ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA

XLV (2001), 123–143

The Formation of the Surnames of Kaunas Burghers in the 16th–18th Centuries

Alma Ragauskaitė

Institute of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius

The article deals with the rise of surnames among the urban population of Lithuania in the 16th-18th centuries as exemplified by records from the city of Kaunas. Surnames were introduced at different times among different classes of the population. Among the urban elites (especially among the German-speaking Lutheran element), they are attested from the early 16th century onward, whereas the process of formation of surnames among the urban middle and lower classes was completed in the 17th century. Among the urban population as a whole, surnames were introduced later than among the gentry (here, surnames must have been used as early as the 15th century) but earlier than among the peasantry (where the process of their formation was not yet fully completed in the 18th century).

INTRODUCTION

Very little has so far been written about the formation of the surnames of Lithuanian townspeople. Zigmas Zinkevičius has studied the personal names (emerging surnames) of Vilnius residents. He analyzed in detail the anthroponyms in the marriage registers of Vilnius’s Church of St. John for 1602–1615 and the baptism registers for 1611–1616, but the nature of these sources allowed him to devote little attention to the problem of surname formation. The author observed that, for this purpose, it was necessary to study documents covering a longer period and recording at least several generations of people (Zinkevičius 1977: 65). Later, on the basis of a more detailed analysis of the entries, he suggests that at that time “surnames had probably already become established in the families of privileged people, who were concerned with their high origins and genealogy” (ibid.). Zinkevičius’s study thus shows that in early 17th-century Vilnius there was not yet a uniform, established, and obligatory system for identifying individuals.

The historian Z. Kiaupa, drawing on the designations of Šiauliai residents recorded in the 1662–1663 tax registers of the town of Šiauliai and in the 1636–1738 court book of the Šiauliai estate, sought to determine the distinctive features of surname formation there (Kiaupa 1991: 3–4).

Research into the formation of townspeople’s surnames remains relevant, since there are still no sufficiently detailed studies discussing the emergence and development of surnames among members of this estate.

The aim of this article is therefore to review the emergence and formation of hereditary personal names among the burghers of Kaunas in the 16th–18th centuries and to provide a more detailed analysis of trends in the emergence of surnames among people from various social strata within this estate.

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The anthroponymic material for the article was collected from 51 Kaunas city record books dating from the 16th–18th centuries. They include collections of court cases and protocols, as well as books recording magistrate meetings and deeds. A list of these documents is provided at the end of the article¹. From a chronological perspective, this is unique material for studying surname formation, since original books of the self-government institutions of other Lithuanian cities have survived only from the 17th century onward (Kiaupa 2000: 69). The sources were written in Polish, Latin, Old Belarusian, and, to a limited extent, German.

About 12,000 designations of Kaunas townspeople were excerpted from the aforementioned books² (the count includes not just different individuals, but all recorded instances of Kaunas residents—men and women). These designations vary. Given the specific nature of women’s designations (they are identified through their husband or father) and the aims of the article, the discussion below will rely mainly on designations of men.

During the period under discussion, they were most often recorded using two personal names, e.g.: Paulus Balzga (M₄ 507)³, Mathias Dondulis (M₄ 22); Mathia Gorki (S₂ 2), Augustinus Gradowski (S₂ 2); Jakuba Abramowicza (GEN; L₅ 129)⁴, Vincentemu Ambrozewiczowi (DAT; L₅ 77), and so on.

In addition to this most productive form of designation, other ways of recording Kaunas residents are also found. In the 16th–18th centuries, individuals were also identified by three personal names, e.g.: Walenthìn Jurgie-wicz Banilkojėtis (V₆ 18), Stanislaw Piotrowic Budnikowicz (V₇ 364); Jozeph Dominik Bartoljewicz (MS₆ 463), Augustinus Paulus Dowiata (MS₁₀ 306); Jerzego Michała Grommeka (GEN; A₁ 418), Jana Kazimierza Łukaszewicza (GEN; A₁₀ 421), Mathias Josephus Wieliczko (A₁ 17), etc.

