ordering of lexical units is no longer as relevant in electronic lexicography, since a computer performs searches for them. However, in printed dictionaries, some derivatives included in the entries of base words have ended up far from where they should appear alphabetically (e.g., mezgėjas, -a, mezgimas ir mezgimasis occur between the entries for megzdinti and megztinis; rovėjas, -a, rov ikas, -ė ir rovimas occur between the entries for rautas and rautinis, and so on [DŽ₄]).

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to go, goes, went

1. to move from place to place on foot, at a walking pace: I travel. He did not walk but ran. This is a footpath. Go away. We are going to eat, dance, hunt. Go through the door, across the field, to school, into the forest. [...]

5. to travel by vehicle: The train, bus is running.

6. to pass (of time): Days, months go by. [...]

23. to be shown: “Skirgaila” is playing at the theater today. A good film was shown.

◊ Come off it (said in surprise or disbelief).

walker, ~a noun (1).

walking (2) [DŽ₆ₑ].

Moreover, writing a separate entry for a derivative avoids the duplication that can occur in its presentation, cf.:

commonality (1)

common feature: Lithuanian and Latvian have many common features [DŽ₆ₑ];

1 common, ~à (4)

1. belonging to everyone: Common property. ~à kitchen.

2. done or performed together: Common work. Common life. We will accomplish it through joint efforts. ~óji gender (grammar; includes words used in the same form for both masculine and feminine gender).

3. identical, similar: Similar goals.

4. aggregate: ~à sum.

5. covering the fundamentals of something: ~ basic education school.

~aĩ adv.

~ýbė (1).

~ùmas (2) [DŽ₆ₑ];

commonality noun (1) that which is shared, a common thing, quality, or feature: Commonality and particularity (philos.). Commonalities between Lithuanian and Latvian. You and I have more in common than differences. • antonym: particularity, difference. [BŽ].

Pure abstract nouns (names of actions or qualities) are presented in BŽ by indicating the base verb or noun and the corresponding sense number of the latter, while lexicalized ones are defined or (also) explained using synonyms. Examples (may still be edited, since the dictionary is not yet complete):

singing noun (1) 1. → t o s i n g 1: Singing of the anthem. 2. → t o s i n g 2: Waking up to the birds singing.

complicity noun (1) 1. the intentional joint participation of two or more persons in a crime: Complicity may be effected by omission. 2. → t o a c t a s a c o m p l i c e 2: Complicity of several claimants [defendants] in civil proceedings. Procedural joinder of parties. Necessary [permissive] joinder.

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clarity noun (2) 1. → clear 1: The President’s annual report lacked clarity. While there is no clarity, there remains hope. Ornateness harms the clarity of style [language]. 2. → clear 2: The elderly professor amazes with the clarity of her mind. The illness impaired his speech, but not the clarity of his scholarly thought. 3. → clear 3: There are all kinds of exercises for developing clarity of pronunciation. 4. → clear 4: What clarity this morning—the sky is cloudless! 5. → clear 5: Eagles [cats] are renowned for the clarity of their vision. timidity noun (1) great, extraordinary shyness, cowardice, or fearfulness: What a scaredy-cat you are! • antonym: courage.

The informal presentation of abstract nouns brought to light several problems that may not have arisen when compiling dictionaries with a different structure. One of them concerns grammatical labels. In BŽ, efforts are made to mark consistently not only pluralia tantum nouns but also singularia tantum nouns. Lithuanian grammars state that one type of singularia tantum nouns comprises nouns denoting abstract concepts that cannot be counted (LKG 1965: 175; cf. DLKG 1996: 66; Valeckienė 1998: 219). Once they become more concrete or acquire a new meaning or nuance of meaning, they may also be used in the plural. Such usage may also be motivated by stylistic considerations. As noted, these lexemes are defined in BŽ or explained by synonyms, while transpositional derivatives (i.e. those whose word-formation and lexical meanings coincide), or, in other words, pure abstracts, refer to the base lexeme. It might seem that the latter, non-lexicalized abstract names of actions or qualities should be marked with the abbreviation sg. (singular), but by no means can every abstract lexeme given its own dictionary entry be marked this way³. It is not uncommon for a lexicographic definition of an abstract lexeme to be very difficult to formulate (this is characteristic of transpositional derivatives, which is why they are explained by means of cross-references), and sometimes the use of its plural forms, which sound quite normal, indicates that lexicalization has at least begun. An examination of the usage of the verbal abstract bėgiojimas ‘running’ yielded a great many examples in which the plural form of this word is used (in all three meanings provided for in BŽ): Although games, walks, or runs improve a dog’s figure and prevent it from gaining weight, it is very important that the dog does not overheat while exercising. Cats are nocturnal animals: they spend most of the day grooming, and at night it all begins: runs, meowing, playing. Regular morning runs in London, whatever the weather. Those [parliamentarians’] runs from

