LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, VI

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

PRONOUNS IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND THEIR MEANINGS

A. VALECKIENĖ

§ 1. Pronouns have very general, abstract meanings. They indicate objects or properties in a particular relation, without expressing the specific content of the objects or properties indicated. Depending on the context, the object or property indicated may vary. The number of objects or properties indicated by pronouns is indefinite. As the object or property indicated changes (depending on the context), the relation in which a particular pronoun indicates an object or property remains constant. Pronouns are divided into semantic groups according to the relations in which they indicate objects or properties. In this article, the semantic classification of pronouns will differ somewhat from that in current Lithuanian-language textbooks. In addition, an effort will be made here to bring out the derivational-semantic stratification of Lithuanian pronouns, that is, to show which pronouns and meanings are old and which have newly developed.

1. Personal pronouns

§ 2. The personal pronouns include aš, tu, mes, jūs, jis, ji, tamsta. Sometimes the pronoun pats, -i also has a personal meaning.

Only the pronouns aš, tu, mes, jūs, tamsta may be considered purely personal (and even that with reservations). They indicate a person in relation to the speaker.

§ 3. The pronoun aš indicates the speaker, tu — the person addressed by the speaker.

— Where am I to go now, what will I live on! — the old mother laments... BilR I 164. — Jonai, you too, get to work — don’t show off your might; there are those more powerful than you CvR IX 64.

Mes and jūs should, by virtue of their meanings, be considered independent pronouns, not plural forms of the pronouns aš and tu (as is conventionally done in the inflectional system). Mes indicates not several speaking persons (that is, two or more “I”s), but the speaker together with other persons (“I” and “you” or “he”). Jūs indicates two or more persons whom the speaker addresses (“you” and “you,” or “you” and “he”).

We are soldiers. Cold wrath has frozen on our faces SNėrP I 205. And you, women, don’t get in the way; boil the mushrooms and stir them (dialectal). Skp.

In literary language, objects may also be indicated by the pronouns aš, tu, mes, jūs. In such cases, the objects indicated are, as it were, personified.

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The pronouns aš, tū, mės, jūs are old forms, some of them somewhat altered. Alongside aš, the form ėš with a short initial e occurs in Lithuanian dialects and old writings (cf. ėš Nmč, Zt, jėš (with an added j) Plm, Lzd, esch BP I 28, 33, 5, 6), which is older than Standard Lithuanian aš and corresponds to Latvian es, Old Prussian es (alongside as). In Lithuanian, ėš probably changed into aš because it often occurs in proclitic position: since ancient times, unstressed word-initial vowels a and e have alternated in Lithuanian (cf. akmuõ in Standard Lithuanian, ekmuõ Grš, Erž, álksnis in Standard Lithuanian, élksnis Gs, Nm, Erž, erėlis in Standard Lithuanian, arėlis Ds, erškėtis in Standard Lithuanian, arškėtis Ds)². In the forms aš, ėš, the consonant š<ž had already changed in the Proto-Baltic period (cf. Latvian es, Old Prussian es, as, but Old Church Slavonic azъ)³.

In the dialects, forms with a short root e occur in place of the pronoun form mės (with lengthened e, probably by analogy with jūs⁴) (cf. mės Lp, Vs, Krtn, Kal, Dglš, Skdv, Vdk); these are older and correspond to Old Prussian mes⁵ and Latvian dialectal mes. In some instances, jūs (with short u) is also used by analogy with mės: Kal.

The stems of other Indo-European languages corresponding to our pronouns aš, tū, mės, jūs have the same meanings as personal pronouns.

§ 4. The pronoun tămsta is a recent formation in Lithuanian, probably originating from the phrase tavo mylista; cf. the transitional forms tămista Slnt, Gs, Krok, Vrn, Švenč, Eiš, tămyšta Lp, Kv. This pronoun does not indicate a new relationship between persons. It is used in place of tū as a polite, respectful form of address to another person (often someone little known, older, or respected). Plural forms of the pronoun tămsta occur when politely addressing two or several people, instead of the usual jūs.

“I don’t know,” Antanas replied sadly. “Perhaps y o u could advise me? After all, you’re my uncle...” BilR I 79. Nearby stood a woman no longer young, dressed in a white fur coat, looking kindly at the two of us. “So, are y o u perhaps going to the mushroom-picking?” she asked. “We are,” my sister replied with a sigh, “but if only y o u knew how you frightened us!” BilR I 171.

In old writings, the phrases jūsų sveikata, tamstos sveikata. are used in place of tămsta. Such phrases also occur nowadays in works of fiction. The noun sveikata no longer has its literal meaning here.

But so that you may remember those things which I have mentioned for your health, I shall briefly say here what I said earlier DP 34.

¹ See K. Būga, Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, fasc. 1, Kaunas, 1924, p. 9.

² J. Endzelynas (žr. jo Baltų kalbų garsai ir formos, Vilnius, 1957, p. 147) abejoja, ar visose lietuvių kalbos tarmėse aš<šė, ir nurodo dar trečią formą tarm. ōš<āš (iš Anykščių), gretindamas ją pirmojo garso atžvilgiu su s. sl. azъ, kur a žodžio pradžioje galėjo būti iš ilgojo balsio (žr. A. Mẽĩe, Общеславянский язык, Москва, 1951, p. 363). Mūsų supratimu, lietuvių kalbos formoje ōš<āš greičiausiai yra antrinis balsio pailgėjimas. Tarmėse įvardžio aš balsis dažnai pailgėja, kai jis atsiduria atvirajame skiemenyje, prisidėjus prie šio įvardžio pabrėžiamosioms, dalelytėms (plg.: ãšai BaranLM 179 (Jnš), ãšianai Sv. Dbk., Zsl, Pnd, ãšian An, Sv, ãšiano BūgAS 172 (Dsn), ãšianos Lkm, Plš, ãšianos Rgv, ãšianajos Brž), nors kai kur jis išlieka ir nepailgėjęs (plg.: ãšai Mlt, ãšianai Ukm, ãšian Pš, Sd, Ukm, Všk, ãšano Str, ãšianos Dglš). Pagal santykį ãšian: aš galėjo susidaryti šalia ãšian ir aš.

³ On the change of the consonant š<ž in ėš, aš, see J. Endzelynas, cited work, p. 147.

⁴ See J. Endzelynas, ibid., p. 148.

⁵ Žr. J. Endzelin, Altpreussische Grammatik, Riga, 1944, p. 133.

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Which of all our things, salutary ones, we shall briefly show first DP 144....first of all, six salutary articles of ours, indisputable DP 257. When asking someone for something or seeking comfort for oneself, we would always begin speaking with those words, bowing our heads: We have come to inquire after your health... DaukB 64. — But your courage, too, is unprecedented! — Jonušas marveled LzPR II 46.

With the same meaning as támsta, -os, the pronoun pats, -i, patys, -čios is used in Lithuanian, but it is not so formal and occurs in more intimate speech. Do you yourself remember the Japanese war? Up. It seems to me that you yourself are not a local, since I myself saw one for the first time Srv. For the principal meaning of pats, -i, see § 35.

Similarly to pats, -i, the adjective sveikas, -à is also used, with its literal meaning faded.

Being a giant is, of course, no great thing, but being a man like you yourself is quite another matter BalčHP 125. I ask, what kind of person are you, to speak like that? PaukštAA 37.

Besides those mentioned, when addressing another person politely, the pronoun jūs is quite commonly used in Lithuanian in place of tų. Of all the pronouns used for politeness, it is the most neutral.

And why don’t you agree to become principal at our secondary school? — Kuliešius asked, keeping his intent gaze fixed on Norkūnas’s face BaltrTK II 37.

§ 5. Among all the personal pronouns, which in one way or another refer to persons, the pronoun jis, ji stands apart. It is used to refer both to a person and to a thing. The pronoun jis, ji refers to a person or thing being talked about.

The younger brothers envied Mikutis, watching how nimbly he harnessed the horse and how he sharpened the scythe CvR III 137. Dozens of times Deveika and Krizas rise from behind the table, but he makes them sit down again CvR IX 18. Petras carried the saddle to the granary and found it locked ŽemR I 167. It broke because the olive-tree twig was slender JV 450.

The pronoun jis derives from the demonstrative pronoun *is, with an added j (some cases have *io-, iā forms). Its meaning therefore also remained close to that of demonstratives. The person or thing being talked about is the one we know from earlier or the one that is about to be indicated (cf. the general meaning of demonstrative pronouns § 13). In other Indo-European languages, pronouns from this same root are likewise used with third-person meaning, cf. Gothic is “he,” Latin is “he” and “that.”

It is assumed that the root meaning of the pronoun jis, ji was in ancient times closer to the meaning of the root tàs, tà, except that jis, ji was used more anaphorically, referring to what had already been mentioned (without marked emphasis)⁶. Demonstrative pronouns used anaphorically in a sentence generally have a nominal function, that is, they serve as subject or object, like personal pronouns (see §§ 15, 2; 16, 2). The weak deictic (anaphoric) meaning and nominal use of the pronoun jis, ji may well have helped it acquire personal meaning.

⁶ See K. Brugmann, Die Demonstrativpronomina der idg. Sprachen, Leipzig, 1904; „Abhandlungen der Philologisch-historischen Klasse der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften“, XXII Bd. Nr. VI, p. 37—38.

3. Kalbotyros klausimai VI.

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In many Indo-European languages, third-person pronouns have different roots. Among the Baltic languages, the pronoun jis is known with third-person meaning also in the Latvian High Latvian dialect. In other Latvian dialects and in the literary language, the pronoun vinš is used instead of jis, ji. In Prussian, this meaning is expressed by tãns (alongside the enclitic *dis), which most likely arose by contamination from *tas and *anas⁷.

§ 6. In some Lithuanian dialects, the pronoun anas, ãns, -à is used in place of jis, ji. In the Samogitian dialect, ãns, -à has a complete paradigm when used as a third-person pronoun: ãns, anõ, anám, etc., anà, anõs, anái, etc., aniẽ, anų, anìms, etc., anõs, anų, anóms, etc. Lkv, Mžk, Vvr, Grg, Užv, Slnt. In these dialects, ãns, -à also retains its demonstrative-pronoun meaning. In the eastern Aukštaitian dialects, the third-person pronoun has a suppletive paradigm: nominatives ãns, -à, ãnys⁸ (ãnies), ãnos; the other cases have *jo-, jã- forms: jõ, jãm, etc., jõs, jái, etc., jų̃, jáms, jóms, etc. Sv, Dbk, Dglš, Tvr, Aln, Plš, Uti: in demonstrative use, all the forms here have the same root: anàs, anõ, anám, etc., aniẽ, anų, aniẽms, etc. The situation in the old writings is similar. In K. Širvydas’s writings, a suppletive paradigm can be reconstructed for third-person use, as in the eastern Aukštaitian dialects: nominatives anas SP I 20, ana 174, anis 32, anos 21; other cases: gen. jo 17, jos 76, ju 18, dat. jam 23, jey 170, jiemus 31, acc. ii 23, iu 72, juos 31, jas 80, instr. juo 58, jews 128, etc. However, *jo- root nominatives also occur here, cf.: Ir tare iop motiną io [...] Sitay tewas tawo, ir asz gayledami ieszkoime tawis. Ir tare iump. Kodrin manis ieszkoiot, nežinoiot jog tuose (davktuose) kurie ira Tewo mano, reykia man’ būt? O i e nesuprato žodžio, kuri biloio iump SP I 195 (cf. the Polish text... A o ni nie zrozumieli... SP I 196). In demonstrative use, K. Širvydas’s writings employ anas, -a forms in all cases, cf....a n a krauiu tekunti žmona SP I 101. A n i e Arionay, Eutichionay, Monothelitay, ir kiti paklideley SP I 205,...iaunikayčio a n o SP I 88....ape a n u Baltzaru SP I 134, etc.

In the writings of M. Daukša and J. Bretkūnas, anas, -a is used inconsistently with third-person meaning alongside jis, ji forms. As in the Samogitian dialect, not only nominative forms but also other case forms of anas, -a occur here in place of jis, ji forms; cf.: sg. nom. ghis BP I 39, 45, 46, ĩis DP 3, 4, anas BP I 39, ánas DP 5; pl. nom. ghie BP I 43, 50, iiẽ DP 3, 15, anis BP I 41, 33, ániš DP 16; pl. acc. ios BP I 2, anus BP I 33, 35, etc.

From this it can be concluded that the use of anas, ãns, -à with third-person meaning developed in Lithuanian much later than the use of the pronoun jis, ji with the same meaning. During the historical period, anas, ãns, -à had not yet become fully established in Lithuanian with third-person meaning.

In Lithuanian dialects, the development of the pronoun ãns, ãns, -à with third-person meaning corresponds to the development of the pronoun onъ in the Slavic languages. In Old Slavic

⁷ See K. B r u g m a n n, ibid., p. 92; J. E n d z e l i n, Altpreussische Grammatik, p. 121.

⁸ Ãnys alongside aniẽ (which is used with demonstrative meaning) most likely arose by analogy with pâtvs (see J. E n d z e l y n a s, Baltų kalbų garsai ir formos, p. 150; differently, E. F r a e n k e l, Sprachliche, besonders syntaktische Untersuchung des kalvinistischen litauischen Katechismus des Malcher Pietkiewicz von 1598, Göttingen, 1947, p. 23), since pâtvs, pâtvys, like anas, ãns, ãnys, is also used with third-person meaning.

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onb still had a complete paradigm and demonstrative meaning. In the modern Slavic languages, with the exception of literary Bulgarian, suppletive paradigms have already developed for the third-person meaning, drawing on forms of the pronoun онъ and *ъ; cf. Russian он, его, ему, etc., Polish on, jego, niego, go, jemu, niemu, mu, etc., Czech on, jeho, od něho jemu, mu, (k) němu, etc.

In Old Russian, онъ had not only third-person meaning but also the meaning of a demonstrative pronoun⁹, whereas in modern Russian он is used only with third-person meaning (the full form of this pronoun, оный, still occurs with demonstrative meaning in certain cases). Thus, in the Slavic languages, the third-person meaning of onъ is not of Proto-Indo-European antiquity either.

In both Lithuanian anas, anš, -à and Slavic онъ, common use with third-person meaning most likely arose independently, but for the same reason. There is reason to believe that the third-person meaning of ànas, anš, -à developed in a way similar to that of jis, ji, from anaphoric use of the demonstrative pronoun ànas, -à (for further discussion, see § 17).

§ 7. The three-person system of personal pronouns expresses the basic participants in a speech act: the speaker, the addressee, and the person or thing being spoken about.

In some languages, personal pronouns help express the grammatical person category of verbs; cf. English I go, you go, he, she, it goes, we go, you go, they go. In Lithuanian, personal pronouns are not necessary for this function, since the endings of personal verb forms express the person category clearly. The pronouns aš and tu, as well as mes and jūs, are often omitted in Lithuanian. They are used when the speaker or addressee is to be emphasized in the sentence; they are also necessary when a personal pronoun is one of several coordinated subjects or has an accompanying comitative instrumental, cf.: mano brolis ir aš, mes su broliu.