In the 16th century and at the very beginning of the 17th century, some townspeople were identified descriptively, e.g.: Andrzej konwisarz kowienſki (V₆ 85), Grýgier doilida z miaſta kowienſkiego (V₇ 196), Petrelis piwowar pana Augustina Domeraw burmistrza kowienſkiego (V₅ 243), and the like.

It is noteworthy that the same individuals—both men and women—could be recorded differently in different deeds, e.g.: Jerzy Brandżaytis (V₉ 26) – Brandżaycia (GEN; V₉ 27) – Georgius Brandziun (S₁ 25); Macieia Gorkiego (GEN; S₃ 298) – Mathie Gurſki (S₃ 23) – Gorſkiego (GEN; S₃ 298); Jan Tomaszewicz Kiemieionis (MV 386) – Tomazewicz Kiemieionis (MV 185); Piotr Kazimierz Saurymowicz (S₃ 238) – Piotrowi Saurymowiczowi (DAT; S₃ 78); Magdalena olim Petri Steygwit civis caunen(sis) derelicta vidua (S₁ 188) – Magdalena Steygwitowa (S₂ 188), and so on.

It may be assumed that examining how the same individuals were recorded in different years and summarizing such varying designations makes it possible to draw certain conclusions about the presence or absence of an inherited personal name—a surname.

¹ Kauno miesto senojo archyvo knygų sąrašą sudarė Z. Kiaupa (1973: 125–137). Be ten nurodytų šaltinių, dar reikėtų paminėti ir 1542–1544 m. vaito knygą, surastą Lietuvos valstybės istorijos archyve (toliau – LVIA; F. 166. Ap. 2. D. 14) bei 1754–1759 m. lentvaičio teismo knygą (LVIA. F. SA. B. 19588). Dar viena 1636–1646 m. Kauno magistrato knyga yra saugoma Rusijos valstybės senųjų aktų archyve Maskvoje (F. 356. Ap. 1. B. 19588). Ja pasinaudoti nebuvo galimybės.

² Apie Kauno miestiečių antroponimų atrankos kriterijus dar žr. Ragauskaitė (1999: 146; 2000: 94).

³ Here and elsewhere, not all the data are presented, but only a portion of them.

⁴ The following abbreviations for case names occur frequently in the article: GEN – genitive, DAT – dative, INSTR – instrumental.

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1. SURNAMES OF LITHUANIAN RESIDENTS OF KAUNAS⁵

1.1. The sixteenth century

The overview of the transformation of personal names into surnames begins with the oldest records, that is, the magistrate’s book for 1522–1545 and the vogt’s books for 1542–1544, 1544, and 1545. These collections of records contain little direct information indicating the family relationships of Kaunas residents. Yet even these early, sparse examples make it possible to identify certain trends in the transformation of personal names into surnames. The emergence of a shared anthroponym among members of one family is evidenced by examples in which a husband and wife are recorded side by side, e.g.: 1522–1545 ⁶Joannij Popela _(M¹ 343), his wife—⁷ Dorothea Popyėlowa _(M¹ 343); 1522–1545 Petkowīčy, his wife—domi(n)a⁸ Caterina Petkowīčowa _(M¹ 292).

Even when the wife is identified by a personal name and some form of address indicating her dependence on her husband, one may consider this evidence of the beginnings of a shared anthroponym, e.g.: 1544 Миха́ко кова́ жену Миха́лкову _(V² 56); 1544 дом ѧна Каспорова и ѧна Якуба нищебожика вошта _(V² 141) – пани Якубовая воштомова _(V² 62), and so on.

Another case shows a father and son recorded next to each other with the same personal name, e.g.: 1568–1572 Stanislao Popiningis, his son – Mathaei Popiningis civis caunen(sis) _(M³ 58); 1583–1591 hon(estus) Bartholomeus Tylewicz pater germanus Alberti olim Tylewicz scabini caunen(sis) _(M⁴ 492).

It may be assumed that identical personal names borne by representatives of the same family can be called surnames (Maciejauskienė 1983: 127; 1987: 113; 1991: 50–51; Pakszys 1983: 110–120; Bubak 1986: 216–217).