³ For more on the plural of abstract nouns, see also Ramunė Vaskelaitė’s discussion article Use of the plural of abstract nouns in the language of economics and the norm in this volume of Kalbos kultūra, pp. 190–215.

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from one party to another. Whenever it is necessary to go on a business trip, the running around and pleading begin, asking someone to look after the animal.

Plural forms of abstract nouns may be used to intensify meaning and indicate the intensity, continuation, or repetition of a phenomenon, or specific instances in which a quality or action conceived as a noun manifests itself (LKG 1965: 178–181). The semantics of the base word also matters. For example, physical actions can be repeated and counted, so the plural of their names is more common; for instance, the aforementioned running and other verbal abstracts occurring in its cited examples (meowing, pleading, walking). Likewise: Drivers cannot find out where police officers are on duty and can no longer warn others about it with flashes of their headlights flashes. Some coastal residents say they saw around 90 lightning flashes during the storm. A polka with stomping. I’m already tired of moving house; I want to have a home of my own. However, abstract nouns formed from verbs denoting mental activity or various states and relationships probably take plural forms more for stylistic reasons, and they occur less frequently. For example: So many heads, so many opinions. After much deliberation and thinking, I decided not to change jobs. All your planswent down the drain.

The examples show that whether an abstract noun is treated as singular depends greatly on the semantics of the particular base verb. Where examples of plural use of an abstract noun exist, or where such use is at least clearly possible (supported by examples of analogous semantics), it has meanwhile been decided to mark abstracts in BŽ with the abbreviation usually sg., drawing attention to the fact that the marked word is usually, but not always, used in the singular; for example:

rising in price noun, usually sg. (2) → r i s e i n p r i c e: Rising fuel prices encourage crime. An increase in housing rent. Lithuania’s housing market began the year with rising prices. In the currency market, price increases were recorded for the US dollar and the Japanese yen.

crying noun, usually sg. (1) → c r y: Another common complaint is the lack of political culture. I’m fed up with constant complaining, crying, and grumbling about trifles. Unconditional complaints and pessimistic attitudes are becoming a national trait.

intimidation noun, usually sg. (1) → i n t i m i d a t e: Violence can be physical as well as psychological: intimidation, threats, and mockery. | singular: Hysteria, intimidation, and being intimidated are not signs of dignified conduct.

explanation noun (1) 1. usually sg. → e x p l a i n 1: Explanation of the signs. 2. singular, usually sg. → e x p l a i n 2 (singular): An additional explanation of the rules. 3. singular, usually sg. → e x p l a i n 3 (singular): An unconvincing explanation. 4. a document submitted to an official explaining the reasons for an offence, giving one’s justification for something: He submitted a written explanation for the misappropriation of funds.

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Cf. the entry for the base verb:

explain, explains, explained verb. 1. (what, who, to whom) to set out in writing or orally so that something becomes clear or understandable: Explain the lesson well (to the pupils). The speaker explained his proposal. Explain it a little, and they understand. | figurative: That explains everything. 2. reflexive. (what, whom) to reveal, find out: Find out the ways of solving it yourselves. 3. reflexive. to justify oneself: Explain why you acted that way.

Similar questions arose in presenting derivatives with the suffixes -umas, -ybė—abstract nouns (e.g., Estonians are famous for their reserve and slowness. Love is a wise madness, honey is sweetest and poison's bitterness (poetic), lexicalized, concretized lexemes (e.g., It is pleasant to hear her say one or another little joke. Most men nevertheless prefer feminine curves, rather than jutting bones.)as well as lexemes that are not yet fully concretized but can already be used in the plural form (e.g., Lack of sleep causes quarrels at home, irritability in work teams. commonalities and differences in the Baltic heritage of Lithuanians and Latvians. To distinguish personal matters from business matters.). In this case too, nouns can be marked with various grammatical number labels, cf.:

spiritual emptiness noun, singular (2) absence of spirituality: Spiritual emptiness and indifference became widespread.