2. Reflexive Pronoun

§ 8. There is one reflexive pronoun—savęs ‘oneself’. This is an old form (dialects also preserve it with the older root vowel e: singular genitive sévęs Rt, sévęs Sg, Rsn, singular accusative sevė StngŽ 43, sevę Mit I 73). Other Indo-European languages also have reflexive pronouns of the same stem.

The pronoun savęs indicates the relation to oneself of the person understood in the sentence as the subject of an action or state. Thus, the person indicated by the reflexive pronoun and the person functioning as the subject of the action in the sentence are one and the same. In a sentence, the reflexive pronoun always denotes the object of the action. Because of this function, the reflexive pronoun has from ancient times had no nominative case, i.e. no subject case. Likewise, from ancient times the reflexive pronoun has had no plural forms.

In Lithuanian, the reflexive pronoun savęs has preserved a very ancient usage. Here it denotes the relation to oneself of the speaker, the addressee, or the person being spoken about.

⁹ Žr. А. П. Якубинский, История древнерусского языка, Москва, 1953, p. 193.

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— I’ll give ten! — shouted the elder. — And I’ll give just as much, — said the second. — But just now we have none with us ŽemR I 181. Don’t wring your h a n d s like that, as the tethered wind snaps birch branches MairRR I 69. The old woman too sat down on the stool, adjusted the spindle, and drew her spinning wheel closer to h e r s e l f KrèvAP 126. Slepukas hunched his shoulders, pulled his elbows in under h i m s e l f and at once looked even more like a felted rag than a living creature BaltPV I 110. For three days they could work for t h e m s e l v e s, for three days go to the manor VIkv.

The ancient usage of the reflexive pronoun has survived not only in Lithuanian but also in the other Baltic languages, as well as in the Slavic languages; compare: Latvian es aizstāvu s e v i, tu aizmiršti s e v i, viņš nepiederēja s e v; Russian я купил с е б е книгу, ты думаешь о с е б е, он взял с с о б о й мяч. In many modern Indo-European languages, for example German, English, and French, the reflexive pronoun is used only for the person being spoken about. When the subject of the action is the first or second person, forms of personal pronouns are used; compare: German ich kleide m i c h an, du kleidest d i c h an, er kleidet s i c h an, etc.

In older Lithuanian texts, alongside the usual usage of savęs (compare: Dūk mums ing s a w e tijikietiji Mž 421, Miliek artima [...] kaipo patis s a w i Mž 38....preg s a w e s mani laikikiet Mž 9), instances of the following kind also occur: ...pro anksta pagatawissu m a n e tawęspi Mž 511. Prieg t a w ę s tu mus turėk Mž 260. Jeib mes m u s stiprei gintumbim Mž 52. Such constructions, using forms of personal pronouns instead of the pronoun savęs, in our older texts are likely calques from other languages.

3. Possessive Pronouns

§ 9. The possessive pronouns include: mãno, tãvo, sãvo, mãnas, -à, tãvas, -à, sãvas, -à, manãsis, -óji, tavàsis, -óji, savàsis, -óji, mūsàsis, -óji, jūsàsis, -óji, maniškis, -ė, taviškis, -ė, saviškis, -ė, mūsiškis, -ė, jūsiškis, -ė. Personal pronouns (except aš and tu) also have possessive meaning in the genitive: jõ, jõs, jų, mūsų, jūsų, tàmstos, tàmstų, paties, pačios, pačių.

All Lithuanian possessive pronouns have stems from personal or reflexive pronouns. The oldest are the d/o-stem forms. Lithuanian tãvas, -à, sãvas, -à have corresponding pronouns with Indo-European *o/ā-stem endings in other related languages as well; compare Latin tuos, suos (alongside the newer tuus, suus), from *tovos, *sovos¹⁰. In Lithuanian, mãnas, -à must have arisen analogically on the model of the personal pronoun system (just as manè, tavè, savè, so too mãnas, -à alongside tãvas, -à, sãvas, -à)¹¹. The literary Latvian forms are the same: mans, tavs, savs. The Prussian possessive pronouns mais, twais, swais agree in their formation with Old Church Slavonic mojb, tvöjb, svojb.

The genitive forms mãno, tãvo, sãvo, as well as the pronominalized forms manãsis, -óji, tavàsis, -óji, savàsis, -óji, mūsàsis, -óji, jūsàsis, -óji, in Lithuanian lan-

¹⁰ See Stolz-Sch m a l z, Lateinische Grammatik, München, MCM XXVIII, p. 284.

¹¹ See K. Brugmann und Delbrück, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der idg. Sprachen, 2 Bd., 2 Tl., 1 Lief., Strassburg, 1909, p. 405.

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are newer. Pronouns with the nominal suffix -iškis, -ė (maniškis, -ė, taviškis, -ė, etc.) are characteristic only of Lithuanian.

Be minėtųjų, tarmėse ir senuosiuose raštuose vartojama daugiau įvairesnių savybinių įvardžių. Iš dgs. kilm. mūsų yra sudarytas pagal mãnas, -à, tãvas, -à, sãvas, -à su a/o kamienų galūnėmis įvardis mūsas, -a „mūsų“ (:mūsas liežuvis (= mūsų kalba) Lz, Ponų musuy MP 200, mūsan kolchoze Lz). Dar daugiau paplitę kilmininkiniai vediniai su ia/io kamienų galūnėmis, kurios būdvardžių daryboje neretai turi priklausomumo reikšmę, pvz.: mūsis, -i „mūsų“ (:dėdė mūsis Dv, mūsis šuva Lz, mūsi žẽnelė Lz, ašarėlės mūsios mergužėlės (d.) Dv, mūsi brolį Dv, per mūsį ã pirkia Dv, mūsian kieme Dv, mūsion rankon Lz, mūsios pievos Lz, mūsiai vyrai Lz); jūsis, -i „jūsų“ (:jūsis brolelis (d.) Dv, jūsion rankon (ps.) Lz); jōsis, -i „jos“ (:jōsis tėvas Lz, jōsis vyras Lz, jōsiai dukteriai Lz). Taip pat pažįstami savybiniai įvardžiai iš tų pačių kamienų su priklausomumą reiškiančiu jis, -ė (i), pvz.: tavajis, -ė Ns 1839, 2, mūsujis, -i, jūsujis, -i SchG 218, pačiųjai StngŽ 45. Šalia manãsis, -oji, tavàsis, -oji ir t. t. tarmėse vartojamas dar tamistasis, -oji Šts.

§ 10. Possessive pronouns generally indicate that an object belongs (according to the meaning of the stems) to the first, second, or third person, that is, to the speaker, the addressee, or the person being spoken about.

Possessive pronouns have an adjectival meaning. Their primary function in a sentence is to serve as attributes. Possessive pronouns that function as nouns in a sentence are secondary.

In contemporary standard language, the most widespread possessive pronouns are mãno, tãvo, sãvo and the genitives of personal pronouns jõ, jõs, jų, mūsų, jūsų used in the possessive sense.

The pronouns mãno, mūsų indicate that an object belongs to the first person or persons; tãvo, jūsų indicate that it belongs to the second person or persons; and the genitive forms jõ, jõs, jų indicate that it belongs to the third person or persons.

“Krizai, the market is yours today! I can see that I’m no longer needed,” the master craftsman says sadly. “They don’t need my chests or little tubs. My hands have grown old...” CvR IX 89. Where the Nemunas flows, our gardens and green garden plots have blossomed, whiter than snow MiežML 320. “Well, Jonas, we too have come to dance at your wedding” VaičiūnD 111. The farmers. — “We’re here for the same land.” Viktoras: “You know, that land of yours is nothing but trouble. The big landlords have seized it and hold it” VaičiūnD 325. Jurgis never comes empty-handed. The pockets of his jacket are forever sagging with colored pebbles, all sorts of nails, bits of lead, old bullets... BaltPV₁ I 11. The woman feared that some misfortune might have befallen her husband CvR III 105. But even the old stumps and their roots grow frightened when the fierce north wind begins to move its bellows DonR 91.

Lithuanian has no special possessive pronouns for expressing possession by a third person.

The pronoun sãvo, while expressing possession, also retains its “reflexive” function. It can indicate that an object belongs to any of the three persons who are the subjects of an action or state in the sentence. Therefore, it would be appropriate to call this pronoun a reflexive possessive pronoun.

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Then I would write and feel that I was finding new words for my longing, and for the first time I felt that I wanted and could be a poet VenciGD 520. We will give our hearts, songs, and youth to life we MarcinkDP 69. You walk as though on someone else’s legs! A bird, too, gets no bacon for its songs, yet no one asks why it warbles CvR IX 37. Katrė brought the musicians garments and spread her tablecloths over the tables ŽemR I 77. The brothers lingered a little longer, then hurried off to attend to their own affairs BaltPV I 269.

The pronouns mano, tavo, mūsų, jūsų, jo, jos, jų indicate that an object belongs to another person, not to the subject of an action or state. Cf.: He took my pencil; the subject of the action is he (third person), whereas the person to whom the pencil belongs is someone else (first person). In the sentence He took his own pencil the person to whom the pencil belongs is also the subject of the action.

In constructions with passive participles, the possessive pronouns mano, tavo, savo in Lithuanian indicate that a property resulting from an action belongs to the corresponding person (mano—to the first person, tavo—to the second, savo—to any of the three persons), cf.: Well, what is it, Mother—wasn’t I right when I said that the suitor you turned away is deceiving us? VaičiūnD 114.

§ 11. The pronouns mãnas, -à, tàvas, -à are disappearing from present-day literary language; they still occur in poetry and songs, while in everyday speech they are used only in dialects.

My generation, wondrous, showered by the morning sun MarcinkDP 69. Run, run, my little horse, my black-eyed darling, to the green meadow LB 25. My glasses show things dimly Ut. My brother is in Vilnius Dv. If it was yours, you could have kept it JabIG 46.

Sãvas, -à is likewise now uncommon in the purely possessive sense; cf.:

I can hardly believe my own ears. Nobles cannot speak like that SruogR III 377. On the green, reddish, whitish ground, mushroom spots shimmer among the trees, in their own farmsteads BaranAŠ 20.

The pronoun sãvas, -à in present-day literary language has acquired a qualitative adjectival meaning close to that of possessive pronouns, namely “one’s own, familiar,” e.g.:

The crowds reach out a friendly hand to me—I am one of the people! SĖrP I 243. All your wisdom comes from books, but his views are his own, from his head and heart... KrėvAP 107. I’m one of the family, not a guest! And. Whether mine or not, if it’s beautiful, it’s beautiful (child) Užg. We have our own firewood in Švnč. How can a dog bite its own person! Er. That one got a beating who doesn’t know what is one’s own Ad.

With the negation ne, the pronoun savas has the same qualitative adjectival meaning, differentiated by the particle ne, namely “strange, not as it should be, odd, frightening,” but is used figuratively, e.g.:

After coming home for lunch, I dried a crust of bread and brought it to Stepukas. He chewed as though with someone else’s cheeks, then pushed it back: “I don’t want any more...” BaltPV I 109. My heart began to flutter as if it were not my own ŠimkA 15. Of those mountains

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height that was extraordinary (very great), bottomless caves LT II 473. Laurynas cried out in an unearthly voice, having heard the bone in his arm crack, and fell unconscious BilR I 66.

In old writings mānas, -ā, tāvas, -ā, sāvas, -ā (alongside the forms māno, tāvo, sāvo) are still very common with the meaning of possession, e.g.: ...thou art mine, the King Mž 402....turn back to thy Lord BB I Moz 16,9. ...they take away and wear their own garments DP 470.

§ 12. The definite forms of possessive pronouns manāsis, -ōji, tavāsis, -ōji, savāsis, -ōji, mūsāsis, -ōji, jūsāsis, -ōji and especially the pronouns with the suffix -iškis, -ė maniškis, -ė, taviškis, -ė, saviškis, -ė, mūsiškis, -ė, jūsiškis, -ė are most often used as nouns in the present-day literary language, with the meaning of close personal association; that is, in the singular they mean “one of one’s household (husband, wife), a relative, beloved man or woman,” and so on, while in the plural they mean “members of one’s household or otherwise close people, people of that region or social stratum.”

How is your wife doing (your wife), has she recovered Skd. It seems she had not yet found her own man, and all men seemed equally good, suitable, and attractive to her DovPK 184. Unexpectedly, the young bride’s followers came clattering up again: brothers, relatives, and the matchmaker with her husband. Katrė rejoiced to see her own people ŽemR I 78. And has your husband (the head of your family, your husband) come back from the market yet? Als. My husband always sends a letter first, then the money. Perhaps yours does the same KrėvAP 236. Your husband is neither one thing nor the other (your husband is no good) Ds. It is always trouble, always having to help, but doing paperwork over trifles is not proper among one’s own people ŽemR I 155. The farmhands elected a delegation of their own, which spoke on behalf of everyone CvR VIII 34. And now I saw that I was not lying alone. All our people were lying there: father, mother, Marė, Levukas... BaltPV₁ I 146.

The definite forms of possessive pronouns, alongside the genitive forms māno, tāvo, sāvo, are also used with the ordinary possessive meaning, though not as frequently as the latter.

The old man stirred again, and a moment later came rushing in with a silver axe: “Is this yours?” “Not mine. Mine is different!” Jrk 22. The master is finally fed up with the empty talk and swings his spoon, but his son covers his forehead with his own spoon CvR IX 58. Our farmhand has not eaten yet J.

Possessive pronouns with the suffix -iškis, -ė are rarely used in this sense, more often only in dialects; they are also found in old writings.

However we may speak, your own homeland will always remain closer to you, just as mine does to me BaltrTK II 257. Your bees are not to my liking Ds. Your own cow has died—did you buy it somewhere? Ds. Ours (the rooster) beheaded everyone else’s roosters Sdk. It seems that your meadows are growing somewhat thicker Ds.... musiszkiey Heretikay SP I 206.

4. Demonstrative pronouns

§ 13. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, the demonstrative pronouns include: tās, tā, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anās, -ā, toks, -iā, šioks, -iā, šitoks, -ia, anōks, -ia. The compound forms tas

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pàts, ta pati, pàts tàs, pati tà, toks pàt, tokia pàt, kurie also need to be classified as demonstratives; in their general semantic character they often differ little from the pronouns tàs, tà, tóks, -ià, from which they are formed.

Demonstrative pronouns generally point to an object or property known from the context and speech situation. The pronouns tàs, tà, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anàs, -à, tas pàts, ta pati indicate objects, while tóks, -ià, šioks, -ià, ši toks, -ia, anóks, -ia, toks pàt, tokia pàt, pàts tàs, pati tà indicate properties.

A) Demonstrative pronouns that indicate objects.

§ 14. The pronouns tàs, tà, šis, ši, anàs, -à are old. Each has preserved since ancient times a distinct shade of demonstrative meaning. Besides masculine and feminine forms, the pronoun tàs, tà also has neuter forms: tai (probably by contraction from *ta-ai¹²), tät (from Indo-European *tod), dialectal ta Slnt, Mit II 31 (from Indo-European *to(d)), tatai. As is well known, the masculine and feminine singular nominative forms tàs, tà generalized t- from other cases and neuter forms. Older masculine and feminine singular nominative forms in Indo-European languages have s- (e.g. Old Indian sa and saḥ, sā). The stem leveling in the forms tàs, tà is very ancient. Latvian also uses forms with t- (tas, tā); compare also Old Church Slavonic tb, ta, to. It is thought that Prussian stas is a contamination of the stems *sa(s) and tas¹³.