A shared personal name is also observed in records of mothers and children, e.g.: 1583–1591 stawe(tnę) panią Anną Kotkunową a synem iey Andrżeyem Kotkunem ławnikem kowienſkim _(M⁴ 70); 1590 Pawel Stanislawowyç mieſçzanin kowienſki z matką ſwą Jadwigą Stanislawową _(V⁸ 237).

Other members of the same family are also recorded with a shared anthroponym, for example, brothers: 1589 Piotr Burbożentis mieſçanin kowienſki bratu Jakub Burbożentis _(V⁸ 157).

Without precise genealogical information, it is impossible to determine the kinship of the individuals in records such as this, e.g.: 1590 Jurÿ v Jan Kabaldiowie mieszczanie _(V⁸ 197). One can only speculate that they were probably members of one family – a father and son or brothers.

⁵ It is impossible to determine which of the individuals mentioned in this subsection were Lithuanian. This division into “Surnames of Lithuanian Residents of Kaunas” and “Surnames of Members of the Lutheran Community of Kaunas” was determined by the article’s aims and research into the ethnic composition of the townspeople’s community.

⁶ Here it is assumed that, in discussing the emergence of surnames among sixteenth-century residents of Kaunas, it is important to indicate as precisely as possible the dates of these earliest attestations, since this would help establish the chronology of surname formation among the urban estate. In addition, where the chronological order of the source’s folios is highly confused, only the approximate chronological limits given in the description are provided.

⁷ All personal names are documented with citations. For each, the document abbreviation and, after a comma, the folio (or page) number are given in parentheses. In presenting anthroponyms, an effort is made to preserve the authentic forms recorded in the sources. For simplicity, Cyrillic script is rendered in modern characters, and several other old character variants have also been replaced.

⁸ This follows the view of K. Lepszy, A. Wolff, and L. Glemža that abbreviations recorded in documents of self-government institutions should be expanded. The expansion is given in parentheses (Instrukcja 1953: 30; Wolff 1957: 155–181; Glemža 2000: 211–214).

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The formation of surnames is also evidenced by two shared personal names for husband and wife, e.g.: 1554 uczcżywa Orbułya Pyotrowna Szymonowa Peckowska mieszczanka kowenska małzonka swe(go) Simona Peczkowjskiego (GEN; V₄ 226); 1555 providus Joannes Porffelis civis caunen(sis) (V₄ 345), his wife—1565 Katrina Janowa Porfeljowa (V₆ 117); 1554 niebołczyka Szymona Synthokopia (V₄ 285), his wife—1554 Anny Szymonowey Śyntokopijowey (DAT; V₄ 285); 1565 utchciwa Marta Janowna Kozielczykowna Pawlowa Puhaczowa małzonka swego pawła (V₆ 119), her husband—1555–1564 f(ama-tus) d(ominus) Pauli Puhacz consular caunen(sis) (M₂ 86).

The examples show that inherited personal names occur in records concerning the city elite—councillors, burgomasters, vogts, and their wives and children.