atheism noun, usually singular (2) denial of the existence of God, supernatural beings and phenomena; syn. atheism: The greater the atheism, the greater the debauchery. Because of their secret practices, the first Christians were suspected of atheism and cannibalism. Cast atheism aside!

personal grievance noun, usually plural (2) expressing a personal attitude, making a personal judgment, especially one that offends another person: To descend into personal grievances. A manager should avoid personal grievances.

celebrity noun, common gender (1) a famous person or thing; syn. notable: A world-famous celebrity (a prominent artist, scholar, athlete, etc.). I don't feel that I am a celebrity. Quite a few celebrities took part in the festival. We saw the town's sights—the little wooden church, the mill, and the old oak.

Clearly, the systematic presentation of singular nouns still requires a separate study of abstract nouns in order to establish patterns and tendencies in their plural usage, their dependence on the semantics of base verbs and nominal words, and to develop as rigorous a methodology for their presentation in the dictionary as possible.

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At the beginning of the compilation of the BŽ, diminutives were intended to be presented in a manner similar to that in the dictionaries cited above: only those differing from their base word not only in expressing smallness or endearment, but also in some additional seme (a) or meaning (b), were to be listed separately, e.g.:

a) aikštėlė ‘a small level area set up or marked out for some purpose’;

b) ausėlė ‘an ear-shaped dumpling with a filling, boiled in water or fat’; būdelė ‘a small structure serving a particular purpose’.

Also compare the noun entry troba cited from LKŽ_e, which contains numerous examples illustrating diminutives of this word, and the separate entry trobelė:

trobelė sf. (2) a room of the same kind used for storage: The purpose of the little rooms in Samogitian houses varies: various household items, clothes, and fabrics are kept there [...]. Sometimes the little room served the same purpose as the main house; less affluent peasants used it as a shed for storing craft tools [...].

Following the tradition of DŽ, other diminutives were intended to be presented together with illustrative examples under their base words. Over time, however, it became clear that this approach was excessively unsystematic: the same word sometimes appeared in several entries; in some cases, diminutives were marked grammatically, stylistically, by stress, etc., like other independent lexical units, while in others their connection with the base word could only be inferred⁴; moreover, when the diminutive itself was not a headword, it was more difficult

⁴ It should be noted that the presentation of diminutives listed separately as individual entries in DŽ_6e is also unsystematic: several non-lexicalized lexemes may be presented under a single sense number, e.g.: ausėlė (2) 1. mžb. ear; 2. kul. ‘a flaky pastry, narsliukas, žagarėlis’; cf. aus||is, ~iẽs m. (4) 1. ‘organ of hearing; its external part, the auricle’: External, inner ear (anat.). One ear is hard of hearing. The hare pricked up its ears. 2. ‘hearing’: He has a good ear. Sings by ear. 3. ‘part of a hat covering the ear’. 4. ‘a projecting part of an object (usually with a hole in the middle)’: Ear of a bucket, cauldron. Handle of a pot, jug, or chest. Ear of a shoe (loop for pulling it on when putting on footwear). Eye of a pitchfork or drill (part into which the handle is fitted). 5. ‘a trough on the side of a threshing machine for grain’. [...]; tinkl||is (2) 1. mžb. net 1–4. 2. ‘a netted hair covering’: Put the net over your hair. 3. ‘a small net’; cf. tiñkl||as (4, 2) 1. ‘a fishing device made of knotted threads’: To cast, let down, set, draw, or haul in a net. A seine, drag, set, or encircling net. A hemp, silk, or synthetic net. 2. ‘a netted or woven trap for birds or animals’: Hunting net. 3. ‘a netted partition or barrier in sports’: Volleyball or lawn tennis net. Goal net. 4. ‘a netted or woven device for various purposes’: Fence net, garden net. Net for a loft. Steel mesh. 5. ‘a tangle of roots, veins, nerves, etc.’: Network of blood vessels. 6. ‘a system of transport, communications, etc., lines or institutions’: Network of rivers, canals, roads, electricity, or radio. Network of lines, coordinates. Transport or trade network. Network of agents. 7. fig. ‘a trap’ [DŽ_6e].