The Lithuanian pronoun šitas, -a may have developed from šis and tàs; its meaning is now the same as that of the pronoun šis, ši. In our old writings, alongside šis, ši, šitas, -a is also used in parallel; compare: schi Mž 281, szitu (masculine singular instrumental) Mž 29.

Lietuvių kalbos įvardžiai tàs, tà, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anàs, -à yra išlaikę trijų deiksių sistemą. Šis, ši ir šitas, -a nurodo žinomą daiktą, visai artimą erdvės ir laiko atžvilgiu kalbančiajam asmeniui, t. y. netoli esantį, tik ką minėtą, jam priklausantį, neišeinantį iš jo interesų ribų. Anàs, -à nurodo žinomą daiktą, labiausiai nuo kalbančiojo nutolusį erdvės ir laiko atžvilgiu. Šis, ši, šitas, -a ir anàs, -à įvardžiais nurodomi daiktai vienas kitam priešpastatomi. Tàs, tà nurodo žinomą daiktą, daugiau ar mažiau nutolusį nuo kalbančiojo asmens laiko ir erdvės atžvilgiais. Šis, ši, šitas, -a simbolizuoja artumo deiksę, anàs, -à — tolumo deiksę. Įvardžiu tàs, tà nurodomo daikto nutolimas nuo kalbančiojo asmens nėra taip apibrėžtas. Jo nurodomi daiktai dažniausiai priešpastatomi įvardžių šis, ši, šitas, -a nurodomiems daiktams; gali būti jie ir niekam nepriešpastatyti.

It is not hard for us to find happiness at this time MiežBP 102. We sat down to supper. Old Rozalija picked a wooden spoon from the pile of gnawed, crookedly scraped sides and held it out to me: “This one will be yours. Carve a mark on the handle so you don’t take someone else’s!” BaltPV I 36. The oldest people of Šilėnai used to say that even their parents could not remember the time when their village was founded in this place Myk-PutS I 22. While the tailor was still alive, his friends agreed that once one was buried, the other would come to ask about the other world CvR IX 233. And later more farmers settled here: on this side, Vilkas, Vanagas, Putrius; over there, on the other side—Lapė, Stagaras, Jurjonas, Žiobrė SimonR IV 17 Give me that one; I don’t want this one JablG 46.

¹² See J. Endzelynas, Baltų kalbų garsai ir formos, p. 152.

¹³ See J. Endzelin, Altpreussische Grammatik, p. 110.

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§ 15. The pronoun tàs, tà has the richest range of uses in the present-day literary language.

1) The pronoun tàs, tà points to a known thing, distinguishing it from others. In this case, the pronoun tàs, tà is stressed in the sentence and usually functions as an attribute. Most often, what is indicated by this pronoun is revealed in a subordinate clause following the main clause.

One year I conceived the idea of visiting my native village, where the loveliest days of my childhood had passed, and of walking through those fields, those meadows, and the little wood, where so many precious memories of my young days remained VienIMA 160. The grain that my father earned by digging ditches in the summer ran out BaltPV I 7. And is that oak stump, beneath which we used to hide Lithuanian books, still there? VaičiūnD 246. The boards in the walls of the barn had also peeled away in places, and through those gaps the darkness inside showed black VencGD 88. The hardest work of the year was under way—hauling manure. The whole village did this, like the other fieldwork, all at the same time Myk-PutS I 368. Whose little girl is that? Gršl. (Such a sentence may be accompanied by a pointing gesture).

2) The pronoun tàs, tà points to a previously mentioned, known thing, as if repeating it, without emphatically distinguishing it. This is the so-called anaphoric use of demonstrative pronouns. In this case, the pronoun tàs, tà functions as a noun in the sentence (serving as subject or object).

Our father is very hot-tempered; he couldn't hold back and got into a quarrel with Tekonis, and that man got furious and now shouts every day that we should move out BaltPV I 75. Juozapota watched her husband in amazement and waited to hear what he would say. But he was already going out through the door... BilR I 221. He (Pranaitis) said nothing, only lashed the gelding with his whip, so that it went galloping down the road Myk-PutS I 19. Rukinas, with the lads, and Palapys went out to repair the wagons and harness the horses, for dawn was already breaking. While they were getting ready, more funeral-goers gathered ŽemR II 155.

The anaphoric use of the pronoun tàs, tà is probably more recent.

3) The pronoun tàs, tà is also used, similarly to articles in other languages, but here it is not obligatory; it has more of a subjective emphatic character, that is, it does not define the thing indicated. In these cases, the pronoun tàs, tà functions as an attribute in the sentence.

His limbs grew weak; he had no energy left, neither did those legs keep walking of their own accord, nor did his hands reach out to take anything VaižgRR I 89. Cinokienė, her hair disheveled, flushed red, almost blue, and out of breath, no longer had anyone to strike on the head. In her anger she began cursing the manor steward ŽemR II 68. It's hard that those horses are always occupied. Those paints are never finished VIkv. What foolish things youth dreams up! MairRR I 110.

This use of the pronoun tàs, tà is new.

§ 16. The pronouns šis, ši and šitas, -a are used in the present-day literary language in the following cases:

1) The pronouns šis, ši, šitas, -a point to a known thing that is very close to the speaker in terms of time and space, distinguishing it from others, and usually function as attributes (the modified word may sometimes be understood rather than expressed).

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— Pah! — Vilius scoffed, — such is our teacher, such are you. — But he said these words almost in a whisper SimonR IV 54. Vilkas blushed again. But Martynaitis did not notice it this time either SimonR IV 314. — Ah, so this is my son, — says the master, who had been searching for a long time in that neighborhood, and lifts the little boy by the ears with both hands CvR IX 82—83. — We don’t know any harvest songs, — Katrytė protested. — When you sow the flax, then we’ll sing. — And don’t you know this one, Katrytė? — Petras asked and began: “Oh, dear old father, dear old father, oh, dear old father, you old man, why are you lying out in the field by the little plough?” Myk-PutS I 70—71.

With expressions of time, this, rather than this one, is more commonly used.

It seemed that this year there should be a good harvest everywhere VencIGD 257. This spring, warmth suddenly set in, and everything began to turn green rapidly CvR IX 31. Step back, young man, don’t break my heart; I am not yours, you are not mine from this evening on KlpD 2.

2) The pronouns šis, ši and šitas, -a (less commonly) refer anaphorically to an object mentioned earlier and known, simply by repeating it. In a sentence, these pronouns function as nouns.

The man began chasing Alyza. She ran without looking back; only her legs flickered BaltPV I 199. I turned to Petras. He stood there as if nothing had happened BaltPV I 90. Milkė was staring daggers at Povilas with her brown eyes until he turned away BielDG 254. The biggest one was faster and left the little ones behind; they chased after him, crying ŽemR II 323. The rooster, having hopped onto the table, tickled the hens by the crumbs; they fought with the cats around the cups ŽemR I 75. All the guests looked at Tautimas. But his face looked so serious and innocent that there was almost nothing left to reproach him for SimonR IV 38. First Anskis was born, then Marikė, all in quick succession. And after a break of a dozen years or so—Martynukas. For this one she had nearly laid down her life SimonR IV 149.

The anaphorically used pronouns šis, ši, šitas, -a differ little from the pronoun tas, ta used in the same way. Compare the nearly parallel use of the pronouns šis and tas: Eh, what could one expect from Levukas! He is quite small, gets tangled up in his shirt [...] I’m angrier with my sister. She may often bawl, but whenever she fixes her eyes on Father, that fellow turns away without a word and only mutters through his mustache that the devil himself must have invented creatures like women! BaltPV I 8.

3) The pronoun šitas, -a is sometimes also used as an emphatic (not identifying the thing referred to) article in the function of an attributive modifier.

Almost barefoot, he (Levukas) shuffles back along the bench, bumping into his seated father. The latter immediately shouts: “You again, damn you! There’s no living with these children. Can’t even sit down or rest my head anywhere... They’re always rushing about like sprites!” BaltPV I 13.

§ 17. In contemporary literary language, the pronoun anas, -à usually refers to a known object that is most distant from the speaker in terms of time and space, distinguishing it from others.

“Well, so what shall I tell you about today, children?” Smukštaras would ask, sitting by the hearth as always. “The same thing as the other evening, uncle—about the sun and the moon Vien IMA 182. Indeed,

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that day, when grandfather was last outdoors, remains so clear in his memory, as if it had happened yesterday SimonR II 16. And in their midst is the master Jonas, the broadest-shouldered of all, the merriest, long-armed, who can easily reach the other end of the table and provide everyone with meat and drinks CvR IX 125.

In old writings there are instances where the pronoun anàs, -à, used substantivally (as subject or object), seems to have a more anaphoric meaning of demonstrative pronouns than of third-person pronouns. For example:

Let Bernėlus come to me and do not forbid them [...] II pamielawa a n u s, and spread his hands upon t u, but bless a n u s Mž 96—97 (alongside the form tas with the same meaning)¹⁴. Christ did not come to earth [...] at the beginning of the world, nor again after Adam’s fall, when a n a m was still alive BP I 7. Janas is not so inclined to learn; he is not afraid to tell the King himself about his irreligious life and to rebuke a n a BP I 37.... if someone cannot remember what forests there were in those days, let him ask his elders; a n i e will tell him DaukRR 166. But although the families themselves perish, their writings remain, and their eternal glory is recorded in a n u o s e DaukRR 42.

Of course, there is very little difference between these uses of the pronoun anàs, -à and its use with third-person meaning. These instances reflect the final stage of the transition of anàs, -à from demonstrative to personal pronoun. It should be noted that anaphorically, judging by the corresponding use of the pronouns tàs, tà, šis, ši, nominative forms are most often used; other cases are less frequent in this meaning (see examples §§ 15,2; 16,2). Perhaps this was one of the preconditions for the development of a suppletive third-person pronoun paradigm in the eastern Aukštaitian dialects. Alongside the forms jis, ji, long used with third-person meaning, the nominatives anàs, -à also came to be used with the same meaning. Our old writings very clearly reflect this phase of inconsistent use of the forms anàs, -à and jis, ji with third-person meaning¹⁵.

§ 18. The pronoun tas pàts, ta pàti has a meaning similar to that of the pronoun tàs, tà, but it is somewhat differentiated by the meaning of the pronoun pàts, -i.

In some instances, the pronoun tas pàts, ta pàti is a true demonstrative. It points to a known object, emphasizing that the object is not another one, but that particular one. The object indicated by this pronoun is usually compared or contrasted with another object or another state of the same object; in this way it is, as it were, distinguished from other objects of the same kind. The pronoun tas pàts, ta pàti may also be used anaphorically, directing the listener’s attention to an object mentioned earlier.

The artist’s path in socialist society will, of course, be the s a m e, as will that of all progressive intellectuals... VencIGD 333. Perhaps only the voice reminded him of the very same Tadas, whom Povilas had met quite unexpectedly on the island BielDG 93.

¹⁴ In the writings of M. Mažvydas, forms that one, -a alongside the forms he, she are rarely used with the meaning of the third person (and then rather unclearly); see plural nominative they Mž 510, plural accusative them 36, 99, 302, 512, 581, 588, plural allative to them 96.

¹⁵ In Slavic languages, there were also certain morphological factors behind the formation of a suppletive paradigm for third-person meaning; see П. Я. Черных, Историческая грамматика русского языка, Москва, 1954, p. 207.

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The panes are old, small; all equally cobwebbed and mottled with flies: evidently, they are never wiped. ŽemR I 172. You scoundrel, cheat, skinflint! I toil in his fields all summer, and what do I get? He digs up half a pūras of potatoes, and even those are blown about by the wind and have gone green... BaltPV I 17.

In other cases, the pronoun “the same” does not have the defining element characteristic of demonstratives. It points not to a known thing, but only to the identity of a thing, without defining it among other things. In these cases, the meaning of the pronoun tas pats, ta pati is close to the meaning of the indefinite pronoun vienas, -a (see § 30).

He keeps looking at the very same spot, but scarcely anyone could have guessed whether he sees anything at all VaižgRR I 44. He did not pamper himself; his clothes were always the same, black and worn... ŽemR II 390.

B) Demonstrative pronouns indicating a quality.

§ 19. The pronouns toks, -ia, šitoks, -ia, anoks, -ia are derived from tas, tą, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anas, -a with the suffix -oks, -ia, as in Slavic (cf. Old Church Slavonic такъ, Russian такой, Polish taki). In Latvian, adjectives with this meaning are formed with the suffix -āds, -a: šāds, -a, tāds, -a, cf. Lithuanian vienodas, -a.

The pronouns toks, -ia, šioks, -ia, šitoks, -ia, anoks, -ia indicate a known quality of a thing, emerging from the context, in relation to another quality. The difference in meaning between toks, -ia, šitoks, -ia and anoks, -ia is similar to that between the pronouns tas, tą, šitas, -a, anas, -a. In present-day literary language, however, tendencies toward generalization can already be observed. Toks, -ia is often used in place of the other pronouns. Šitoks, -ia and anoks, -ia are rarer. The pronoun šioks, -ia occurs with demonstrative meaning nowadays only in the Samogitian dialect and in the writings of authors from that dialect.

“Granny, tell me a story!” he asked (Antanukas), asking his grandmother. — “I’ll tell you a tale, I’ll tell a tale, the wolf chews a fishbone, chews and swallows, but can’t swallow it and chokes,” Alena teases him. “Not that one, I don’t want that kind,” Antanukas gets angry KrėvAP 134. No, Petras was nevertheless not like Jonas, and not like everyone else BaltPV 194. I think to myself: if I’m liked by a learned lady looking like this, I’ll be liked even more in squeaky boots CvR III 100. Raise one like that (a horse like that one), at least, and you won’t have to keep lamenting Jrb. Katriukė remembered her mother’s advice: that these were spirits who had found no resting place, and on evenings like this (such as this one—windy, rainy) they needed people’s prayers to remember them LzPR I 367. Having tied on my bast shoes after several, I gathered 16 pūrai of acorns, being as I was (in my 81st year) Ggr.

§ 20. The pronouns toks, -ia, šitoks, -ia, anoks, -ia, in addition to their aforementioned primary function, may serve simply to emphasize a quality or a thing. When a sentence indicates the relation of the qualities or things being emphasized to other qualities, things, or particular circumstances, the pronouns retain elements of their defining function alongside their emphatic function. The pronoun toks, -ia. is also most often found in the emphatic function.

And Elena felt so helpless, unable to do anything to help him! VencIGD 5. But he laughed so hard, so hard that as he ran he nearly fell over with a whole clod of turf SimonVK I 15. And even now I am so bright, like the sun,

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joy comes KorsRn 74. The shelter where the first years of Tom’s childhood were spent, fitted out of an old wagon patched with sheet metal, was so small that even from a short distance it looked like a beehive ČvR III 13. How am I supposed to get home at night? Such a long way. The wolves will tear me to pieces yet BaltPV I 169. Hasn’t such a fine lad drowned here recently! Grg.