There are quite a number of cases in which an unattested inherited anthroponym was recorded. However, such records should be assessed cautiously, since they may seem to indicate that some Kaunas residents still had no surnames in this century. In discussing the naming of Kaunas townspeople, it was already noted that the same individuals could be recorded in different ways. It emerged that they were sometimes recorded with an inherited personal name and sometimes without one, e.g.: 1522–1545 Joannij Popela relicta uxori Dorothe (M₁ 342)—Dorothe Popyelowa (M₁ 343); 1544 Miłaiko kobał żony Michalkowy (V₂ 56)—his wife Ядвига (V₂ 56); 1522–1545 Petkowyč, his wife—domi(n)a Caterina Petkowyczowa – Caterina martella fup area jacentem in longa platea penes muratam domum (M₁ 364)—1522–1545 Jeorgius Petkowyč cum sua uxore Caterina (M₁ 293), and so on. This suggests that inherited anthroponyms belonging to some individuals may simply have gone unrecorded. However, some Kaunas residents apparently still had no surnames during this period. The variety in the ways husbands and wives were recorded confirms this. Often they do not share a personal name, e.g.: 1522–1545 d(ominus) Joanes Gradowjky tutor legittimy Katherine uxoris sue et tanq(am) plenipotens (M₁ 141); 1522–1545 domi(n)a Barbara olim domi(ni) Stanislai Gradowjki relicta vidua (M₁ 298); 1553 Helżbietha małzonka Lawryna Budnikowicza (V₄ 282); 1590 uczcżywy Andrzej Iwanowicz mieszczanin kowienki a małzonka jego Magdalena (V₈ 189); 1582 providus Andreas Kiermelis civis caunen(sis) et Anna Quałselnikowna coniuges (V₇ 369); 1580 Iendrzjeiem Janowiczem Kumelewiczjem y żoną jego Hanna Piotrowną Kwasielnikowną mieszczany (V₇ 95); 1568–1572 honesta Helena olim Ignaty Opanałbowicz civis caunen(sis) relicta vidua (M₃ 85); 1555–1564 honesta d(omina) Clara Georgy Pyeczuga vidua relicta (M₂ 52); 1583–1591 Bartłomieiem Plaukocziem y żoną jego Helżbiethą córką Stanisława Skiera mieszczanina kowenskiego (M₄ 382); 1566 uthcziwa pani Anna niekiedy Marciną Słieniunika mieszczanina kowienkiego wdowa (V₆ 144); 1562–1564 honesta d(omi)na Barbara olim Matia Tataryjkyj civis cawnen(sis) vidua relicta (V₅ 151); 1568–1572 Catherina olim Jacobi Winksznakis relicta vidua (M₃ 64); 1580 honesta Hedwiga olim Mathyj Zamjnik vidua relicta civis cawnen(sis) (V₇ 84); 1562–1564 honesta Agneta olim Stanisłai Zorawjki civis caunen(sis) vidua (V₅ 251).

A shared personal name is absent from records naming parents and children, e.g.: 1522–1545 Stanislai Gradowjki et Stanislai fili sui (M₁ 298); 1522–1545 Sebestianu(s) Lowyč tutor consortis sue Anne et alioru(m) pueroru(m) (M₁ 292), and so on.

This claim is also borne out by the variant forms of fathers’ and sons’ personal names: 1583–1591 hon(estus) Caspar Baniskaitis filius olim Valentini Baniskis civis caunen(sis) (M₄ 309);

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1555–1564 Georgij Burnanis fily Jana Burna (M₂ 69). The sons are named here by their given names and patronymics formed from their father’s second personal name. Thus, the children and their father do not yet have a single, established and unchanging anthroponym.

This is also evident in cases such as these: 1590 Staniflaw Bocz[kielis mie[czanin kowien[ki [yna [wego Pawla _V⁸ 207); 1583 hone[tu[Sebestianus olim hone[ti Pauli Jakubowicz civis caunen(sis) filius _V⁷ 323).

A shared anthroponym is also absent from the records naming other members of the same family, for example a brother and sister, e.g.: 1561 slawethny pan Macziey Eÿthwÿlowicz ławnik kowien(ski) czinÿl opowÿadanye na panÿą Elzbiethe fio[tre swą _V⁵ 10); 1581 ho(nes-ta) Helizabeth Pawlowna Puhaczowna mie[czanka Cowien[ka bratu memu Zÿgmunto-wi _V⁷ 140).

It is difficult to say whether these individuals still lacked an inherited personal name or whether it was simply not recorded because naming practices had not yet become established, or for other reasons.

However, it can be argued that in the first half of the 16th century, representatives of the lower strata of the burgher estate most often still had no surnames. They were usually identified descriptively, e.g.: 1545 Stanijlaw piwowar Kotkunowey _V³ 164); 1545 Mał-gorząte szynkarkę _V³ 77); 1545 Petras furmanos _V³ 53); 1564 Jan miecznik mie[czanin kowien(ski) _V⁸); 1545 Jan Stÿrnÿk [...] mÿe[czanie kowien[s[czy _V³ 43); 1551 Pÿotr słuzebnik pana Barthłomieia Biłoffa _V⁴ 365); 1581 Tomas parobek Kaielowei _V⁷ 195); 1555 Bochdan piwowar Bartholomeya Rhawa _V⁴ 348).