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to locate it (especially when planning electronic searches, for which data must be strictly structured), and so on. Nevertheless, at the final editing stage of the BŽ, it was decided to present all diminutives in separate entries, explain all their lexemes, and indicate the base word only in cases where formulating a definition is difficult. After adopting the new methodology, it became clear that entries for some already listed lexicalized diminutives would need to be supplemented, since they lacked the basic diminutive lexeme. Moreover, it became obvious that, to ensure systematic selection and presentation of diminutives, many more diminutives should be included in the BŽ (if namelis, dėželė are listed, then namukas, dėžutė should be included as well, and so on). There is no doubt that, in this case too, the principle of systematicity must be balanced with other selection criteria, such as sufficient frequency of use, correctness, and so forth. A few diminutive entries from the BŽ:

bažnytėlė noun (2) diminutive of b a ž n y č i a 2: You can admire the old wooden little church in Alovė. I like small, cozy village churches.

blokėlis noun (2) diminutive of b l o k a s ² 1: Glass blocks. I sell various building blocks.

beždžioniukas noun (2) 1. a young monkey; synonym: beždžionėlė: Female monkeys carry clinging young on their chests and backs. What caught everyone’s attention most was a mother monkey with a tiny baby monkey under her belly. 2. an affectionate term for a small child who imitates or mimics others: The child is turning into quite a little monkey—whatever he sees or hears, he repeats after others.

bobėlė noun (2) 1. pejorative diminutive of b o b a 1: A plump old [village] woman. Tales told by old women. An activity on the level of market gossips. 2. a small iron bar on which a scythe is peened; synonym: pentelė: The small peening bar broke. When the bar is too soft, the scythe blade cracks.

brūkšnelis noun (2) 1. diminutive of b r ū k š n y s 1: Her trousers have little white dashes. A practiced hand draws wax dashes on the decorated egg and adds little dots. 2. hyphen (-): A hyphen and an en dash are different marks. A hyphen is not written between two (or more) names of the same person. Words are not written “with a dash” but “with a hyphen”: The widespread habit of writing [putting] hyphens instead of dashes already indicates a decline in literacy.

Words containing the prefix ne- are presented in the BŽ in two ways:

1) nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are presented in separate entries, e.g.:

nepriežiūra noun singular (1) absence of care or inadequate care: The most common cause of poisoning is neglect of children.

nenóras noun, singular (1): absence of desire: She entirely justified her unwillingness to work. He eats unwillingly.

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nežemiškas, nežemiška adjective (1): extraordinary, wonderful: Unearthly happiness.

nepakeliamas, nepakeliama adjective (3⁴ᵃ) 1. very difficult, exhausting: Unbearable working conditions. An unbearable tax burden. 2. intolerable: Unbearable pain.

nesūriai adverb → n e s ū r u s 2: If your blood pressure is high, eat low-fat and unsalted food.

• opposite: sūriai.

nepastoviai adverb: variably, inconsistently, changeably: Words with variable stress (linguistics).

2) Verbs are presented in the entries of their corresponding base verbs as illustrations of the latter. If an attached negation changes the verb’s syntactic valency, the verb containing the negation is set apart from the other illustrative usage examples and presented after a vertical bar with the label neg. and syntactic government labels. Examples:

bāĺinti, bālina, bālino verb [...] 4. (what, with what, with whom) to add milk, sour cream, or cream; synonym: baltinti: To add soy cream to coffee. I like buckwheat only when it is prepared with milk. Recipe for fish soup with cream. | neg. (what): I never add milk to tea.

brukinėti, brukinėja, brukinėjo verb (what) to keep pressing something on someone in small doses; to urge repeatedly: There’s no need to keep foisting your opinion on someone who hasn’t asked for it. | neg. (what): When they showed films on this TV channel, they did not keep inserting advertisements, at least.

apsvilinti, apsvilina, apsvilino verb (what, whom) to cause to singe (sense 1), to burn slightly: The burner flame singed his beard. The flames reached the corridor and singed the cupboard. An overheated iron singed the dress. | refl. (what): He had singed his eyebrows. | refl. neg. (what): Don’t singe your hair while bending over the fire.

pridėrinti, pridėrina, pridėrino verb 1. (what, to what, for whom) to make something match, fit, or suit; synonym: pritaikyti: Let me adjust the hat for you. In a sentence, the form of a subordinate constituent is adjusted to the form of the main constituent (linguistics). To adapt the capacity of the process server to the system load (technical, computing). The plans must be adjusted to the changed timetable. It looks nice when a short, clear first name is paired with a long surname. | refl. (what): She knows how to coordinate her clothes. | refl. neg. (what, with what): I just can’t match the accessory with the new dress. [...]