These pronouns (together with emphatic particles, most often in exclamatory sentences) can give the object being emphasized a shade of negative quality.

“That’s no bedding, not by any means!” Rukinėnė burst out: “two little pillows like herrings and duvets made of coarse stuff… just scraps!” ŽemR II 143. Such a bird, to foul its own nest Pn. Such wealth here (scant wealth) Skp.

§ 21. The newly formed compound pronoun toks, -ia pat, (similarly to the pronoun tas pats, ta pati ‘the same’) indicates a known property of an object in relation to another property, or simply the identity of a property, without specifying it. In the latter case, the meaning of the pronoun toks, -ia pat approaches that of the indefinite pronoun vienoks, -ia (see § 30).

Generally speaking, the lynx is just as timid as the marten VaižgRR I 67. Here, too, the same kind of herd wanders through the bushes; along the riverbanks the same flocks of geese cackle as those I once used to herd along the banks of the Šventoji BilR I 132. And the work is the same everywhere ŽemR I 227.

§ 22. The newly formed compound pronoun pats tas, pati ta indicates that an object is just what is needed.

The water is just right: neither warm nor cold Ktk. That kerchief is too small, but this one is just right Krok. Those children are just right for picking apples Er. Bring that very one—do you think you can lift it? Rdm.

§ 23. In dialects, demonstrative pronouns have developed as correlative words according to the relation between the pronouns kas ‘who/what’ and tas ‘that’: tat(r)as, -à (alongside katràs, -à), turis, -i (alongside kuris, -i), telì, tėlìos (alongside kelì, kėlìos), tiekas, -a (alongside kiekas, -a), for example: To whom you give, from that one I’ll take Als. By whichever route he goes, by that route he’ll return Kal. As many as there were, just as many I took Kal. As many little stars in the sky, so many little holes in the ground (stubble field) Rod. Many of them are now replaced by the pronoun tas, ta.

In addition, dialects use compounds with the meaning of demonstrative pronouns: įtas, -à ‘this one’ Tvr, Lz, Švnč, VrnV, Dv, Pls, Dglš, Grv, Brsl, Šlu (cf. Lat. Upper itis)¹⁶, itokis, -ia ‘of this kind’ OG 272, titoks, -ia¹⁷ ‘of this kind’ Als, Slnt, tytoks, -ia Kv, Gršl, šišioks, -ia ‘of this kind’ Slnt, Als.

Various forms derived from the pronouns tas, ta, toks, -ia, etc., with fossilized postpositions, also occur in dialects and old writings, for example: tasià, tojà, tajà¹⁸ ‘the same’ Užp, Jž, Kp, Skp, Sv, Ds, Pnd, Ut, Vj, Slm, Ign,

¹⁶ The first element may be explained in two ways: 1) i— derives from the stem *i- of demonstrative pronouns (see J. Endzelins, Latviešu valodas gramatika, Rīga, 1951, p. 537). 2) i- developed from the emphatic particle it (*iti) (see E. Fraenkel, Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Heidelberg-Göttingen, p. 189).

¹⁷ Dėl šio įvardžio pirmojo dėmens žr. K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, I, Vilnius, 1958, p. 219—220.

¹⁸ The postposition -ja may derive from the pronoun with the Indo-European stem *jo- (see K. Būga, Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, I, p. 78).

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tassila tongue DP 7, tõsia (fem. gen. sg.) KL 42; tasiag, lojag, tajag “that, that same”: Tasiag métas DP 27, tiesiag pâtis sąnarei DP 8, tosiag dienos DP 609, tųiag krasztų DP 59, tomisiag nūdememis DP 161, tameiag kune DP 584, tūsiiag nusideimūsia DP 510; tokiaig išzeiga DP 33; tasieg, tojie, tatieg “that, that same”: tóieg motęriszke DP 369; tóieg Diewo wardàn DP 252, tanieg paszen dieną BB Genesis 7, 13, tũieg wardu DP 253, táisieg žodžeis DP 149, tatiėg DP 176; tasiau, to jau, tajau “that same”: tasiau Cipriõnas DP 205, tosiũu nęgėdžios akis DP 7, ik taiieu dienai DP 109, through that same your son Mž 298, táisiau žodžeis DP 361; tasi aug, to jau, tati aug “that same”: tasieug Põwitas DP 187, tąi aug dieną DP 190, tūi aug metų DP 193; toksjaut “just like that” K, tokiūsieu žodžius DP 141.

5. Interrogative-relative pronouns

§ 24. The following may be classified as interrogative-relative pronouns: kas ‘who/what’, koks, -ia ‘what kind’, kuris, -i ‘which’, katras, -a ‘which’, keli, kelios (and keleri, kelerios) ‘how many’, kelintas, -a ‘which in order’, kieno ‘whose’. These same pronouns perform a dual function, depending on the sentence type and the position occupied by the pronoun in the sentence: interrogative and relative (connecting).

1) The aforementioned pronouns have an interrogative function in interrogative sentences. They are used to ask about an object or a property. The concrete objects and properties being asked about become clear only from the answer (if there is one).

What is rustling there? — It is a leaf blown by the wind, or a little bird waking up and stirring in its nest. What is crackling there? — It is a wolf: during the day, you see, it catches the scent and races through the undergrowth after its nocturnal hunt. BaranaŠ 24. Dear mother, dear heart, what seeds should be sown? JV 468. Which winds blew you here? Būg. My dear grandmother, my dear heart, which of these colorful little chests will you give me? JablRR I 579. Little magpie, little crow, how many children do you have? NS 208. How many years did you serve in the city? JablRR I 224. What year is it for him here, the third or the fourth? Whose hands prepared the dowries for the girls? His hands, not yours VaižgRR I 129.

2) The aforementioned pronouns have a relative (connecting) function in a complex sentence with subordination. They link a subordinate clause to the main clause, and the content of the subordinate clause is directed toward the core of the main clause—the verb form or a demonstrative pronoun in the main clause and the object or property it indicates. In the main clause, the demonstrative pronoun serves as a correlative word; sometimes it is understood.

Hundreds know what has taken up residence on the master’s tongue: he calls Anundžius a ram, and Anundžius calls him a ram CvR IX 23. Whoever wants to win good fortune through work will find our land good and beautiful MontvRn 17. I rose, bewildered, barely knowing where I was or what time it was BaltPV I 67. Whoever you keep company with, you become just like them Nm. Again, the stubble fields are unploughed, the potatoes have not been sorted for seed; I no longer know where to begin BaltPV I 17. We will sing that song whose tune we did not sing JD 958. One speaks—it is pleasant; you listen to another—as though honey were being spread on you.

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you ask another — as if smearing with honey. You no longer know which one is true VaičiūnD 25. Those I planted earlier (beets), those are better VIkv. For him whose mouth is bitter, even honey is not sweet PP 261.

In Lithuanian, the two functions of interrogative-relative pronouns have not become entirely distinct from one another¹⁹. In indirect-question sentences, the pronouns kàs, kóks, -ià, katràs, -à, keliñtas, -à and others may retain their interrogative function in addition to their connecting function. Subordinate clauses beginning with interrogative-relative pronouns have interrogative intonation.

Mara. Tell me, who is my mother? Algaudas. I told you that your mother, who gave birth to you, died VaičiūnD 386. O cold night! O icy night! Tell me, which road leads to the homeland? SNėrR I 40. I would go and ask the little birds, I would go and ask the speckled ones, which one is bringing my dear brother home? JD 716. Do you happen to know at what hour he intended to arrive? JablS 53.

The interrogative function of interrogative-relative pronouns is older. Their relative function is secondary.

§ 25. Each interrogative-relative pronoun, when performing one or the other function, has its own distinct meanings.

a) Kàs in the modern literary language usually refers to things.

— Where have you come from, who are you and what are you doing here? — the forester asked. — It is none of your concern where I came from or what I am doing; and why ask who I am? You can see I am a woman; I settled here without my husband’s knowledge, and I fear no one LzPR I 275. You roosters with the hens, and you who scratch around in the dung heap, hurry up and run, so you can enjoy yourselves at least one more time DonR 65.

In old writings and dialects, we find the pronoun kàs also used to indicate a property, for example: In what way to celebrate Advent DP 4....and at what time does each one sit down to eat at another’s table MP 97^a. Waking up, he asks: What is happening? Tt. I sat by the window, looked through the window: what is the young man’s face like, what is the horse’s coat like Dglš.

In the modern literary language, kàs occurs with this meaning in fossilized expressions, often with the emphatic particle per, for example: By whatever name the grass snake is mentioned, you will never see me again SNėrR I 427. What kind of person is he? VenclGD 123.

Who is an old pronoun with counterparts in other Indo-European languages.

b) What kind of indicates the qualitative properties of things.

What sort of little flower is that, peeking out from beneath the helmet of grass? MiežML 98. In the middle of the table steamed a bowl of dumplings drenched in white sauce, such as I had never eaten at home BaltPV I 37.

Kóks, -ià daryba kaip įvardžio tóks, -ià, atitinkamai lat. kāds, tāds.

c) Which and which one, unlike the pronoun what kind of, indicates the distinguishing properties of things. Usually which indicates the distinguishing properties of one thing among many, while which one indicates one of two things. Such a

¹⁹This is one argument for not dividing interrogative-relative pronouns into two separate sections.

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which one, -ą meaning is related to its formation. The suffix -t(a)ras, with which katras is derived, has since ancient times had the meaning of contrasting two concepts²⁰.

Which language is Lithuanian closest to? I am listening to you, and it seems to me very sonorous and beautiful VenclGD 273. The ones who climb will be frightened from every side by the ugliest monsters BilR I 146. Which of you two is guilty, you or Jonas? JablRR I 224. If only I could now show which is more deserving of love, the stove or that creature? ŽemR I 88.

The pronoun which, when functioning as a connective and without a correlative word in the main clause, acquires a meaning close to that of demonstrative pronouns with anaphoric meaning.

Thunder rumbled, and, raising their heads, the two saw a huge black cloud that had already covered the southern half of the sky VenclGD 530. Meisterienė is carrying a pot, which Jonas takes from her and sets on the little wall CvR IX 61.

In dialects (e.g., around Skapiškis, Alanta, Palušė, Kuktiškės, and elsewhere), which is hardly used at all; speakers make do with the pronoun which one. Instead of which, Lithuanian often uses the adverb where.

We are those very same little crows that you saved from starvation BalčGP 44. Hey, I’ll go, I’ll go to that little land where there is no hardship JD 756.

The pronoun which (cf. Latvian kurs) is most likely formed from the adverb where and the pronoun he, she²¹. Unfused combinations of this adverb and pronoun are also found, cf.: She took that lamp, where it was very good JablRR I 494.

d) Whose indicates the ownership of an object.

Who is moving the curtain at the window, whose little white hand is it? SNėrR I 285. Whoever owns the hole does the mending Jnš.

The pronoun whose is a fossilized singular genitive case, like my, your, one’s own. In dialects, an inflected form of this pronoun, kienas, -a, is also found; cf.: She asks the old woman, whose children? Lz. Whose cow is that? Zt.

e) The pronoun kelì, kẽlios and the forms derived from it with numeral suffixes, keleri, kẽlerios, kelintas, -à, indicate the quantity of an object.

How many of you will be here tomorrow? JablRR I 224. How many shirts do you have? JablRR I 224. Which calf is the cow? Ds.

In dialects and old writings, the pronoun kiekas, -a (-à) is also used to indicate the quantity of an object (both forms are often independent, used as neuter forms).

How many horses were travelling? Dkšt. How many people’s breakfast was cooked today? Its length is such as its width Bt Apr 21,16.

§ 26. Some interrogative-relative pronouns in sentences without interrogative intonation or in rhetorical questions no longer have their literal meaning.

²⁰ See A. Meillet, Введение в сравнительное изучение индоевропейских языков, Москва-Ленинград, 1938, p. 282.

²¹ See J. Schmidt, Die griechischen ortsadverbia auf νν, νς und der interrogativstamm k u, KZ, 32, p. 401.

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a) With the pronoun kas, affirmative sentences express negation, while negative sentences express affirmation of what would otherwise be asked about.

Perhaps you know some song, auntie? — Who there would know (I don’t know any)! Grv. Who wasn’t there?! Potters, tinsmiths, bakers with their decorated pastries and shoemakers, sellers of clay whistles and toys, menders of leaky vessels, coopers, wheelwrights CvR III 54—55.

b) The pronouns kas (in an adjectival function), koks, -ia, kuris, -i, etc., emphasize that the thing they refer to is large, abundant, splendid, or, conversely, contemptibly small, poor, or insignificant.

What shoulders he has (broad)! Ln. What a remarkable, talented child! Grž. What verdant rue you have JD 748. And she herself and her daughters—what weavers they are! You won’t find any like them for miles Myk-PutS I 275. Razaliot, get up, look, it’s already what time (it’s already late) VienIMA 20.

c) The pronoun koks, -ia emphasizes the degree of a qualitative characteristic.

Look, the first snow has fallen. How white it is, how soft! KorsRn 108. How beautiful our little homeland is—like a drop of pure amber SNėrR I 476.

In Lithuanian, a specific use of the pronoun kas is found with personal forms of the verb (ne)būti (and sometimes other verbs). Such constructions occur in a single sentence alongside forms of other verbs.

There were few people—there was no one to work (there were no workers) LnkV. I go to get hay—there’s no one to take it (there is no hay) Švnč. The young girls were kissed (by the soldiers), so that there would be someone waiting upon their return SruogD 14. After all, a woman has nothing to show for her work ŽemR I 173.

It may be conjectured that such constructions with the pronoun kas developed from subordinate clauses in which kas undoubtedly served a connective function; compare: Is there someone there who does the work (is there a person for that)? Jabl.

6. Indefinite pronouns

§ 27. Indefinite pronouns refer to things or their properties approximately, in general, or in a very broad relation, and leave them specifically indefinite and unknown. In terms of their relation to the things or properties they designate, indefinite pronouns are contrasted with demonstrative pronouns. The former designate unknown, indefinite things, while the latter designate known, definite things²².

²² Given the general nature of the meaning of indefinite pronouns, this chapter includes not only the indefinite pronouns distinguished in our grammars, but also the so-called determinative pronouns (visas, -a ‘all’, kitas, -a ‘other’, etc.). In fact, neither the indefinite nor the so-called determinative pronouns ultimately identify the thing or property referred to; compare: Someone said it. Everyone says so. I’ll tell you another time. We do not know who all those people are, nor do we know when the next time will be. They are distinguished by their more narrowly defined meanings.

Except for determinative pronouns, it is impossible to derive a general relation by which they designate things or properties, unlike other pronouns. Therefore, grammars do not define the so-called determinative pronouns as a class at all, but merely enumerate their individual lexical meanings. In the classification presented here, the determinative pronoun is the single pronoun pats, -i ‘self’, which in Lithuanian differs sharply from other pronouns both in its origin and in the nature of its meaning. As early as A. Ba-

4. Kalbotyros klausimai VI.

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There are quite a few indefinite pronouns in Lithuanian. They are not all of the same kind and can be divided into four groups.

