Kazimieras GAIVENIS

MINOR MATTERS IN THE STANDARDIZATION OF TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY

What does the word technika denote?

The development of technology began with the invention of the boat, arrow, and bow. This was approximately 30,000 years ago, before the Common Era. By contrast, the latest and most impressive achievements in technology should probably be associated with the construction of spacecraft, apparatus, and computers. The Greek word techne, from which our present-day term technika developed, meant both craft and art in antiquity. Today, this word means not only the totality of tools, but has also become so popular and vague in meaning that it is beginning to be used incorrectly. For example, one can speak of a violinist’s technique, skating technique, the technique of versification, and so on. However, it is unusual for us to use the word technika to refer to a particular machine or mechanism (a tractor, motorcycle, meat grinder, etc.). Therefore, speaking correctly, we would not say the technika is moving, the technika has broken down, and so on.

The term technika now covers a wide range of machines, mechanisms, installations, equipment, instruments, devices, and tools. One of the most important concepts in technology is probably “machine.” Long ago, Hamlet wrote to Ophelia: “Thine evermore, most dear lady, whilst his machine is to him” (“Yours forever, my dearest lady, as long as my body is alive”; literally, “... as long as my machine is with me”). Thus, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word mašina already had not only its literal meaning, but also derived and figurative meanings, e.g. “body,” “deception” (cf. machinatorius, “deceiver”), and so on. Nevertheless, these latter meanings did not displace the word’s primary meaning, which remained associated with technology. Even today, some rather strange meanings of this word have survived. For example, the English call a machine gun machine-gun, while the Suvalkians use the word mašina even for a stove. In some parts of eastern Lithuania, the word mašina was also used for a train. What our forebears called mašina can also be seen from the verb mašinuoti. It means not only to thresh grain with a machine, but also to separate milk with a separator, grind meat with a mincer, and so on. Even the phraseological term

¹Булагов Р. История слов в истории общества. М., 1971. С. 82.

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prāgaro mašina (an explosive device with a clockwork or similar mechanism) remains a designation for something in the field of technology. The definition of the term mašina (“a device for transforming energy, materials, and information”) is linked to the concept of “mechanical motion”; strictly speaking, therefore, an electronic computing machine is not a true machine. Machines are most often divided into working, power, and information machines. In any case, there are now hundreds upon hundreds of all kinds of machines and small machines. Their Lithuanian names are usually formed in three ways: 1) by creating compound terms of the “noun + verb” type, e.g.: stump-removing machine — kelmarovė, earth-digging machine — žemkasė, pile-driving machine — poliakalė, net-knitting machine — tinklam ezgė, spindle-polishing machine — šeivatrynė; 2) by forming derivatives with the suffixes -tuvas or -tuvė, e.g.: waxing machine — vaškuotuvas, flying machine — lėktuvas, combing machine — šukuotuvė, spinning machine — verptuvas, teasing machine — kedentuvė; and 3) by lexicalizing components of compound terms, e.g.: threshing machine — kuli amoji, sewing machine — siuvamoji, laying machine — klojamoji, and so on.

The term mašina is very closely related to the term mechanizmas. It, too, is associated with the concept of “mechanical motion.” However, technology specialists tend not to regard these concepts as identical. Two differences are most often cited: 1) machines consist not only of mechanisms but also of starting or stopping, control, and other devices; and 2) some process machines contain no mechanisms at all. Both machines and mechanisms are also closely related to the concepts “apparatus,” “instrument,” “device,” “implement,” and so on. None of these concepts has yet been systematized or standardized, nor do they have strict definitions. Nevertheless, certain word-formation tendencies exist and should be observed. For example, derivatives with the suffix -tuvas more often name instruments than implements, whereas derivatives with the suffix -iklis tend to do the opposite. Compound terms with a noun and a verb as their components are most often names of instruments and machines (e.g., betonmaišė), while terms with the reverse structure (a verb followed by a noun) almost always name only parts or components of machines or instruments (e.g., siurbvamzdis).

When translating scholarly texts into English and vice versa, the English terms machine, apparatus and technic and technique can sometimes mislead an inexperienced translator. For example, we use the term Rentgeno aparatas, whereas the English say roentgen machine (alongside X-ray unit); we have the term paleidimo įrenginys, whereas the English use launching machine; we say

3—880

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technical terminal, whereas the English can say only technics; in English, the expression the radiological technique means “radiological examination methods,” not “radiological technology.” The same can be said of German terminology: we use the term milking machine, whereas the German generic term is Maschine; our knitters knit with machines, while Germans knit with apparatuses (Apparat).

Measure nine times...