buzóti, buzója, buzójo verb, colloquial 1. to smear, mess up, soil: The little one doesn’t get along very well with drawing; he smears things and that’s it. I washed the car, drove down a few streets—and the sides were dirty again. (what, with what, on what): Cheap (car-wash) liquid makes the surface dirtier and smears it more than it cleans it. Why are you smearing so much blush on your cheeks? A friend comes over with a little toddler, and the child smears marshmallow over every corner. | neg. (what, with what): Children, don’t smear your clothes with ice cream [chocolate]. | refl.: The white telephone gets disgustingly smeared. Something has started smearing onto the engine. | refl. (with what): For six or seven years she has been applying oils and looks like a teenager in the face. | refl. neg. (what): If they didn’t use cosmetics in such quantities, they would look younger.

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bárti, bāra, bārė verb. (someone, for something, because of something) to reproach angrily, with harsh words; to scold, criticize, or reprimand someone who has behaved badly: The mother scolds her son for lying. The groundskeepers are being scolded for the poorly maintained grounds. We’ll get scolded if we don’t return on time. | negative (someone, for something): Don’t scold her for that (geography) grade of five. | refl. (with someone, about something, because of something) [syn.] to quarrel, argue: They are constantly arguing. Parents, don’t argue where the children can hear you. Don’t scold the child; it isn’t his fault. How much longer will you argue over one broken little pot? If I hadn’t argued with everyone about smoking in the stairwell, you’d still be wading through cigarette butts.

Exceptions in which verbs containing the prefix ne- are entered as separate articles are rare—when the derivative is more usual and frequent than the base word, when the prefix was acquired at an earlier stage of derivation, and so on. For example:

neprimatýti, neprimãto, neprimãtė verb. (with what) to be unable to see well: He has poor eyesight and has been unable to see well since childhood. The old man could not see well with one eye. nesveikúoti, nesveikúoja, nesveikãvo verb. [syn.] to feel unwell, be ailing: I’m not ill, but I don’t feel well. Loss of appetite may be a sign that the cat is unwell.

In this case, consistently applying the principle of systematicity and entering the aforementioned verbs in the same way as words of other parts of speech that express negation would greatly increase the size of the dictionary (cf. the 54 pages devoted to words under the letter n in MLKŽ, 45 of which contain words with the prefix ne-). For the time being, therefore, an exception has been made for them, in the hope that later editions of the dictionary will revisit this problem and seek alternative solutions.

Reflexive verbs are presented in BŽ in several ways, depending on the relationship between their lexical meanings and those of their base verbs. Only those that have no non-reflexive counterparts are given separate entries, for example: džiaũgtis, juõktis. Reflexive verbs are presented in base-verb entries in three ways. If the lexical meanings of reflexive and base non-reflexive verbs coincide or differ only in nuance, reflexive verbs are listed in the same way as senses that differ in nuance, after a vertical bar (|). In the second case, they are defined (e.g., kūrė́nti), whereas in the first they are listed without a definition (e.g., išmuilinti). If the derivatives and base words differ in lexical meaning (e.g., karščiuoti and karščiuotis), they are presented as separate lexemes:

1a) išmuilinti, išmūilina, išmūilino verb. (something) to rub with soap; to soap: Soap your hands well. | refl. (in what): One soaps oneself well in the bathhouse. | refl. (something): Soap your head.

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1b) kūrėnti, kūrėna, kūrėno verb. 1. (something) to heat by burning fuel, to warm: In winter we often heat the stove. | negative (something): We don’t heat the stove; only occasionally do we fire it up again. 2. (something) to stoke (a fire): Near the barn, the children were stoking a fire, and the barn caught fire. | refl. (in what) being stoked to burn: A little fire was burning in the hut.

2) karščiuóti, karščiuója, karščỉavo verb. 1. to have a fever: The patient has a fever. 2. refl. to get very worked up, act rashly or hastily out of anxiety, or rush: Don’t get worked up; speak calmly.

(Liutkevičienė, Naktinienė, Vosylytė 2010: 236–238).