From what has been said, the following conclusions can be drawn about the formation of surnames among Kaunas residents in the 16th century: 1) already in the first half of the 16th century, some Kaunas residents belonging to the city elite—councillors, vogts, burgomasters, and the like—had surnames; 2) in the second half of the century, the number of members of the middle and lower strata of the burgher estate who had a single, inherited anthroponym gradually increased; 3) hired workers and servants living in the city were often identified descriptively, that is, most often they still had no surnames.

1. 2. The 17th century

The 17th century was a very important period in the formation of townspeople’s surnames. Entries in the sources examined show how the surnames of members of Kaunas’s local community elite and middle strata continued to develop and become established. There is sufficient evidence showing the emergence of surnames among inhabitants of the lowest social status.

Indeed, certain members of the lower strata of the townspeople’s estate were still recorded without a surname in documents from the very beginning of the 17th century, for example: uczciwy Symon Czapecżnik [...] na Walentego piwowara swego _V⁹ 219); sługa mieyski burmistrzowski na imie Maciul (VSM 88). In most cases, however, 17th-century records attest that Kaunas residents had a common hereditary personal name. It is borne by parents and children recorded together, for example: famat(us) Georgiy Brizgis, his daughter – Magdalena Brizgiowna _MS¹ 195); Reginie Burnijzkownie corce i synowi Jerzemu Burnijzkowi, their father – Jerzy Burnijzko rayca miasta Kowna _S³ 197); famatus Chriſtophorus Gniauzewicz (S₃ 120), his daughter – Catherina Gniauzewiczowna (S₃ 120); Stanisława Kieły father of Marcina and Katarzyny Kiełowney (GEN; M₅ 80); Jozефha i Jerzego Łukaſzewiczow synow, their father – Janem Łukaſzewiczem (GEN; MS₁

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132); Jacobum Margužys, his daughter – Gertrudim Margužewna (M₅ 269); hon(estus) Simon Rawa civis caunen(sis) [...] Andree Rawa et Elisabeth Rawiaṅka fratris (S₁ 779); Gaspar Dowiata scabini caunen(sis) filium suum Casimirum Dowiata brata iego modszego Augustina Dowiaty (S₃ 295); famatus Augustinus Paulus Dowiata civis caunen(sis), his mother – famata Catherina Michałowiczowna Dowiatowa (S₃ 306); Jan Masiewicz poddany miejski imieniem swym y matki swei Potony Mas i owei (VSM 244); Katharzyny Mickowny Ambroziewowey Mifselewiczowey matki p(ana) Walentyna Mifselewicza (GEN; MS, 248).