A. Indefinite non-determinative pronouns.

§ 23. These pronouns refer approximately and in general to an indefinite thing or property, without indicating its relation to other things or properties. This group includes the pronouns kas, koks, -ia, kuris, -i, katras, -a, keli, kelios, kieno, which have long had both an interrogative and an indefinite meaning. Alongside these pronouns, many newly formed compounds and multiword pronouns with the same meaning have appeared in Lithuanian: kažkas (from the phrase kas žino kas ‘who knows what’), kažin kas, kažkoks, -ia, kažin koks, -ia, kažkuris, -i, kažin kuris, -i, kažin katras, -a, kažkieno, kažin kieno, kas nors (with the second element from the active present participle nõris ‘wanting’), koks, -ia nõrs, kuris, -i nõrs, katras, -a nõrs, kieno nõrs, bet kas, bet koks, -ia, bet kuris, -i, bet katras, -a, bet kieno, kai kas, kai kuris, -i, kai katras, -a, kai koks, -ia, kas-ne-kas, kuris-ne-kuris, kuri-ne-kuri. The indefinite-non-determinative meaning is also found in keletas, keleri, kelerios, kelintas, -a, derived from the pronoun keli, kelios with numeral suffixes. Some demonstrative pronouns can also acquire an indefinite-non-determinative meaning when they lose their definite element, e.g., the pronoun toks, -ia ‘one (German ein), some kind of’. Among demonstratives, there are multiword pronouns with an indefinite-non-determinative meaning: šis, tas, šioks toks, šiokia tokia. Pronouns vienas, -a, kitas, -a and the multiword pronoun vienas kitas, viena kita can also acquire the meaning of this group (for their primary meanings, see below).

In other parishes, if someone wants to show off a new garment, fashionable fur coats, pine logs, or carts, they like to say: “the work of a pagramantish man!” CvR IX 8. For a pot, after all, every day, when you cook something in broth, you need not only salt but also seasoning DonR 49. Thus the ploughmen and oxen worked without stopping, unless some ox’s yoke broke Myk-PutS I 68. He rarely says a word correctly Jrb. There were eight milking cows here, two heifers, and several calves BaltPV I 197. Who would let you near the king?! Whom would you complain to—who there cares about anyone’s troubles? ŽemR II 186. Antanukas is afraid to lie alone in bed. He imagines that something like a horse is standing in the middle of the cottage, nodding its head KrėvAP 123. I stop on the little bridge and bend down to watch the water flowing: it seems to me that some kind of living creatures are swimming in the water and talking so pleasantly among themselves B1lR I 120. One of the workers said a few words, and the others laughed in agreement BaltRrn 18. Some

ranauskas (žr. jo Kalbomokslis lietuviškos kalbos, Tilžėje, 1896, p. 35) įvardį pats, -i skiria į atskirą grupę ir vadina jį netikrąja įvarde.

Our earlier grammars did not include determinative pronouns. J. Jablonskis was the first to distinguish a section on determinative pronouns in Lithuanian in his 1919 grammar (see P. Kriaušaitis and Rygiškių Jonas, Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius, 1919, pp. 50–51). It is worth noting that in his 1901 grammar, these same determinative pronouns were still assigned to the demonstratives. Other Lithuanian grammars of that period and later did not always distinguish determinative pronouns. A. Leskien and J. Otrębski do not include a section on determinative pronouns in their grammars (see Litauisches Lesebuch mit Grammatik und Wörterbuch von A. Leskien, Heidelberg, 1919, pp. 159–161; J. Otrębski, Gramatyka języka litewskiego, vol. III, Warszawa, 1956, pp. 134–161).

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who there had been, had been eaten Slm. Prakapus had already acquired this custom: he would drink only when someone bought him a drink CvR III 60. He felt immeasurable pity for Antanas and wanted to help him somehow BiIR I 81. — Call me some peasant! — shouted the angry master from the cart BiIR I 174. There is no need to look for anyone’s guilt here VaičiūnD 138. Now I shall return home, bring back the wages I have earned, and speak in a deep voice, like Jurgis’s brother Petras. And I shall no longer associate with just anyone BaltPV I 115. Why, they say, does a poor man need a beautiful wife? A poor man, they say, will take any woman — he needn’t dress his wife in silk or clothe her in fine wool! BaltPV I 50. No one could have said that Mykoliukas had ever disagreed, fallen out, or traded insults with anyone VaižgRR I 38. Which one do you need? — Give me any one Kp. Six men strode briskly along, trying to walk so that roadside tree trunks and bushes would shield them from anyone’s gaze from the town toward the road Myk-PutS I 164. I learned some things from the coachman Pranciškus, and some from the overseer Pšemickis himself, who let things slip Myk-PutS I 74. Red flags had already begun to flutter on the balconies of some houses VenclGD 189. Children, run, each of you, and bring some water Slm. Ask some person to help Prn. My father also wanted to go to Pakšys, but Mother restrained him: — just don’t get involved now: whoever else it might be, for us it will mean trouble — they may burn us down later VienlMA 74. Today the village lay quiet, drowsy, wary, and frightened. In one yard or another a door creaked; someone from among the older people appeared, then disappeared again into a barn or a shed Myk-PutS I 234. The Germans emptied the bottle of vodka fairly quickly. A second followed, then several more VenclR III 229. Several pairs of millstones had already worn down as they turned in the mill VenclR III 13. And the next day the owner complained. — I don’t understand what’s happening to that chestnut horse. For several days now it’s been walking as though chased by weasels BaltPV 97—98. Long ago there lived a certain merchant; he had much land, goods, and money BaltTVN 69. Although we usually had to deliver most of all those things to the master, something or other would fall to us too BilR I 107. As long as the house can stand, there is always some benefit ŽemR II 329. One Sunday news reached Užuožeriai that Pečiūra was already in Ukmergė VienlMA 47. You won’t find a birch or apple tree at his place without little houses hanging from it. Some are even painted in bright colors CvR IX 31. Constantly retelling the same hospital stories, Dievulis would embellish them each time with a word or two, an invented detail or two, and eventually he himself no longer knew whether things had really happened that way or whether he had merely made them up CvR III 98.

In dialects and old writings there are also many other indefinite pronouns with indeterminate, non-specific meanings, formed as compounds or multiword combinations, for example: bi kas Lkv, Krtn, Šauk, Všk, Rdm, bi kóks Šauk, bi kokis Rdm, koks toks “some sort” Slnt, kas kuris “some one” KoG 71, kiekas tiekas “some sort” J, kana kas “someone” Jž, J, kana kas Užv, kana koks M, kap kas “something or other” Šauk, Lp, kai kitas “some one, anyone” Vdžg, jeib kas “anyone” JnG 108, jeib koks “any sort” Slnt, tykokis “some kind of” Vik, kajikas “who knows what” Als, Varn, kajakas “something” SD 121.

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The dialect forms are further augmented by various variants of interrogative pronouns with the verb root žinoti ‘to know’ and its shortened formatives, as well as forms of the verb norėti ‘to want’ noris, norinti and words developed from them, for example: kažino kas Krt, kažino koks Plt, kaži kas Jrb, Dkš, kaži kóks PgrT 60, kažinc kas Arm, kažinec kas Arm, kažnec kas Vlk, Rod, kažne kas Alv, kažno kas Ds, Skp, Dbk, Ktk, kažno koks (kažno kokió BaranLM 37), kažno katrós Ds, kažnai kas Dbk, kažnoc kàs Lp, kas noris LC 1883, 4; SD 31. koksai noris I, kas nór Dbk, Kš, kas nór Lp, kas nóns Šauk, Šl, Rm, Pc, koks nons Grk, kas nórint Všk, kas nórint Lkv, kas nórints Grdž, kas nórints Kš, Šauk, kas nórintais Šauk.

B) Indefinite differentiative pronouns.

§ 29. These pronouns refer to an indefinite object or property distinguished from others or at least set somewhat apart.

The most prominent members of this group are kitas, -à and the pronouns derived from or formed with it: kitóks, -ia, kìtkas, kas kìta. The pronoun kitas, -à is a common Baltic formation (cf. Latvian cits, Old Prussian genitive plural kittans). It may be connected with the verb kìsti.

The pronouns kìtas, -à, kitóks, -ia, kìtkas, kas kìta refer to objects or properties that do not belong to the set of defined, known objects or properties. In this way, an object is set apart by denying that it is this one or that it is of this kind; what it is, and what kind it is, nevertheless remain precisely undefined.

You are a child of war. Keep your heart brave and your weapon in your hand! Others will come — perhaps they will understand how dreadful our hour is SNėrP I 193. He could do no other kind of work and told stories Smn. How many times have poets likened eyes to the blue of the sky, and yet their blueness is different VenclGD 519. After settling at his uncle’s, Petras did not forget Katrytė. She never left his thoughts, whether he was working or resting. What was she doing, did she remember him, was Skrodski making advances toward her, were the overseer and the bailiff cheating her out of her corvée labor, was her father punishing her — such questions, and others like them, constantly plagued him Myk-PutS 373. My parents had already planned for him to farm a half-share, and promised to help him with seeds, tools, and other things VienIMA 147. — “It looks as though the weather is clearing,” said the child, looking up at the sky. But apparently the overseer had something else on his mind. Tell me, boy, which one is Kedulis’s homestead? This one? — he pointed with his finger toward the linden, on this side of the road Myk-PutS I 183.

In a particular context, the pronoun kìtas, -à refers to the second of two objects contrasted with one another or occurring one after the other. In this case, the pronoun kìtas, -à identifies the object somewhat more precisely, since contrasting or juxtaposing two objects indirectly indicates the position and order of the second, for example: Only far, far away, somewhere at the other edge of the forest, Stepukas was shouting, unable to tell where I was or in which direction to drive the herd BaltPV I f2. Hush, don’t cry, don’t weep, young maiden; I’ll bring you back next autumn StanD 12.

§ 30. The pronouns tam tikras, -à, vienas, -à, vienóks, -ia likewise set objects or properties apart from others in a particular relation, but do not define them. The multiword pronoun tam tikras, -à (from the pronominal particle tam and the adjective tìkras, -à) is native to Lithuanian. The pronoun vienas, -à is

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old (cf. Latvian viens). It is thought that its root ie<ei (:vičveinėlis)²³ is related to the root of the demonstrative meaning “he”²⁴.

The pronoun tam tikras, -à means “specified, special,” e.g.: We are businesspeople, and it is understood that I will give a certain percentage for the service VenclGD 41. In autumn, all the villages would pour a specified quantity of grain of every kind into certain granaries, called “magazines,” as a reserve for years of poor harvest VienIMA 35.

The pronoun vienas, -à denotes a separate, indefinite thing with two kinds of meaning:

vienas, -à “the same,” e.g.: Antanukas rolls down to the ground. He was already tired of sitting in one place KrèvAP 141. He blows too much with that... Sauliūnas... they say, plays the same tune... MiežBP 88. Then at once they began laughing with his sister BilR I 172. At that time, everyone signed that their eyes were the same size and color MPs.

vienas, -à “only that, with nothing else,” e.g.: The master was in his underwear alone, and perhaps for that reason his face seemed much whiter than usual BaltPV I 120. After all, you can’t live on nothing but fatty foods; you need some nice little nuts too, to crack them DonR 36. I don’t want bread alone Dks.

The pronoun vienas, -à often occurs with the particle tik ‘only,’ which further strengthens the sense of separateness expressed by this pronoun, e.g.: At the deceased’s coffin [...] only the men sang—the women refused VienIMA 190. Only the stars twinkled cheerfully above BilR I 141.

In certain expressions, the pronoun vienas, -à has a weakened, already general indefinite and separative meaning. It merely emphasizes that the thing referred to consists of a genuine, pure material.

Coming closer, the children saw that the whole cottage was built of bread and roofed with gingerbread; the windows were made of pure sugar BalčGP 36. I’ll make shirts of pure flax BsO 121. When the meadow flooded—it was all water Lnkv. It’s a pleasure just to be outdoors Kal.

The pronoun vienóks, -ia means “the same,” e.g.: “Don’t be afraid,” said the bear (to the horse), “no harm will come of it. Our fathers have lived together since time immemorial; they were born and grew up together and grew old together. And now the same fate has befallen us: I have a chain around my neck, and you are left in shackles” StanP 30. Three miles of woodland of the same kind of little fir trees Tvr. Not everyone has the same eyes Vlkj.

In a particular context, the pronoun vienóks, -ia is used in the sense of the adjective “equal, uniform,” e.g.: Will the weaving be uniform, or will you mix in some coarse yarn too? Up.

Alongside vienóks, -ia, vienódas, -a is also used with the meaning of a pronoun and adjective; compare: At the table, she took equal pleasure (the same kind of pleasure) in seeing to her guests’ needs VienR IV 63. Suddenly, an even (steady) knocking is heard at the door PaukštAA 96.

²³ Žr. J. Endzelīns, Latviešu valodas gramatika, Rīgā, 1951, p. 481.

²⁴ J. Pokorny, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bern, p. 286.

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The meaning of the pronoun Vienodas, -a may be older; compare Latvian pronouns with the corresponding suffix tāds, šāds, kāds.

§ 31. In a sentence, the pronouns vienas, -à, kitas, -à often have meanings related to one another and form a particular pair. Other pronouns whose meanings are related to one another, or repetitions of the same pronoun, are similarly juxtaposed: vienas, -à, añtras, -à²⁵, kit(a)s, -à... kitas, -à, vienóks, -ia... kitóks, -ia, kàs... kàs, šis, ši... tas, tà, tàs, tà... tàs, tà, tàs, tà... kitas, -à, šiòks, -ià... tók(i)s, -ià, tóks, -ià... tóks, -ià. The lexical meanings of the juxtaposed pronouns are related to such an extent that, although they do not form a single lexeme, these pronouns, through their particular relationship in the sentence and their very generalized meanings, characteristic of pronouns, acquire a new shared function and together express relations similar to those expressed by other pronouns. They indicate indefinite mutual relations between objects or properties, distinguishing one indefinite object from another indefinite object of the same or a different kind, and likewise one property from another. Demonstrative pronouns, when forming pairs, also lack a defining element (when used separately, demonstrative pronouns retain the defining element). Such pairs of pronouns may provisionally be called juxtaposed pronouns²⁶ and, according to the relations they express, classified among indefinite distinguishing pronouns.

Pronouns related to one another can occur in separate coordinate syntactic units. In that case, they are usually expressed in the same case. Some women were still looking around the stove, while others were already sitting on the bench by the lamp and spinning KrėvAP 124. And then I suddenly remembered my mother’s story about two friends who met a bear in the forest. One of them shot up a tree and hid, while the second pretended to be dead, and the bear tore neither one nor the other to pieces BaltPV I 86. One couldn’t, the other was too lazy to study Brt. No clogs: one of one kind, the other of another KlivŽ. It’s good at the smithy. It’s always full of people. Some come on business, some for a chat; one goes out, another comes in: to hear the news, to tell others BaltPV₁ I 213. The clothes of this one and that one were already badly worn (of one bird and another) DonR 22. More than once, when songs or games had grown tiresome, they would ask one another, “Well, what now? What now?...” One would suggest one thing, another something else; the suggestions would not please them, and everyone would start arguing and lamenting: “Ah, if only Adomėlis were here...” Myk-PutS I 370. Here one kind of trouble, there another. In spring, one day like this, another day like that Pc.