It should be recalled that reflexive verbs are new words, not forms of the same verb: they are derived from base non-reflexive verbs by means of a derivational (reflexive) affix, which gives the word a new derivational meaning (Valeckienė 1998: 297–298). Thus, in accordance with the principle of systematicity, like other independent lexical units, they should be presented in separate entries. BŽ was begun as a traditional printed dictionary, when it was still important to arrange data as compactly as possible. In the case of reflexive verbs, the tradition of the Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno (hereafter DŽ) was followed; indeed, in this respect DŽ_2–6e may be somewhat more systematic: if a reflexive verb differs from its non-reflexive counterpart in any lexical meaning, it is given a separate entry (DŽ₄ XI), for example:

karšč||iúoti, ~iúoja, ~iãvo to have a fever: The patient has a fever. ~iãvimas (1);

karšč||iúotis, ~iúojasi, ~iãvosi to be concerned, to worry; to act rashly, to hurry. ~iãvimasis (1) [DŽ_2–6e].

BŽ seems to return to the methodology of DŽ₁, according to which only those reflexive verbs that “are not used in another (non-reflexive) form” are given separate entries [DŽ₁ XI]. One could consider which methodology for presenting reflexive verbs (DŽ₁–BŽ or DŽ_2–6e) better meets users’ needs; however, it is clear that neither adheres to the general principle applicable to the entire dictionary lexicon: presenting separate lexical units in separate entries.

As work on BŽ nears completion, changing the way reflexive verbs are presented would be irrational. It should also be noted that the information on reflexive verbs in BŽ is quite comprehensive, even though most of them do not have separate entries; in terms of scope and variety, the data fall only slightly short of those in other lexical

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for the data of the units, their syntactic relations and combinability can be revealed, which can be demonstrated equally well by both ways of presenting reflexive verbs—both as independent entries and as subentries. The main drawbacks of including reflexive verbs in the entries of their base verbs are: 1) most reflexive verbs in the BŽ lack headword (principal) forms; 2) the lexemes of reflexive verbs do not form a semantic structure among themselves, since in entries for base non-reflexive verbs they are arranged not consistently, in sequence, but according to their semantic relationship with the latter’s lexemes; 3) subentry presentation itself is heterogeneous—several of the aforementioned methods, depending on the degree of lexicalization of reflexive verbs.

Because reflexive verbs are presented as subentries, their nominalizations are also presented inconsistently (when the dictionary as a whole is considered). Only those reflexive nouns that, like the base verbs, have no non-reflexive counterparts are given separate entries, e.g., rejoicing, laughing. Other reflexive nouns are included in the entries for the corresponding non-reflexive nouns (thus, in this case, not even for base words), and users cannot see their headword (principal) forms unless the reflexive noun must also be given in the entry heading because of a difference in stress (Liutkevičienė, Naktinienė, Vosylytė 2010: 246). For example:

renewal noun (1) 1. → r e n e w 1: Renewal of old furniture. 2. → r e n e w 2: Computer renewal. 3. → r e n e w 3: Renewal of the court proceedings. | reflex.: Recurrence of chronic inflammation.

fever noun (1) 1. → h a v e a f e v e r 1: The patient’s fever lasted several days. Medicine for fever. 2. reflex. → h a v e a f e v e r 2 (reflex.): Getting worked up never does any good.

beating noun (2), fighting reflex. (1) 1. → b e a t 1: A beating with a hand [a belt]. He was convicted of beating his daughter. It is not right to punish [discipline] a child by beating them. You can’t knock sense into someone by beating them. More shouting than beating (folklore). | reflex.: Fighting and brawling show a child’s aggressiveness. Adolescents expend their excess energy by fighting. [...] 13. reflex. → s t r i v e 1 (reflex.): Striving for a scientific career [to enter high society]. 14. reflex. → s t r i v e 2 (reflex.): And what have you gained by all that fighting of yours?

In later editions of the BŽ, especially their electronic versions, reflexive verbs derived from base non-reflexive verbs should be separated from the latter. These verbs, like their nominalizations (reflexive nouns), should also be presented in separate entries. Reflexive words would then be searchable like all other lexical items in the BŽ, and their data would consequently be structured just as systematically. Only this way of presenting derivatives could be considered systematic in the BŽ.