During this period, many more shared anthroponyms of husbands and wives were recorded than in the 16th century. Most often, spouses had one shared personal name each, for example: Bartholomeus Baykow[k]i y Krystyna Janowiczowna Baykow[k]a małzonkowie (S₃ 403); sławetnym panu Stanisławowi Baltromiejewiczowi y paniey Katarzynie Kozielczykowne Baltromiejewiczowey małzonkom miejczanom kowien[k]im (DAT; S₃ 22); Woyciech Ba-ranowicz miejczanin kowien[k]i cechu tkackiego y Ewa Raczkiewiczowna Baranowiczowa małzonkowie (S₃ 153); uczciwego Jerzego Brandzaycia y niegdy Anny Brandzaycio-wey małzonkow y mieszczan (GEN; MV 137); famatus d(ominus) Gregorius Daglewicz civis et sutor caunen(sis), his wife – famata Catherina Kilputayciowna Daglewiczowa (S₃ 471); famatus d(ominus) Petro Daugialo civis caun(ensis), his wife – d(omina) Elizabetha Gladyszowna (S₃ 524); sławetnego pana Jana Dembkow[k]iego miej[cz]anina y kupca kowien[k]iego małzonki onego paniey Magdaleny Juriewiczowney Dembkow[k]iey (GEN; S₃ 12); honorat(us) d(omi)nus Christophori Dombrowski scabi-nus caunen(sis) et d(omi)na Dorothea Kasnerowna Dombrowska coniugibus (MS₁ 458); spectabilis d(ominus) Augustinus Paulus Dowiato consulari caunen(sis) et d(omi)na Elisabetha Baniewiczowna Dawiatowa coniugibus (MS₁ 197); Lukaſ Gierdziewicz bur-mijtrz miaſta kowień(skiego) małzonki moiey Elzbiety Ambroziewny Gierdziewiczowey (S₃ 365); Tomaſza Gierwaycia y Elzbiety Rufteykowny Gierwayciowey (GEN; S₃ 546); d(omina) Dorothea Mackiewiczowna Gradowſka spectabilis domini Stanislai Gradow-ski olim consulis cauenensis vidua (S₃ 344); famati Mathias Jakimowicz faber et Agnes Zagiewiczowna Jachimowiczowa coniuges (S₃ 259); Jan Juriewicz i Elzbieta Zyplanka Juriewiczowa małzonkowie miejczanie kowieńcy (S₃ 50); with Mrs Jagnieſ[k]ą Kaspro-wą małzonką pana Kaspra Gruminaicia mieszczanina kowieńskiego (V₉ 252); famata d(omina) Elisabetha Rumfeltowna Kozakiewiczowa domini Marcin Kozakiewicz incola caunen(sis) (S₃ 466); to Mr Andrzeiu Łukaszewiczu burmistrzu z pierwszą małzonką swoją panią Magdaleną Raczkiewiczowną Łukaszewiczową (MS₁ 108); to Mr Jakubowi Marcinkiewiczowi and his wife, Mrs Krystynie Jankiewiczownie Marcinkiewiczowey miej[cz]anom kowieńskim (DAT; MS₁ 439); d(omi)nus Chriſtofor Matulewicz textor cau-nen(sis), his wife – famata d(omi)na Elizabetha Czarnaw[k]a Matulewiczowa (S₃ 573); sławetnemu panu Janowi Milew[k]iemu y Jadwidze Tomaſzewiczownie Milewskiey małzonkom miejczanom (DAT; S₃ 248); pani Katharzyny Mijukiewiczowey [...] nieboſzczyk pan Stephan Mijukiewicz ławnik kowieński (MS₁ 386); fam(atus) Valentinus Mifsele-wicz civis caun(ensis), his wife – honeſta Anna Mijsokayciowna Mifselewiczowa (MS₁ 285); famatus d(omi)nus Stanislaus Naumowicz civis negotiatoris caunen(sis), his wife – Domina Marianna Naumowiczowa (MS₁ 286); to Mr Ambrozjowi Pawłowiczowi tkaczowi y miej[cz]aninowi kowieńskiemu małżonce paniey Zophii Bartłomiejowney

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Pawłowiczowa (Dat; S₁ 682); the respected lord Simon Rymkiewicz, resident of Kaunas, his wife—the respected Elizabetha Degordinowna Rymkiewiczowa (MS₁ 345); the respected lord Andreas Romanowski, citizen and merchant of Kaunas, and the respected lady Catherina Dowiatowna Romanow/ka (S₃ 309); to Mr Piotr Saulewicz, mayor of Kaunas, and his wife Mrs Zofia Saulewiczowa (Dat; S₃ 111); Lord Petrus Władijlaus Steczka Surwil, citizen and merchant [...] and Lady Anna Dwilewiczowna Surwilowa, his consort (MS₁ 199); the respected Albertus Wyjuk and Sophia Domeykowna Wijiukowa, residents of Kaunas (S₃ 406); the respected Adamus Wisztoklis, weaver of Kaunas, his wife—the respected Magdalena Andrzeiowna Wiztoklowa (S₃ 429), and others.