Šitokios įvardžių poros tam tikrame kontekste gali būti pratęstos tais pačiais žodžiais, o po įvardžių vienas, -à... añtras, -à, vienas, -à... kitas, -à dar gali eiti kelintiniai skaitvardžiai trêčias, -ià, ketvirtas, -à ir t. t., pvz.: Visi pradėjo skirstytis, kas karvių melžtų, kas galvijų laukan varytų, kas mėšlo vežtų VienIMA 20—21. O ir patys žmonės atrodė labai nevie-

²⁵ Antras, -à now has the meaning of an ordinal numeral in Lithuanian, but is pronominal in origin: the stem an- has demonstrative meaning, with the suffix -t(a)ras; compare A. Walde, Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen, herausg. und bearb. von J. Pokorny, II B., Berlin und Leipzig, 1927, p. 337.

²⁶ Two juxtaposed pronouns have long been distinguished as independent units in our grammars; see P. Kriaušaitis, Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika, Tilžėje, 1901, p. 24.

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news. Some of them were dressed like laborers (...) Others wore the usual attire of intellectuals, with their jackets open and ties on. Still others wore clothes from foreign lands VencIGD 457. One says, “Let’s fly,” another says, “Let’s stand still,” and a third says, “Let’s sway” (water, stone, and grass) An.

The related words in some pairs of pronouns may take different case forms and occur next to one another, or they may be used with prepositions. In such cases, besides their indefinite distinguishing meaning, these pronouns acquire additional meanings arising from the functions of the cases and prepositions; for example, pronouns used with the prepositions po ‘after’ and už ‘behind’ also indicate a particular order of objects (one after another, one behind another).

Don’t say that; there is no creature in the world more malicious than a human being. Why don’t bees kill one another, or ants other ants?.. BaltrTK I 234. Those wells, dug a short distance apart all along the low ground of the embankment, were so deep that after a stone was thrown in, it would not echo back until a good while later CvR III 19. The two of them lived far apart for many years BilR I 152. One after another, and all together, the ploughmen kept shouting as if racing: “Dun ones, black ones, piebald ones, roan ones, grey ones, bay ones, white-necked ones—shoo-o-o!.. whoa-o!.. hey!.. give way! come on! furrow, furrow!.. straighter!..” Myk-PutS I 68. All the sounds of the day gradually grew quieter, then fell silent one after another Jabls 48 (Vs). How many memories and events, once so vivid, dawned and shone one after another beyond the horizon! MairRR I 129. The rakers, sweating and flushed, hurriedly worked hard one after another ŽemR II 328. Deep in the forest, in a young, dense spruce grove from which a bend in the road could be seen, several men were lying. They lay close to one another, and their weapons, propped against a tree, stood right beside them. From time to time they exchanged a word, carefully parted the tree branches, and looked around attentively CvR III 217. And all the lads, having plaited new bast shoes and made themselves new linen footwraps, ran along, each trying to outdo the others, and began to dance DonR 45. Neither of the two knew about the other for many years BilR I 152. The wedding guests from the other side made their way back, and the neighbors too filed out one after another ŽemR I 78. Flocks of nightingales chirped and sang loudly over one another, as if racing the shepherd boys’ pipes ŽemR I 133. The wedding guests rose from the straw, the neighbors gathered, and they laughed and mocked one another about where they had slept ŽemR I 77. The drunkards, stuffed with vodka, started cracking each other over the head—whack! smack!—in the ear, by the scruff, in the back! One would grab another by the throat and throttle him... ŽemR II 182. When they fight with the children, one stands up for the other (they help one another) Trak.

Tarmėse dar kartais pakartojami įvardžiai vienas, -à... vienas, -à, pvz.: Sako žmonės, kad Mataušis su žmonele sugyveno, o tu dabar pažiūrėk — viens ten, viens čia išvažavo Varn. Sudėjau visas vištas į eilę viena prie vienos Mrs.

In old writings we also find juxtapositions such as: ...schū du sunkei sirga, kits raupais, antras kaulu ligga BP I 189.

C) Indefinite generalizing pronouns.

§ 32. These pronouns refer to an indefinite object or quality taken in a general sense. According to the nature of their meaning, they may be affirmative or negative.

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1) Affirmative generalizing pronouns.

§ 33. Affirmative generalizing pronouns express an affirmative relation to a whole, i.e., they refer to indefinite objects or qualities that, in one way or another, encompass or nearly encompass the whole. This group includes visas, -ą, viskas, visóks, -ia, kiekvienas, -ą, kas “each,” aliai vienas, -ą, tūlas, -ą, daug kas (many people). The relations to the whole expressed by individual pronouns are indicated by their lexical meanings.

a) visas, -ą (cf. Latvian viss, Old Prussian wissa-) “consisting of many, taken together, however many there are” (masculine and feminine forms refer to a person or object, while neuter forms refer only to a general phenomenon).

“And how do you know?” he suddenly interrupted me. “How do I know? Everyone knows, everyone is talking.” “Who is everyone?” “Well... everyone! Lots of people are talking... Rozalija said so, too!” “Rozalija isn’t everyone, though.” BaltPV I 118. Mykoliukas was very, very quiet, yet everyone could see that he was talking. VaižgRR I 37. Many girls along the banks of the Dubysa, white and tall as lilies, bloom with faces like viburnum; you will hear no lovelier voices. MairrRR I 79. And why shouldn’t I go, when all the others are going? JD 484. I sang all the little songs, only one did I not sing. DvD 300. Everything perished; only a few half-burnt logs remained on the bare field!.. BaranAŠ 19.

In certain expressions, the pronoun visas, -ą emphasizes that the object referred to is full, completely covered or filled with something, entire, genuine. Some such expressions are close to fixed phrases.

At that time, the revolutionary movement was boiling over not only in Tiflis but throughout the Caucasus. VienIMA 58. And how it roars! Do you hear? The whole marsh spoke to him. VaižgRR I 60. There was a whole flock of sheep here, too, and several horses, and a stallion for riding out. BaltPV I 197. And “Mykoliukas” is now a full-grown Mykolas. He is nearly thirty. VaižgRR I 37.

b) viskas (formed from the phrase visa kas) “consisting of many; this and that, taken together, however many there are” (referring to a general phenomenon, like the neuter form visa of the pronoun visas, -ą).

Theaters, museums, literature—everything in our country serves the people. VencITB 13. “You’re still a child, dear; you know very little. And when you don’t know everything, don’t be hasty in judging people; better keep quiet.” BaltPV I 74. You know everything, everything concerns you... You stick your nose in everywhere and wag your tongue everywhere. GričKV 137.

In place of viskas, visa kas is also very often said.

And she began telling how it had been then: how the lords had risen up, how they had called on the common people to go against the tsar, and how everything had ended unhappily. BilR I 233. If the neighbors were waiting only for entertainment to satisfy their curiosity, the Augustins were prepared for anything. VienIMA 46.

c) visóks, -ia “consisting of many; of this and that kind, varied.”

The threshing floors and barns were spacious, packed with fodder right up to the ridge; the granary was so full that it was hard to get in: the bins were bursting with all kinds of grain. BaltPV I 36. Various songs made the bushes and forests resound. DonR 23.

Alongside visóks, -ia, įvairus, -i is also used with a similar meaning; cf.: I dreamed dreams of all sorts, that is, of every kind. Its principal meaning is

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adjective, cf.: various wood (twisted, curled) Sr. Various cloth (woven crosswise) Rdm. The word’s adjectival origin is also indicated by its formation.

d) each “any one of the whole; all, taken individually.”

The villagers pay a great deal of attention to every newly arrived person until they get used to him VienIMA 10. I walked and felt how with every step my knees trembled more and more BaltPV₁ I 172.

Each is formed from the pronominal adverb how much and the pronoun one, cf. the expressions in old writings: each thing (every thing) Mž 70, each day (every day) DP 12. In some dialects, instead of each, the forms each one Škn, each one Mrp, each Skd, KlvrŽ, Škn, Šts, Šln are used.

e) who “each” (only the nominative case with expressions of time or indicating a particular sequence of things, as well as in fixed expressions).

It was getting light. It grew darker by the hour LzPR I 367. The sun rises later every morning and goes to bed earlier every evening ŽemR I 182. One little, quite threadbare blanket is issued for every four men SruogDM 90. I had not even had time to look around when the whole herd scattered across the fields, each running off in a different direction BaltPV I 52.

f) all one “all without exception.”

The Anagaliečiai all went to Pagiriai Pg. The pigs gathered all the potatoes, every last one Ds.

g) many a “one of many, often.”

Such terror took hold that many a person, having just stepped outside the house over the threshold, hurried back in, firmly shutting the door BilR I 214. Ah, how many of our little grasses have shed their clothes so completely that not even an old woman, hunched over from hard work, is still crouching there DonR 42. While I was staying with my dear mother, many a person said: what a beautiful girl JV 793.

Many a is an old Lithuanian formation; it is already used in our old writings.

In a certain context, the adjective frequent takes on a meaning close to that of the pronoun many a, e.g.: Apples here redden quickly, and many fall heavily downwards as if turned to lead MiežML 162. Frequent in the adjectival sense, cf.: a frequent guest (one who comes often), frequent incidents (those that happen often).

h) many a person “one of many; both this and that”: Many of the peasants of Užuožeriai wanted storks on their homesteads as well VienIMA 186. By Wednesday many hoped to finish hauling the manure VienIMA 22.

2) Negative generalizing pronouns.

§ 34. Negative generalizing pronouns express negative relations with a whole, i.e., they indicate that there are no things that encompass a whole in one way or another. These include: niekas, niekieno, joks, -ià, nė vienas, -à, nė koks, -ià. In meaning, they are opposed to the pronouns visas, -à, kiekvienas, -à, viskas. Negative generalizing pronouns are used with negative verbs. All of them, except joks, -ià, are formed

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with negative particles. Such pronoun formation is also known in other Indo-European languages.

a) niekas “neither this nor that (from the whole)”.

No one knew as many folktales as old Lapinas; no one could recount made-up things as beautifully, or tell a convincing lie as he could KrėvAP 61. Here the rosy, bluish, gray russulas sit clustered, cheerful, growing beautifully; they care about nothing BaranAŠ 20.

Fossilized expressions: nieku būdu, nieku gyvu ‘by no means, absolutely not’ show that formerly niekas was also used adjectivally, i.e., it indicated a quality.

In the Samogitian dialect, instead of niekas, the pronoun nėkas, formed with the negative particle nė, is used: Slnt, Kal, Lkv Klvrž, Plt, Vvr.

b) niekieno “neither of them” (with a nuance of personal possession).

Mackevičius said that the gentleman could not now take anyone’s land Myk-PutS I 92. With no one urging me, I had already begun collecting songs Būg.

The form nėkienas also occurs in dialects: Trgn.

c) jōks, -ià “neither one kind nor another; neither such nor such (from the whole)”.

Summer passes, but there is no news at all about Andrius CvR IX 150. The sky was clear, without a single cloud Myk-PutS I 234.

jōks, -ià is also used with two negatives: a negative verb and the negative particles nei, nė, for example: No one from the Pempienė household demanded any obligations or corvée; neither the bailiff nor the steward nor any other manor official went snooping around her place, and no orders from the lord affected her Myk-PutS I 24. I can no longer be here under any circumstances Pš.

d) nė vienas, -à “neither this nor that (from the whole)”.

Šmukštaras disliked hunting and despised all hunters. “Not a single little animal does us any harm, and everyone wants to live and eat,” Šmukštaras would say VienIMA 176. There are more lime trees in the village, but not one of them can match the lime tree at Galinis Myk-Put I 23.

Alongside nė vienas, -à, Lithuanian also uses nei vienas, -à: Not one has grown up yet, still laughing, and not one has ever climbed out of the cradle without crying DonR 30. Everyone scolded me; not one came to my defense RD 44.

e) nė kóks, -ià ‘neither such nor such, no kind of’.

There is no trace that I walked through the rye Ds. She said that they had no guests at all Trgn. He fears no cold at all Lz.

7. The emphatic pronoun

§ 35. There is one emphatic pronoun—pats, -i. It originated from nouns. Even today in Lithuanian, pats is used in the sense ‘man (head of the family)’, and pati in the sense ‘wife’.

The pronoun pats, -i indicates that an action is performed by the subject of the action through its own efforts, without the help of others.

Let the little son bow to his father himself CvR IX 160. You saw nothing; let the master find out for himself, if he wants to, understand? BaltPV I 98. It so happened

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that the old man is mistaken: today grandmother herself cooked dinner, while father, smacking his lips, pays tribute to his daughter-in-law CvR IX 140—141.

The pronoun pats, -i is also used to emphasize an object, drawing attention to it and giving it a certain importance.

All the flocks were so frightened by that sound that even the eagle itself no longer dared to stir DonR 27. From the balcony on the second floor, the sea itself could be seen—roaring and gleaming like liquid, yet cool, metal VencIGD 466.

Two further uses of this pronoun are related to the latter meaning of pats, -i—emphasizing an object by drawing attention to it and highlighting its importance:

1) By emphasizing an object, the pronoun pats, -i indicates a limit characteristic of it.

Few remember when, in the Aužbikai marsh, right on the steep slope of the valley, in the very path of the sun, a single, ever-identical intapas began to appear VaižgRR I 96. All three windows of the house were coated with frost and ice from the cold; only at the very edges, where the glass does not fit snugly against the frames, had the wind scraped narrow gaps BaltPV I 12.

2) The pronoun pats, -i, with a superlative or pronominal form, indicates the highest degree of an object's quality.

I pick my way through the stubble as cautiously as possible, like a goose among stones; I tread on my heel, place my foot sideways, toes clenched tightly, and always set it down so that the sharpest stubble pierces the wounded web between my toes BaltPV I 103. The village was still asleep in its deepest slumber VaižgRR I 77.

In dialects, pats, -i is found with the meaning ‘one’. This meaning is also associated with the emphatic function. Cf.: Whoever drinks beer by itself (= alone) jumps merrily LT III 447.

Conclusions

1. Pronouns in contemporary Lithuanian are classified by meaning into 7 groups: 1) personal (aš, tu, jis, ji, mes, jūs, jie, jos, támsta); 2) reflexive (savęs); 3) possessive (mano, tavo, savo, manas, -à, tavas, -à, savas, -à, manàsis, -óji, tavàsis, -óji, savàsis, -óji, mūsàsis, -óji, jūsàsis, -óji, maniškis, -ė; taviškis, -ė, saviškis, -ė, mūsiškis, -ė, jūsiškis, -ė); 4) demonstrative (tas, tà, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anàs, -à, tóks, -ià, šioks, -ià, šitoks, -ia, anóks, -ia, tas pats, ta pati, pats tas, pati tà, toks, -ia pàt); 5) interrogative-relative (kas, kóks, -ià, kuris, -i, katràs, -à, kienó, kelì, -ios, kelintas, -à, keleri, -ios); 6) indefinite: a) non-specific (kas, kóks, -ià, kuris, -i, katràs, -à, kažkàs, kažkóks, -ià, etc.); b) distinguishing (kìtas, -à, víenas, -à, etc.); c) generalizing (affirmative: visas, -à, kiekvienas, -à, etc.; negative: niekas, jóks, -ià, etc.); 7) emphatic (pats, -i).