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FINAL REMARKS

1. In explanatory dictionaries, especially traditional ones, derivatives are often included in one way or another in the entries for their base (or related) words. Such presentation is found not only in Lithuanian dictionaries but also in dictionaries of other languages. The derivatives most often included in entries for base words are regular derivatives (abstract names of actions or properties, etc.); which ones, specifically, depends on the word-formation and grammatical features of each language.

2. If derivatives are treated as lexical units in their own right, just like their base words and other headwords, their data must be presented as fully and accurately as that of the latter. Subentry presentation is unsuitable for derivatives. Separate dictionary entries should be created for them. Only in this way can a word’s semantic structure be revealed and it can be characterized in all other respects (grammatical, stress-related, stylistic, domain of use, etc.).

3. The concept of the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language emphasizes the principle of systematicity. Efforts are made to observe it when presenting derivatives as well. This is not achieved in every case, because the dictionary was begun as a traditional, print work. Now that its compilation has reached its final stage, changing the methodology for presenting some derivatives would not be practical. However, subentry derivatives should not remain in later editions of the BŽ, especially electronic versions, whose preparation should also involve changes to the structure of BŽ data.

4. Separate entries in the BŽ will be provided for verbal and nominal nominalizations, diminutives, and words with negation (except verbs). To avoid unduly increasing the dictionary’s size, verbal derivatives with the prefix ne- are meanwhile retained in the entries for their base verbs. The presentation of reflexive verbs and nouns also remains heterogeneous: the great majority are presented in entries for base non-reflexive verbs. Reflexive verbs are presented together in the BŽ as a distinct and specific lexical group, following the traditional (DŽ₁) system; however, this system is incompatible with the principal requirement of systematicity applied to the entire lexicon of this explanatory dictionary—to present all lexical units with equal accuracy and explain them fully (especially semantically).

5. Standardizing the formal presentation of derivatives gives rise to unforeseen substantive problems, which in turn also hinder consistent adherence to the principle of systematicity. For example, only after thoroughly examining the use of nominalizations in the singular and plural, classifying them in this respect, and strictly establishing the presentation methodology, could one expect that

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In the dictionary, singularia tantum nouns and nouns with both number forms denoting abstract concepts are appropriately marked. This problem emerged only when abstract nouns were extracted from the entries for their base verbs and nouns and their grammatical features needed to be marked, thus seeking to present all lexical units of the BŽ systematically. It can be resolved only by pooling the efforts of lexicographers, grammarians, language standardizers, and other language specialists.

6. Bearing in mind that an electronic version of the BŽ will appear sooner or later, the systematic presentation of derivatives would help avoid the problems encountered when digitizing a traditional dictionary, when numerous non-standardized aspects of formal data presentation must be taken into account. Treating derivatives like other lexical units and presenting them accordingly and systematically makes it possible to transfer dictionary data to a database more accurately. A more precise data structure for the latter, one requiring fewer exceptions, would offer greater possibilities for various kinds of research, and statistical data analysis would undoubtedly be more accurate. This is intended to be implemented in the preparation of later editions of the BŽ.

7. Systematicity was and remains an aspiration of the BŽ editors. The dictionary currently being completed will be more systematic than its predecessors in some respects. It was impossible to avoid certain manifestations of inconsistency when creating a dictionary without an electronic database as its foundation. In the future, using its more systematically organized data would make it possible to avoid many formal errors and inaccuracies and to improve the dictionary already prepared more consistently, as well as to use it as a basis for preparing more advanced, varied, and scientifically higher-quality tools for standardizing, teaching, and learning the Lithuanian language.

ŠALTINIAI

BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (rengiamas).

DŽ₁ 1954: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ats. red. J. Kruopas. 1 leidimas, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

DŽ₂ 1972: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ats. red. J. Kruopas. 2 leidimas, Vilnius: Mintis.

DŽ₄ 2000: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 4 leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

DŽ_6e 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 6 (elektroninis) leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

LKŽ_e 2005: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (elektroninis variantas). Vyr. red. G. Naktinienė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga per internetą: <www.lkz.lt>.

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LVV 1987: Latviešu valodas vārdnīca, Rīga: Avots.

MLKŽ 2010: M. Norkaitienė, R. Šepetytė, Z. Šimėnaitė. Mokomasis lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius: Baltos lankos.

MLVV 2003–2008: Mūsdienu latviešu valodas vārdnīca. Red. Dr. philol. I. Zuicena. LU Latviešu valodas institūts. Prieiga per internetą: <www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv>.