Frequent, too, are designations of spouses in which two shared personal names are recorded, for example: Piotr Dawgiało, Kaunas councillor [...] Mrs Magdalena Wierzbicka, Piotrowey Dawgialiney councillor (MS₁ 287); Jana Eufłachego Koiałowicza, citizen of Kaunas, and Anna Kołotowska, Janowa Koiałowiczowa spouses (Gen; S₃ 277); Andrzey Łosinski, citizen and shoemaker of Kaunas, and Justina Stegwiłowna, Andrzeiowa Łosinska (MS₁ 338); Mr Jerzy Ludwikowicz with his wife Jagnieszka Gradowszczanka, formerly Andrzeiowa Kotkunowa and now Jurgiowa Ludwikowiczowa (M₅ 90); to the worthy Jan Punkłiemu, citizen of Kaunas, and Mrs Magdalena Janowiczowna, Janowey Punkłiey, spouses and citizens of Kaunas (Dat; S₃ 440); to Mr Macieiu Rażowski, councillor of Kaunas, and Mrs Zophiey Walentynowna, Macieiowey Rażowskiey spouses (Dat; MS₁ 338); Andrieiowi Staniulewiczowi, citizen of Kaunas, and his wife Mrs Regina, Andrzeiowey Staniulewiczowey (Dat; S₃ 97); Jan Sokołowski and Katharzyna Jucewiczowna, Janowa Sokołowska spouses, citizens of the city of Kaunas (MS₁ 267), and others.

The presence of a personal name shared by spouses is evidenced by examples that give the personal names acquired by women after one or two marriages, for example: the worthy lady Jadwiga Piotraszkowna, formerly Zygmuntowa Puhaczowa (VSM 503); the worthy lady Dorota Casprowna, formerly Mikołaiowa Braidziowa and now Abrahamowa Laudanska (VSM 449); Mrs Marianna Wolenfewiczowna, of her first marriage Wenckiewiczowa and of her second marriage Winogrocka, now the mayor’s wife [...] of Mr Paweł Kazimierz Winogrocki [...] mayor of the city of Kaunas (MS₁ 263).

Identical anthroponyms (perhaps surnames) also occur in designations of other family members, for example brothers and sisters: the respected Lord Andreas Berezyn, citizen and merchant of Kaunas, to Mr Henrych Berezyn, my own brother (MS₁ 6); Andrzeia and Jerzego Bielawskich, brothers (Gen; MS₁ 278); Caſimirum Dowiata, his younger brother Augustinus Dowiata (S₃ 295); the worthy Lawryn and Stanisław Lancunowiczowie, born brothers (MV 409); Jan Rawa and his brother Bartłomiej Rawa (M₅ 174); the worthy Błażej Wetai-kowicz, citizen of Kaunas, with his brother Maciej Wetaikowicz (VSM 87); the honest Joannes Maniuk and Catherina Maniukowna, his sister (S₁ 579).

Members of one family or kin group apparently also share a personal name in cases such as these: the worthy Grygier and Stefan Dwilowiczowie, townsmen (VSM 79); the respected Joannes and Laurentius Koiałłowiczowie (S₁ 416); Michał and Andrzej Raczkiewicz, townsmen (Gen; MS₁ 109).

Seventeenth-century sources contain numerous records of husbands and wives for which it is unclear whether they lack shared anthroponyms or whether these were simply not written down, for example: Mrs Alžbieta