2. Personal pronouns aš, mes, tu, jūs, jis, ji form a three-person system expressing the principal participants in a speech act: the speaker, the listener, and the person or thing being spoken about. In Lithuanian, personal pronouns are not necessary to express the verb’s person category. The forms aš, mes, tu, jūs derive from Proto-Indo-European with purely personal meaning—

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Meaning. The pronoun jis, ji has been used in Lithuanian during the historical period only as a personal pronoun, but by origin it is demonstrative, and therefore refers not only to persons but also to things.

3. The pronoun támsta, which has newly developed in Lithuanian, does not express new personal relations; it is a polite form of the second person. Various forms are still used with nuances of politeness in the second-person sense: the pronoun pàts, -ì; the adjective sveikas, -à, which has become pronominal; combinations of the noun sveikatà with pronouns: támstos sveikatà, jūsų sveikatà; and the pronoun jūs in the sense of “tu.”

4. The reflexive pronoun savęs is an old form and has preserved, as in Latvian and Slavic languages, an ancient usage: it indicates not only the relation of the person being spoken about to himself or herself, but also that of the speaker and the interlocutor to themselves. Possessives containing the root of the reflexive pronoun, sāvo, sāvas, -à, can likewise indicate that a thing belongs to any of the three persons functioning in the sentence as the subject of an action or state.

5. In Lithuanian, the principal forms of possessive pronouns today are màno, tàvo, sāvo. The old possessives mànas, -à, tàvas, -à are disappearing altogether, while sāvas, -à is acquiring a new qualitative adjectival meaning, “not чужой” [not belonging to someone else]. The pronominal forms manàsis, -óji, tavàsis, -óji, etc., as well as newly formed derivatives with the suffix -iškis, -ė, maniškis, -ė, taviškis, -ė, etc., unlike other possessives, are most often used as nouns with the meaning of so-called close possession.

6. The old demonstrative pronouns tàs, tà, šìs, šì, šìtas, -à, anàs, -à have preserved the ancient three-way deixis system: šis, ši and šitas, -a refer to a known thing closest to the speaker in time and space; anàs, -à refers to a known thing farthest from the speaker; and tàs, tà refers to a known thing at a greater or lesser distance from the speaker (its deixis is not as precisely defined in terms of distance as that of šis, ši, šitas, -a or anàs, -à). Among demonstrative pronouns expressing qualities, the three-way deixis of tóks, -ià, šiòks, -ià, šitòks, -ia, anòks, -ia has broken down, and the pronoun tóks, -ià is increasingly replacing the others.

7. The pronouns tàs, tà, šìs, šì, šìtas, -a are used to refer to known things with emphatic differentiation, and anaphorically, that is, to repeat what was mentioned without emphatic differentiation. Alongside their deictic meanings, the pronouns tàs, tà and tóks, -ià have already developed an emphatic function. The pronoun tàs, tà sometimes occurs as a subjective emphatic (non-obligatory) article; tóks, -ià emphasizes the thing itself or one of its qualities, intensifying its degree.

8. The pronoun ànas, anõs, -à may have developed in Lithuanian dialects with third-person meaning through anaphoric use of the same pronoun with demonstrative meaning. The nominative forms Ànas, -à, anys, anos, having acquired third-person meaning, combined with the other case forms of jis, ji to form a suppletive paradigm in a certain area of the eastern Aukštaitian dialect, as in the modern Slavic languages. The use of Lithuanian ànas, anõs, -à and Slavic onъ with third-person meaning is a phenomenon common to both language groups, but most likely arose independently in each.

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9. The meanings of newly formed compound pronouns tas pàts, ta pati, toks, -ià pàt fluctuate, depending on the meanings of the constituent words, between demonstrative and indefinite differentiative meanings. In one case, these pronouns indicate a known object or characteristic. In another, they lack the defining element characteristic of demonstratives—they indicate only the identity of an object or characteristic.

10. Interrogative–relative pronouns are not fully differentiated in terms of their function. In indirect-question clauses, pronouns kàs, kòks, -ià, kuris, -i, katràs, -à, etc., sometimes retain an interrogative function in addition to their relative (connecting) function (a subordinate clause beginning with a pronoun has interrogative intonation). This is the older interrogative function of these pronouns.

In sentences without interrogative intonation, interrogative pronouns emphasize an object or characteristic.

11. All indefinite pronouns (both kàs, kòks, -ià, katràs, -à, etc., and kitas, -à, visas, -à, and the like) are, in their general semantic character, opposed to demonstratives: the latter indicate known, definite objects and characteristics, while the former indicate unknown, indefinite ones. Some demonstratives (e.g., toks, -ià), having lost the defining element, are used with an indefinite meaning.

12. The lexical meanings of indefinite or demonstrative pronouns juxtaposed in a sentence (viénas, -à... kìtas, -à, víenas, -à... antras, -à (the latter does not have the meaning of a pronoun on its own), kìt(a)s, -à... kìtas, -à, vienóks, -ia... kitóks, -ia, kàs... kàs, šis, ši... tàs, tà, tàs, tà... tàs, tà, tàs, tà... kìtas, -à, šiòks, -ià... tóks, -ià tóks, -ià... tóks, -ià) are so closely related that, although these pronouns do not constitute a single lexeme, through their particular relations within the sentence and their highly generalized meanings, characteristic of pronouns, they jointly express relations similar to those expressed by other pronouns. They indicate relations among indefinite objects or characteristics, distinguishing one indefinite object or characteristic from another, whether of the same or a different kind. When demonstrative pronouns form pairs, they no longer have a defining element, although when used separately they generally always retain their defining function.

13. In Lithuanian, the specifying pronoun pàts, -i derives from nouns and differs from other pronouns in its semantic character.

Vilnius

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS²⁷

Ad — Adūtiškis, Švenčionys District.

al. — allative.

Aln — Alanta (Aluntà), Molėtai District.

Als — Alsėdžiai, Plungė District.

Alv — Alovė, Alytus District.

An — Anykščiai.

And — Andriõniškis, Anykščiai District.

angl. — English.

Apr — the Revelation of the Apostle John (Bible).

Arm — Armõniškės, Byelorussian SSR, Grodno region, Varanavas district.

²⁷ District names are marked according to the previous administrative division (before 1962).

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aukšt. — Aukštaitian.

BalčGP — The Brothers Grimm, Tales, translated by J. Balčikonis, Vilnius, 1954 (numerals indicate pages).

BalčHP — V. Haufus, Tales, translated by J. Balčikonis, Vilnius, 1956 (numerals indicate pages).

BalčTVN — One Thousand and One Nights, translated by J. Balčikonis, Vilnius, 1958 (numerals indicate pages).

BaltPV I — J. Baltušis, Sold Summers, I, Vilnius, 1957 (numerals indicate pages).

BaltPV₁ I — J. Baltušis, Sold Summers, I, Vilnius, 1958 (numerals indicate pages).

BaltRn — J. Baltušis, Selected Works, Vilnius, 1952 (numerals indicate pages).

BaltŪK — A. Baltūnas, Distant Roads, I, II, Vilnius, 1958 (numerals indicate volumes and pages).

BaranAŠ — Antanas Baranauskas, The Forest of Anykščiai, State Publishing House of Fiction, 1949 (numerals indicate pages).

BaranLM — Lithuanian Dialects, collected by A. Baranowski, Volume I, Texts from the Weber estate, edited by F. Specht [...]. Leipzig, 1920 (numerals indicate pages).

BB — (with references to the biblical text) Biblia tatai esti Wissas Schwentas Raschtas Lietuwischkai pergulditas per Janą Bretkuną Lietuvos Pleboną Karaliaucziuie (1590). (Quoted from a manuscript photocopy, 1950, Manuscripts Department, Scientific Library of Vilnius State University named after V. Kapsukas, call no. D 519).

BielDG — Alfonsas Bieliauskas, Darbo Street, State Publishing House of Fiction, 1956 (numerals indicate pages).

BilR I — Jonas Biliūnas, Writings, I, Vilnius, 1954 (numerals indicate pages).

BP — Postilla, that is, a Brief and Plain Exposition of the Gospels [...] By Jonas Bretkūnas [...] In Königsberg [...] 1591, I, II (the numerals indicate parts and pages).

Brsl — Breslauja (Braslav), Belarusian SSR, Polotsk region.

Brt — Bartininkai, Vilkaviškis district.

Brž — Biržai.

BsO — Ožkabalių dainos, Surinko J. Basanavičius, Shenandoah, Pa. 1902, du tomai (skaitmens rodo dainos numerį).

Bt — (with references to the biblical text) S. Bythner, New Testament [...] For the first time in the world in the Lithuanian language [...] Translated with great care [...] Printed for the beneficial use of the people of Lithuania. Printed or published at Reusner’s printing house in Königsberg, in the year MDCCI.

Būg — K. Būga’s (1879—1924) slips.

BūgAS — Kazimieras Būga, Studies in the Baltic Languages, Part I, St Petersburg, 1908 (the numerals indicate pages).

CvR — Petras Cvirka, Writings, I—XII, Vilnius, 1949—1956 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

ček. — Czech language.

d. — song.

DaukB — The Way of the Ancient Highlanders and Samogitians, transcribed from ancient writings by Jokyb’s Laukys, Petropilie, 1845 (the numerals indicate pages).

DaukRR — S. Daukantas, Selected Writings, Vilnius, 1955 (the numerals indicate pages).

Dbk — Debeikiai, Anykščiai district.

dg. — plural.

Dglš — Daugėliškis, Ignalina district.

Dkš — Daukšiai, Kapsukas district.

Dkšt — Dūkštas, Ignalina District.

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DonR — Kristijonas Donelaitis, Writings, State Publishing House of Fiction, 1950 (the numbers indicate page numbers).

DovPK — J. Dovydaitis, Dangerous Roads, Vilnius, 1956 (the numbers indicate page numbers).

DP — Postilla Catholicka, Tai est: Ižguldimas Ewangeliu kiekwienos Nedelos ir szwętes per wissus metus. Per Kunigą Mikalojų Daukšą Kanoniką Mędnikų, iš lėkiszko pergūldita [...] Wilniui [...] 1599 (the numbers indicate page numbers).

Ds — Dusėtos, Zarasai District.

Dsn — Dysna, Ignalina District.

Dv — Dieveniškės, Šalčininkai District.

DvD — Songs, collected by Jurgis Dovydaitis [...] Kaunas, 1931 (the numbers indicate the song number).

Eiš — Eišiškės (Eišiškės).

Er — Eriskiai, Ramygala District.

Erž — Eržvilkas, Skaudvilė District.

gal. — accusative.

Ggr — Gegrėnai, Plungė District.

Glv — Gelvonai, Širvintos District.

got. — Gothic language.

Grdž — Girdžiai, Jurbarkas District.

Grg — Gargždai, Klaipėda District.

GricKV — A. Gricius, Hot Summer, Vilnius, 1955 (the numerals indicate page numbers).

Grk — Girkalnis, Raseiniai District.

Grš — Gríškabūdis, Šakiai District.

Gršl — Grūšlaukis, Kretinga District.

Grv — Gervėčiai, Belarusian SSR, Molodechno District, Astravas District.

Grz — Gruzdžiai, Šiauliai District.

Gs — Geistarei (Didvyžiai), Vilkaviškis District.

I — Laurynas Ivinskis (1811—1881), his writings.

ide. — Indo-European.

Ign — Ignalina.

įn. — instrumental case.

J — Lithuanian Dictionary by A. Juškevičius with explanations of words in Russian and Polish, Volume One, Saint Petersburg, 1897, Volume Two, Saint Petersburg, 1904, Volume Three, Petrograd, 1922. (Words from the unpublished part of the dictionary are marked with the same sign. J followed by a page number denotes words taken not from the alphabetically arranged printed part of the dictionary).

Jabl — Jono Jablonskis’s (1860—1930) slips.

JablG — Rygiškių Jonas, Lithuanian Grammar, Kaunas—Vilnius, 1922 (the numerals indicate page numbers).

JablRR I — J. Jablonskis, Selected Writings, Volume I, Vilnius, 1957 (the numerals indicate page numbers).

JablS — Rygiškių Jono, Lithuanian Syntax, Seinai, 1911 (the numbers indicate pages).

JD — Lithuanian songs recorded by Antanas Juškevičė, Казань, I — 1880, II — 1881, III — 1882 (the numbers indicate song numbers).

JnG — K. Jaunius, Grammar of the Lithuanian Language, Petrapilis, 1908 — 1916 (the numbers indicate pages).

Jnš — Joniškis.

Jrb — Jurbarkas.

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Jrk — Lithuanian Fairy Tales and Stories. Collected from the people and presented in various dialects, but chiefly in the Galbrast dialect, by C. Jurkschat, Pl. Printed on behalf of the Lithuanian Literary Society in Tilsit, 1898 (the numbers indicate pages).

JV — Lithuanian Wedding Songs, recorded by Antānas Juškēvičę and published by Jōnas Juškēvičę, Peropyle, 1883 (the numbers indicate song numbers).

Jž — Jūžintai, Rokiškis district.

K — Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language by Friedrich Kurschat, Part One: German–Lithuanian Dictionary, Halle, Vol. I — 1870, Vol. II — 1874 (the numbers indicate volumes and pages); Part Two: Lithuanian–German Dictionary, Halle, a. S, 1883 (indicated only by K).

Kal — Kalnãlis, Kretinga district.

gen. — genitive.

KL — Ledesma’s Catechism in the East Lithuanian translation, Kraków, 1890 (the numbers indicate pages).

KlpD — Songs of the Klaipėda people, collected by Jonas Pakanlškis. Published by A. Bruožis. Vilnius, 1908 (the numbers indicate song numbers).

KlvrZ — Žemaičių Kalvarija, Plungė district.

KoG — Grammar of the Samogitian Language, composed by X. Kalixtas Kossakawskis [...] Kalbrieda ležuvio žiamaytiszko, Vilnius [...], 1832 (the numbers indicate pages).

KorsRn — Kostas Korsakas, Selected Works, Vilnius, 1950 (the numbers indicate pages).

Kp — Kupiškis.

KrevAP — Vincas Krėvė, Stories and Legends, Vilnius, 1955 (the numerals indicate pages).

Krok — Krokialaukis, Alytus district.

Krt — Kartenà, Kretinga district.

Krtn — Kretingà.

Kš — Kaišiadõrys.

Ktk — Kuktiškės, Utena district.

Kv — Kvėdarna, Šilalė district.

lat. — Latvian.

LB — Lithuanian Folk Songs and Tales from Prussian and Russian Lithuania, collected by A. Leskien and K. Brugmann, Strassburg, 1882 (the numerals indicate pages).

LC — Lietuviška Ceitunga, published every Tuesday, Klaipėda (1877—1889) (the numerals indicate years and issue numbers).

lenk. — Polish.

lk. — literary language.

Lkm — Linkmenys, Švenčionys district.

Lkv — Laukuva, Rietavas district.

Ln — Lėnas, Anykščiai district.

Lrkv — Linkuva, Pakruojis district.

Lat. — Latin.

Lp — Leipalingis, Lazdijai district.