NSJP 2002: Nowy słownik języka polskiego, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

SJP: Słownik języka polskiego, Wydawnictwa Naukowego PWN. Prieiga per internetą: <http://sjp.pwn.pl>.

WNWD 1988: Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English, 3rd college edition. Editor-in-chief V. E. Neufield. Cleveland and New York: Webster’s New World.

БТСРЯ 2002: Большой толковый словарь русского языка, Санкт-Петербург: Норинт.

ТСОШ – Толковый словарь русского языка С. И. Ожегова и Н. Ю. Шведовой. Prieiga per internetą: <http://slovari.ru/default.aspx?s=0&p= 244>.

LITERATŪRA

DLKG 1996: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. V. Ambrazas. 2 leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

Jakaitienė E. 2005: Leksikografija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

KTŽ 1990: K. Gaivenis, S. Keinys. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Šviesa.

Liutkevičienė D. 2010: „Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ struktūra, tikslai ir perspektyvos. – Kalbos kultūra 83, 141–150.

Liutkevičienė D., Naktinienė G., Vosylytė K. 2010: Veiksmažodžiai ir jų abstraktai „Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne“. – Leksikografija ir leksikologija 2, 235–251.

LKG 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1. Vyr. red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis.

Valeckienė A. 1998: Funkcinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

Морковкин В. В. 1993: О предпосылках системного лексикографирования. – Прагматика словаря. Под ред. О. Ю. Богуславской. Москва, 31–39.

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THE SYSTEMATICITY OF THE PRESENTATION OF DERIVATES IN BENDRINĖS LIETUVIŲ KALBOS ŽODYNAS (DICTIONARY OF STANDARD LITHUANIAN)

Summary

The Lithuanian language institute is using new methods in preparation of Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian) the concept of which emphasizes the principle of systematicity – one of the main requirements of a quality dictionary. This article discusses how successful the attempts to apply this principle have been when presenting derivates in this dictionary and what difficulties have been faced. Different derivates are researched: verbal and nominal abstracts, diminutives, derivates with the negative prefix ne- and reflexive verbs. The comparison with other dictionaries of the Lithuanian language (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian), academic Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language), etc.) and explanatory dictionaries of the other languages (Latvian, Russian, Polish, English) is made and the main principles and methodology of the presentation of derivates in Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas are introduced.

The main principle is that derivates (except for verbs with the prefix ne- and the majority of reflexive verbs) are presented not in the entries of underlying words, but as separate entries. In such entries the presentation of abstract nouns (for instance miauktelėjimas, priglaudimas, paskiepijimas, broliauvimasis, audringumas, aukštybė, brangybė, brolystė), diminutives (for instance auselė, balandelis, namukas) and words except for verbs with a negative prefix (for instance nedarna, nedaugelis, nedidelis, neblogas, neblogai, neginčijamai) is analogous with the presentation of other lexical units. Different meanings are separated according to their usage, each lexeme has appropriate grammatical, lexical, stylistic, usage field and other marks and illustrative examples of usage which reveal the semantic and syntactic valency are presented. Transpositional derivates and abstracts (names of qualities or actions) are presented with their underlying nomen or verb and the number corresponding to one of the meanings. Lexicalized abstracts are defined or (and) explained through synonyms.

The non-formal presentation of abstract nouns raised a number of problems which were probably not encountered when preparing dictionaries with a different structure. For instance, grammars suggest that abstract nouns are usually used in singular, though not every lexeme of an abstract noun presented in a separate entry can be marked as vns. (sing.) – quite a lot depends on the semantics of a particular verb. This aspect of abstract noun presentation is still being discussed.

There are two ways of presenting words with the prefix ne- in Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Nouns, adjectives and adverbs are presented in separate

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entries and verbs – in the entries of the corresponding underlying verbs as their illustrative examples. The consistent application of the principle of systematicity and the presentation of such verbs analogically to the presentation of other parts of speech which have a negative prefix would enlarge the volume of the dictionary substantially and extend the term of preparation. It would take even longer if at the final stage twofold presentation (incorporated and separate) of reflexive verbs was changed. Thus in the meantime an exception is made for these two groups with the hope to return to this issue and to search for alternative solutions in future editions.

KEYWORDS: derivate, defining dictionary, systematicity, underlying word, dictionary entry.

DAIVA MURMULAITYTĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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