One fairly large group of technical terminology consists of the names of units of measurement and measuring instruments. Measuring instruments could also be called by a single word—measuring devices. Most general-purpose technical measuring devices have compound names, for example: outside caliper, inside caliper, gap gauge, sliding caliper, depth gauge, angle gauge. Sometimes only their form varies, for example, one finds vidmatis and vidumatis (the form vidmastis was also used), gylmatis and gilamatis, and so on. The short forms are normative. Only measuring gauge blocks lack a separate term. They are manufactured in sizes from 0.1 to 2000 mm. The size intervals are in increments of 0.001; 0.01; 0.1; 0.5; 1; 10; 25; 100 and 1000 mm. Sets of 7 to 116 pieces are assembled from them. They could be called by the term gauge blocks. Sliding calipers—the principal measuring instruments used by turners—have a vernier, an auxiliary scale that makes it possible to calculate precisely the fractions of the main scale divisions. The term vernier is eponymous, i.e. derived from the Latin form Nonius of the surname of the Portuguese inventor P. Nunjo. The adjective vernier is also derived from this term (e.g., vernier depth gauge). Micrometric inside calipers are usually of two types: jaw and axial. The parts of an axial micrometric inside caliper are as follows: head, micrometer screw, extension rod, drum, stem, measuring tips, and brake. In some Lithuanian technical books (e.g., A. Stasiūnas’s “Turner’s Handbook” and others), this small component is inaccurately called stabdis. The normative term for this and other similar parts is stabdys. Measurement is also carried out with scribers, spirit levels, gauges, measuring microscopes, sine bars, autocollimators, micrometers, and other instruments. The borrowed equivalent reismusas of the Lithuanian term scriber is no longer acceptable in current terminology. Furthermore, some compound names of measuring instruments sometimes contain unnecessary elements, for example: an MB-type micrometer mounted on a table (=bench micrometer MB).

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When using measuring instruments, some other words are also used imprecisely. For example, the word deviation is preferable in technical terminology to nuokrypa; the word dimensions should everywhere replace matmenys; the word division denotes an action, whereas measuring-instrument scales have only graduations, and so on.

The International System of Units (SI) consists of 7 base units, namely: length—the meter; mass—the kilogram; time—the second; electric current—the ampere; temperature—the kelvin; amount of substance—the mole; and luminous intensity—the candela. There are many more derived units. Their Lithuanian names vary somewhat. They are strictly standardized only in the “Dictionary of Physics Terms” (V., 1979). However, some linguists were dissatisfied that, in this dictionary, the names of units of linear and angular velocity are too far removed from everyday speech, for example: meter per second (not meter per second) and radian per second (not radian per second). This stricter standardization could be reversed. However, the dative construction works well for naming derived units. For example, it is better to call the unit of mechanical stress not newton divided by the square meter, but newton per square meter, and so on. In addition, all eponymous units of measurement should be written in lowercase, for example: newton-second, pascal-second, gray per second; newton per cubic meter, etc.

Various terminological inconsistencies also arise in the use of international elements to form multiples and submultiples of units. The system of these prefixes is as follows: exa-(10¹⁸), peta-(10¹⁵), tera-(10¹²), giga-(10⁹), mega-(10⁶), kilo-(10³), hecto-(10²), deca-(10), deci-(10⁻¹), centi-(10⁻²), milli-(10⁻³), micro-(10⁻⁶), nano-(10⁻⁹), pico-(10⁻¹²), femto-(10⁻¹⁵), and atto-(10⁻¹⁸). The same international elements are also used in technical terminology to form other kinds of terms. Therefore, these elements have two kinds of meanings in technical terminology: ordinary and specialized. The ordinary meanings are usually not precisely defined. For example, the element micro-means both “very small, minute, short” (compared with other things of the same kind), as in minibus, microcomponent, microwaves, and “related to the study or measurement of small dimensions or the use of a small amount of energy,” as in micromanipulator, microdrive, and so on. The same element micro-, when used to form SI units, is strictly unambiguous and defined as 10⁻⁶. Thus, the element with an ordinary meaning

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The antonym of micro- in terminology is the element macro- (microphysics–macrophysics, microstructure–macrostructure), whereas the antonym of the specialized meaning of macro- is the element mega- (micro-indicates that a unit is one million times smaller than the system unit, while mega-denotes that a unit is one million times larger than the system unit). These points show that distinctive antonym pairs can arise in the language of technical science. ²

The international elements aero-, auto-, avia-, photo-, hydro-, macro-, pseudo-, thermo- and the international prefixes anti-, hyper-, infra-, contra-, super-, ultra- are not used independently in Lithuanian. However, new terms formed with them are not constructed quite the same way as those formed with Lithuanian prefixes. When words are formed with Lithuanian prefixes, the ending of the base word (and often its gender) is changed, whereas with international elements it is not, for example: current -- countercurrent, but satellite -- antisatellite (not antisatellitic), light -- lightweight, but superlight. Therefore, the currently popular compound technical term microwave oven is incorrect. It is difficult to form the adjective mikrobangis, -ė from the word microwave. It is better to use the term microwave oven.