LT — Lithuanian Nation, writings of the Lithuanian Scientific Society, vols. I—V, Vilnius, 1907—1936 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

Lz — Laz(d)ėnai, Byelorussian SSR, Molodechno district, Jurotiškės district.

Lzd — Lazdijai.

LzPR — Lazdynų Pelėda, Writings, I—VII, Vilnius, 1954—1955 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

M — Lithuanian—Latvian—Polish—Russian Dictionary by M. Mieżinis, Tilsit, 1894.

MairRR I — Maironis, Selected Writings, I, Vilnius, 1956 (the numerals indicate pages).

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MarcinkDP — Just. Marcinkevičius, Twentieth Spring, Vilnius, 1956 (numerals indicate pages).

MiežBP — Eduardas Mieželaitis, Fraternal Poem, Vilnius, 1954 (numerals indicate pages).

MiežML — E. Mieželaitis, My Nightingale, Vilnius, 1956 (numerals indicate pages).

Myk-PutS I — V. Mykolaitis-Putinas, The Rebels, I, Vilnius, 1957 (numerals indicate pages).

Mit — Mitteilungen der Litauischen Litterarischen Gesellschaft, Vols. I—VI, Heidelberg, 1883—1912 (numerals indicate volumes and pages).

Mlt — Molėtai.

MontvRn — Vytautas Montvila, Selected Works, Vilnius, 1950 (numerals indicate pages).

mot. g. — feminine gender.

Moz — Books of Moses (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) (Bible).

MP — Postilla Lietuwiszka tatai est Ižguldimas prastas Ewangeliu ant kožnos Nedelios ir Szwentes per wisus metus, kurios pagal buda sena Bažnicžioy Diewa est skaitomos. Nu iš nauja su didžiu perweizdeghimu est išduota [...] Wilniuj per Jokubą Morkuną [...] Metuose [...] 1600 (numerals indicate pages).

MPs — Collection of folktales, manuscript. Received by K. Būga from J. Murka.

Mrp — Marijampolis, Vilnius district.

Mrs — Miroslavas, Alytus district.

Mž — Mažvydas, The Oldest Monuments of the Lithuanian Language up to the Year 1570 [...] Kaunas, 1922 (numerals indicate pages).

Mžk — Mažeikiai.

Nm — Kudirkos Naumiestis, Šakiai district.

Nmč — Nemenčinė.

NS — Lithuanian Songs and Hymns in Northeastern Lithuania, collected by A. R. Niemi and A. Sabaliauskas, Annales Academiae scientiarum Fennicae, Ser. B. Tom. VI (1911) (the number indicates the song number).

Ns — Accounts of the Spread of the Gospel among Jews and Pagans. (The first Lithuanian newspaper, published in Prussia from 1832 to 1914; the number indicates the years and issue numbers).

OG — Jan Otrębski, Wschodnio-litewskie narzecze twereckie, Cześć I, Gramatyka, Kraków, 1934 (the number indicates the pages).

PaukštAA — J. Paukštelis, The Storm Is Coming, Vilnius, 1956 (the number indicates the pages).

Pc — Pociūnėliai, Radviliškis district.

Pg — Pagiriai, Ramygala district.

PgrT — Pagramantis dialect, Kaunas, 1939 (the number indicates the pages).

Plm — Palomenė, Kaišiadorys district.

Pls — Pelesà, Byelorussian SSR, Grodno region, Rodūnė district.

Plš — Palūšė, Ignalina district.

Plt — Plateliai, Plungė district.

Pn — Panevėžys.

Pnd — Pandėlys, Rokiškis district.

PP — Sayings and Proverbs, Vilnius, 1958 (the number indicates the pages).

Pr. — Prussian language.

Prn — Prienai.

ps. — fairy tale.

Pš — Pašvitinys, Pakruojis district.

RD — Liudas Rėza’s Dainos, the first Lithuanian songbook, 3rd edition, parts I and II, Kaunas, 1935, 1937 (the numerals indicate the song number).

Rdm — Rudaminà, Lazdijai district.

Rgv — Raguvà, Panevėžys district.

5. Kalbotyros klausimai VI.

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Rm — Ramýgala.

Rod — Ródūnė, Byelorussian SSR, Grodno region.

Rsn — Rūsnė, Šilutė district.

Rt — Rietāvas.

rus. — Russian language.

SchG — Handbuch der litauischen Sprache von August Schleicher, I, Grammar, Prague, 1856 (the numerals indicate page numbers).

SD — Dictionarium trium linguarum, In usum Studiosae Iuventutis, Auctore R. P. Constantino Szyrwid [...] Quinta editio [...] Vilnae [...] MDCCXIII (the numerals indicate page numbers).

Sdk — Sudeikiai, Utena district.

Sg — Saugos, Šilutė district.

SimonR — I. Simonaitýtė, Raštai, I—VI, Vilnius, 1956—1958 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

SimonVK — Ieva Simonaitýtė, Vilius Karalius, I—II, Vilnius, 1956 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

s. ind. — Old Indian language.

Skd — Skuõdas.

Skdv — Skaudvilė.

Skp — Skāpiškis, Rokiškis district.

Slm — Salāmiestis, Kupiškis district.

Slnt — Salantai, Kretinga district.

Smn — Simnas, Alytus district.

SNėrP I — Salomėja Nėris, Poezija, I, Kaunas, 1946 (the numerals indicate pages).

SNėrR I — Salomėja Nėris, Raštai, I, Vilnius, 1957 (the numerals indicate pages).

Srj — Seirijai, Lazdijai district.

SruogD — Balys Sruoga, Dievė iš ežero, Vilnius, 1919 (the numerals indicate pages).

SruogDM — Balys Sruoga, Dievų miškas, Vilnius, 1960 (the numerals indicate pages).

SruogR III — B. Sruoga, Raštai, III, Vilnius, 1957 (the numerals indicate pages).

s. sl. — Old Slavonic language.

StanD — Dāynas Žemaycziu surinktas yr ysz’dutas par Symona Stanewicze [...] Wylniuje [...] 1829 (the numerals indicate the song number).

StanP — Simonas Stanevyčia, Paskėčios, Paruošė Jurgis Lebedys, Kaunas, 1948 (numerals indicate pages).

StngŽ — Lietuvių žvejų tarmė Prūsuose, Kaunas, 1933 (numerals indicate page).

Str — Strūnaitis, Švenčionių r.

Sv — Svėdasai, Anykščių r.

Šauk — Šaukėnai, Užvenčio r.

Šd — Šeduva, Radviliškio r.

ŠimkA — Jonas Šimkus, Apsakymai, Vilnius, 1953 (numerals indicate pages).

Škn — Šakyna, Šiaulių r.

Šl — Šiauliai.

Šln — Šiaulėnai, Radviliškio r.

Šlu — Šilutė.

Šts — Šatės, Skuodo r.

Švnč — Švenčionys and Švenčionėliai.

dial. — dialectal.

Trak — Trakai.

Trgn — Taurāgnai, Utenos r.

Tt — Týtuvėnai, Kelmė District.

Tvr — Tverėčius, Ignalina District.

Ukm — Ukmergė.

Up — Upyna, Skaudvilė District.

Ut — Utena.

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Užg — Užūguostis, Jieznas District.

Užp — Užpaliai, Utena District.

Užv — Užventis.

VaičiūnD — Petras Vaičiūnas, Dramas, Vilnius, 1956 (numerals indicate pages).

VaižgRR I — Vaižgantas, Selected Writings, I, Vilnius, 1957 (numerals indicate pages).

nom. — nominative.

Varn — Varėnai.

Vdk — Viduklė, Raseiniai District.

Vdžg — Vadži girys, Raseiniai District.

Vencl GD — A. Venclova, Gimimo diena, Vilnius, 1959 (numerals indicate pages).

VenclR — Antanas Venclova, Raštai, Three Volumes, Vilnius, 1955 (numerals indicate volumes and pages).

VenclTB — A. Venclova, Doves of Peace, Vilnius, 1952 (the number indicates the pages).

VienIMA — A. Vienuolis, From My Memoirs, Vilnius, 1957 (the number indicates the pages).

VienR — A. Vienuolis, Writings, 7 volumes, Vilnius, 1953—1955 (the numbers indicate the volumes and pages).

masc. g. — masculine gender.

Vj — Vajašiškis, Zarasai district.

Vlk — Valkininkai, Eišiškiai district.

Vlkj — Vilkija.

Vlkv — Vilkaviškis.

sg. — singular.

Ger. — German.

Vrn — Varėna.

Vrnv — Varėnavas (Balatna), Byelorussian SSR, Grodno district.

Vs — Veisiejai, Lazdijai district.

Všk — Vaškai, Pasvalys district.

Vvr — Veiviržėnai, Klaipėda district.

Zt — Zietela (Diatlovo), Byelorussian SSR, Grodno district.

Žal — Žalioji, Vilkaviškis District.

ŽemR — Žemaitė, Writings, Six Volumes, Vilnius, 1956—1957 (the numerals indicate volumes and pages).

Žsl — Žasliai, Kaišiadorys District.

PRONOUNS AND THEIR MEANINGS IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

А. ВАЛЯЦКЕНЕ

Abstract

1. In terms of meaning, pronouns in Lithuanian are divided into seven classes: 1) personal (aš, tu, jis, ji, mes, jūs, jie, jos, tāmsta), 2) reflexive (savęs), 3) possessive (mano, tavo, savo, mānas, -ā, tāvas, -ā, sāvas, -ā, manasis, -oji, tavasis, -oji, etc.; maniškis, -ė, taviškis, -ė, etc.), 4) demonstrative (tas, tā, šis, ši, šitas, -a, anas, -à, tóks, -ià, šioks, -ià, šitoks, -ia, anóks, -ia, tas pats, ta pati, pats tas, pati ta,

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toks, -ia pat), 5) interrogative-relative (kãs, kõks, -ià, kuris, -i, kẽtras, -à, kienõ, keli, -ios, kelintas, -à, kelerti, -ios), 6) indefinite: a) strictly indefinite (kãs, kõks, -ià, kažkãs, kažkõks, -ià, etc.), b) differentiative (kitas, -à, vienas, -à, etc.), c) generalizing: affirmative (visas, -à, kiekvienas, -à, etc.), negative (niekas, jõks, -ià, etc.); 7) determinative (pats, -i).

2. The personal pronouns ãs, mẽs, tù, jūs, jis, ji form a three-person system that expresses the basic elements of the speech act: the speaker, the addressee, and the person or thing being discussed. In Lithuanian, personal pronouns are not necessary for expressing person on verbs. The forms ãs, mẽs, tù, jūs usually refer to persons. In the historical period of the Lithuanian language under discussion, the pronoun jis, ji is used only as a personal pronoun, but is demonstrative in origin. For this reason, it refers not only to persons but also to things.

3. The newly formed pronoun támsta does not express new relations between persons in Lithuanian; it is a polite form of the second person. In polite address to a second person, the pronoun pats, -i, the adjective sveikas, -à, combinations of the noun sveikatà (without a specific material meaning) with pronouns—támstos sveikatà, jūsụ svei-katà—and the pronoun jūs in the sense of “you” (singular) are also used.

4. The reflexive pronoun savẽs has an ancient stem and has preserved its old meaning in Lithuanian, as in Latvian and the Slavic languages: it indicates the relation of each of the three persons to oneself. Possessive pronouns sãvo, sãvas, -à, which are based on the reflexive pronoun, can likewise indicate that an object belongs to any of the three persons serving in the sentence as the subject of an action or state.

5. The basic forms of possessive pronouns in modern Lithuanian are mãno, tãvo, sãvo. The old possessives mãnas, -à, tãvas, -à are on the verge of disappearing, while sãvas, -à is acquiring the new qualitative meaning of the adjective “one’s own, not someone else’s.” Pronominal forms such as manãsis, -õji, tavãsis, -õji, as well as newly formed pronouns with the suffix -iškis, -ė (maniškis, -ė, etc.), unlike other possessive pronouns, are used most often as nouns in the sense of so-called “close possession.”

6. The old demonstrative pronouns tàs, tà, šìs, šì, šìtas, -a, anàs, -à have preserved the old three-way system in Lithuanian: šìs, šì and šìtas, -a refer to the nearest familiar object, anàs, -à to the most distant, and tàs, tà to a familiar object at a greater or lesser distance from the speaker in space or time. The three-way system of demonstrative pronouns tóks, -ià, šiõks, -ià, šitoks, -ia, anóks, -ia in Lithuanian is breaking down in favor of the pronoun tóks, -ià.

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7. The pronouns tàs, tà, šìs, ši, šìtas, -a are used to point to a known object with emphatic stress, and also anaphorically, i.e., merely pointing to something mentioned earlier. Alongside their demonstrative meaning, the pronouns tàs, tà and tóks, -ià have acquired an emphatic function. The pronoun tàs, tà occurs as a subjective emphatic article, while the pronoun tóks, -ià emphasizes the object itself or one of its attributes, intensifying the degree to which it is manifested.

8. The pronoun ānas, āns, -à, in its third-person meaning in Lithuanian dialects, may have developed from the demonstrative pronoun anàs, -à in anaphoric use. The nominative forms ānas, -à, ānys, ānos, having acquired a third-person meaning, combined with oblique-case forms from jīs, jì to form a suppletive paradigm in the eastern Lithuanian dialects, as in modern Slavic languages, except for literary Bulgarian. Lithuanian ānas, āns, -à and Slavic онъ in the third-person meaning are probably a common yet independent phenomenon in both languages.

9. The meanings of the newly formed compound pronouns tas pàts, ta pati, toks pàt, tokia pàt vary between demonstrative and indefinite distinguishing meanings, depending on the meanings of the words from which they are formed. In one case, they point to a known object or attribute, emphasizing that this object or attribute is precisely that one and not another. In another case, they lack the definite element characteristic of demonstrative pronouns and indicate only the identity of the object or attribute.

10. Interrogative-relative pronouns have not become fully distinct in their functions. The pronouns kàs, kóks, -ià, kuris, -ì, katràs, -à and others, when used as conjunctional words, sometimes retain an interrogative function in addition to a connective one. The interrogative function is the more ancient. In sentences without interrogative intonation, interrogative-relative pronouns emphasize an object or an attribute.

11. All indefinite pronouns (these include not only kàs, kóks, -ià, kažkóks, -ià, etc., but also kitas, -à, vìsas, -à and others) are, in their general meaning, opposed to demonstratives: the latter point to known, definite objects or qualities, while the former point to indefinite ones. Some demonstrative pronouns, having lost their definiteness, are used as indefinites (tóks, -ià).

12. The lexical meanings of indefinite or demonstrative pronouns juxtaposed in a sentence (vìenas, -à... kitas, -à, vìenas, -à... āntras, etc.) relate to one another in such a way that, although these pronouns do not constitute a single lexeme, through their particular relationship in the sentence they acquire a new function, that is, they express the interrelation of objects or attributes.

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This occurs because pronouns have highly abstract meanings. Demonstrative pronouns used in pairs lose the element of definiteness, although in independent use these pronouns retain the function of definiteness.

13. The determiner pronoun pàts, -i in Lithuanian originated from a noun and differs from other pronouns in the nature of its meaning.