Looms That Do Not Weave

There are all sorts of machine tools, but their three most popular groups are probably lathes, drilling machines, and milling machines. These groups are by no means uniform either. For example, lathes are divided into 10 types: 0 – specialized automatic lathes and semi-automatic lathes; 1 – single-spindle automatic lathes and semi-automatic lathes; 2 – multi-spindle automatic lathes and semi-automatic lathes; 3 – turret lathes; 4 – drilling and cutting-off machines; 5 – vertical turning lathes; 6 – turning and planing machines; 7 – multi-tool lathes; 8 – lathes for turning shaped parts; and 9 – various lathes (according to Prof. A. Stasiūnas).

Milling machines are likewise divided into 10 types, namely: 0 – conical, 1 – vertical knee-type, 2 – continuous milling, 3 –

² Gaivenis K. Technikos terminai su kai kuriais tarptautiniais dėmenimis// Mokslas ir technika. 1991. Nr. 7. P. 11.

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longitudinal milling, single-column, 4 – copying and engraving, 5 – vertical knee-less, 6 – longitudinal milling, double-column, 7 – wide-range knee-type, 8 – horizontal knee-type, and 9 – various milling machines (according to Prof. L. Kumpikas). In addition, all machine tools have numerical and letter designations indicating their additional features. The compound terms universalines, horizontalines and verticalines frezavimo stakles should not be used to name types of milling machines. Instead, the terms universaliosios, horizontaliosios and vertikaliosios frezavimo staklės should be used. Since the neologism suklys (instead of the loanword špindelis) is already becoming established in technical terminology, the terms vienašpindelinės (=vienasuklės) and daugiašpindelinės (=daugiasuklės) machine tools should likewise be avoided. The classificatory term padidinto tikslumo staklės (=didesnio tikslumo staklės) (‘increased-precision machine tools’) should not be used. Bark-stripping machines would be better called žieviulupėmis staklėmis (‘bark-peeling machines’), while bekonsolines šlifavimo stakles -- bekonsolėmis šlifavimo staklėmis (‘knee-less grinding machines’ instead of ‘knee-less grinding machine tools’).

Prof. A. Novodvorskis, who was well versed in the requirements for the systematization of technical terminology, proposed the neologism tekintuvės for lathes in his book “Metalų technologija” (V., 1954) (p. 270). Unfortunately, it did not catch on. Such a correction is now irrelevant. There are hundreds of more important matters in technical terminology that need attention. We will discuss a few representative examples.

Until now, we have been excessively influenced by the forms of foreign terms. For example, in machine-tool terminology we had the term kreipiančioji. We realized that it was an overly obvious calque of a Russian active participle and replaced it with another similar term, kreipiamoji. The change could have been more decisive: for this purpose, the word kreiplė, for example, could have worked perfectly well. Or take another example. For a copper alloy with zinc and nickel, we used the Germanism noizilberis for a while. It was later replaced by the Lithuanian calque naujasi dabris. Why was a calque needed here? A Lithuanian prefixed neologism, sidabrainis, would have been more suitable for an alloy of a beautiful silver color.

All available means of refining terminology should be used in technical terminology. For example, the following formula is used to calculate rotational speed: v - ntk, in which n is said to be the screw’s revolutions per minute. Here, it would be more precise to say the screw’s turns per minute, since our language allows us to express this more precisely.

Less common Lithuanian words can also be sought to replace loanwords from other languages. For example, in technical terminology the term gitarą most likely

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is a Russianism, since in English the change-gear train of a lathe is called change-gear train, while that of a machine tool is called swing bracket. We would suggest that the Lithuanian dialect word kėmuras might be a suitable replacement for the loanword gitara. A foreign-language term pičas (the form pitčas has also been used) should be assessed differently. In Prof. A. Novodvorskis’s “English–Lithuanian Polytechnic Dictionary” (V., 1958), at least eight Lithuanian equivalents are given for the English term pitch: 1) resin, tar, turpentine; 2) turpentine; 3) to fall, to throw; 4) pitch (of a thread); 5) centerline; 6) slope; 7) roof slope; 8) heartwood. Lexicographically, this treatment is not entirely accurate, since it conflates two homonyms under one word: pitch ‘resin’ (cf. Latin pix, picis) and the English word pitch, which has a different origin. However, one might ask: is the Anglicism pičas really needed in our technical terminology at all, or is the word žingsnis (‘step’) enough? Since measurement in inches is now, one might say, a thing of the past, the term pičas is a dying word. Therefore, there is no need to look for a Lithuanian substitute for it now.

The term špyžius (or its fairly common variant špizius) is another matter. Many technical specialists are still reluctant to give up this Slavic loanword. It should be replaced by the term ketus. Although neither Prof. K. Būga nor our other etymologists have established where this word comes from (its only possible cousin might be the word ketai, ‘the thickened bark of a birch’), it is nevertheless to be preferred in technical terminology. Incidentally, ketų used to make castings should be called not liejimini, but liejiniu ketumi.

When coining new technical terms, one must always observe not only word-formation rules but also prevailing tendencies. For example, weaving, spinning, and other machines have a certain part called siūlvedžiu. What should its nominative form be: siūlvedis ar siūlvedys? After all, we have not only the words skylmušys, garvežys, bet ir ketvežis, laikrodis. The tendency is this: people are named with compounds ending in -ys, whereas machines, instruments, and various devices are named with words ending in -is. Thus, it would be more systematic to use not only the term siūlvedis, but also siūlgaudis, siūlkreipis.

Metaphors Where No One Expects Them

Some may think that metaphors are characteristic only of belles-lettres, and that in the language of technical science their effect is like a pistol shot during a concert. Unfortunately, this view would be mistaken. Metaphors are everywhere. Not only was the ancient medieval conception of the world metaphorical, but so too was the scientific conception of the world in the 16th–17th centuries (the universe is a machine, the human being is a

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machine)³ and even in the 18th–19th centuries (J. Schmidt’s wave theory, A. Schleicher’s theory of the genealogical tree of languages, and others). In the words of the late Prof. J. Pikčilingis, a metaphor is a leap from one sphere of ideas to another. Metaphors in the language of science most often arise when the intraterminological method of term formation is used—that is, when specialists in one field borrow terms from specialists in another field. Thus, terminology contains chiefly nominative metaphors. Predicative metaphors also occur, though less frequently. They all have a dual nature, consisting of what is being compared (the theme) and that with which it is compared (the rheme).

Many metaphors in the language of technical science are international calques. For example, the cylindrical part of a kinescope or electron tube into which the electron gun is fused is called kakleliu not only in Lithuanian; its English name is neck, its German name Kolbenhals, and its French name col du tube. Here is another example. We do not know which language was spoken by the engineer with a vivid imagination who called the distance between the crests or roots of two adjacent thread turns by a term corresponding to our word žingsnis (‘step’). But now not only threads, screws, and gear teeth have steps; so do worms (not those that burrow in the soil, but screws with a trapezoidal or similar thread). Thus, in the language of technical science, one metaphor may collide with another.

Technical metaphors have their own logic. They are usually based on similarities in the appearance or shape, position, and functions of the theme and rheme. But by no means are all of them justified. Careless use of predicative metaphors often produces stylistic clichés, while nominative metaphors increase the number of calques and, whether one likes it or not, bring terminology right to the edge of correctness. For this reason, overly vivid terms are often rightly avoided in technical terminology. For example, in the past (20–30 years ago) the term mirties taškas (‘death point’) was used (cf. English dead center, German Totpunkt, French point mort, Russian мертвая точка), but it has now been replaced in mechanical terminology by the term rimties taškas (‘rest point’). In Prof. A. Novodvorskis’s “Technical Dictionary” (1949), a blast furnace was still called by the compound term krosnis aukštuolė. That term has now been forgotten.

³ Никитина С. Семантический анализ языка науки. М., 1987. С. 37

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However, there is still disagreement about what to call the loading opening of a glass-melting furnace—a pocket or something else. In the “Russian–Lithuanian Polytechnical Dictionary,” the Lithuanian equivalent of the Russian term рудный карман is ore bunker. Glass-industry specialists have also used the term glass-melting furnace throat. Lithuanian dictionaries do not give this meaning of the word kišenė (“pocket”); apparently, they consider it entirely foreign to the Lithuanian language. This metaphor should not be admitted into technical terminology, although some specialists arbitrarily insist on foisting it on us.⁴

Avoiding overly vivid terms, yet unable to do without them, technical specialists often put metaphors in technical terminology in quotation marks, thereby trying to show that they are not genuine terms. They should not do this, especially since we do not put idioms in quotation marks either.

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We congratulate Kazimieras Gaivenis, a devoted cultivator of Lithuanian terminology, on reaching the venerable age of sixty. Many happy returns!

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⁴ Thus it came about, for example, in the “Five-Language Dictionary of Kinescope Manufacturing Terms” published by Vilnius University and the Panevėžys “Ekranas” factory (V., 1990).

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