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Pieczużanka, widow of the late Maciej Balicki, councillor of Kaunas (MV 368); the honest Dorothea Wojciechowna, wife of Valentini Biwilewicz, weaver (S₁ 517); Lady Eva Niejciukowna, widow left by the late respected Francijcki Bonifzko, alderman of Kaunas (S₂ 41); the honest Mathia Burba, citizen and merchant of Kaunas, his wife Barbara Stacziukowna (S₂ 18); the honest Zophia Bledziewfczanka, surviving wife of Alberti Dembkowski, citizen of Kaunas (S₂ 235); the respected Lord Adamus Dominikiewicz, councillor of Kaunas, his wife Urfula Gradowfzczanka (S₂ 88); Anna Sramowna, widow left by Pauli Gradowski (S₁ 280); Mr Jan Gradowski, mayor of Kaunas, with his wife Barbara Juriowney Pieczugowny (M₁ 100); to Symon Gulbinowicz and Mrs Anna Leynartowiczowna, his wife, townspeople of Kaunas (DAT; S₂ 228); the honest Elizabet Eggiertowna, wife of Jacobi Jaug iell, citizen of Kaunas (S₁ 731); the worthy Wojciech Jodźiewicz, citizen of Kaunas, and with his wife, Mrs Barbara Pieczugowna (VSM 129); the honest Elisabetha Kotkunowna, widow of the late honest Joannis Jodźis, citizen of Kaunas (S₁ 111); the worthy Zofia Pawłowna, surviving widow of the late Maciej Kaleciun, citizen of Kaunas (MV 240); the honest Barbara Gradowfzczanka, widow left by the late Stanijław Kieloc, citizen of Kaunas (S₁ 807); Lady Elizabetha Antoniowna, widow left by Valentini Krżczonowicz, alderman (S₂ 142); to the worthy Piotr Ławynowicz, brickmaker of Kaunas, and his wife Ewa Stephanowna (DAT; S₂ 244); to the worthy Ambroziej Lenartowicz and Anna Mikołajowna, spouses and townspeople (DAT; MV 170); the worthy Mr Bernat Maciejewicz, citizen of Kaunas, with his wife Zofia Gradowsczanka (VSM 391); Mrs Anna Worlowszczanka, surviving wife of the late Mr Jan Maciejowicz, mayor of Kaunas (MV 417); Lady Anna Krżczonowiczowna, widow left by the late honored Stephani Miju kiewicz, alderman of Kaunas (MS₁ 452); to Gerżemu Piotrowicz and his wife Dorota Słubellowiczowa, townspeople (DAT; S₂ 52); Jerzy Romanowicz, merchant and citizen of Kaunas, with his wife Anna Korsakowna (S₁ 285); the honest Nicolai Rudzianski, citizen of Kaunas, his wife Elizabet ha Mikołaiowna (S₂ 88); Lady Helena Kuberszczanka, widow left by Christophori Sebestianowicz, citizen of Kaunas (MS₁ 310); the worthy Jan Słuszkiewicz and Mrs Jadwiga Kiermellowna, spouses and townspeople (MV 190); the respected Thomas Szymanowicz, citizen of Kaunas, and Magdalena Słubelowna, spouses (S₃ 256); the honest Urſula Jakubowna, widow left by Georgy Piotrowicz Szymtokapis, citizen of Kaunas (S₂ 165); the honest Urſula Bonifzkowna, widow left by Bartholomei Wakařynaýtis, citizen of Kaunas (S₂ 41); to the worthy Mr Błażej Wętkowicz, citizen and merchant of Kaunas, and Mrs Anna Biotacyiowie, spouses (DAT; VSM 184); the honest Catharina Wakarynaiciowna, lawful wife of the honest Petri Wilhel m, citizen of Kaunas (S₂ 41); Heleny Ciżowny and Łukaſza Wizbołowicza, townspeople (GEN; VSM 287), and others.

The examples given by no means show that hereditary personal names did not in fact exist. In some cases, scribes may simply have omitted surnames. This claim is confirmed by the fact that sometimes the same people are recorded in different ways—with and without a common personal name: the worthy Jan Koia łłowicz, burgher and merchant of Kaunas, his wife, Mrs Brygitta Beynartowna Janowa Koiałłowiczowa (MV 363) – the worthy Joan Koiałłowicz and honorable Brigitta Beynartowna, spouses, burghers (S₁ 362); the honorable Mrs Jadwiga Piotraszkowna, formerly Zygmuntowa Puhaczowa (VSM 503) – the worthy lord Sigis-

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mundus Puhacz civis caunen(sis), his wife – Hedwigi Piotraszkowney (S₁ 94); Zofia Zochowska Plaukociowa wife of Mr Grygier Piotrowicz Plaukoc, burgher and merchant of Kaunas (VSM 194) – Mr Grygier Plaukoc, burgher of Kaunas, and Mrs Zofia Zochowska, spouses (VSM 193); Mr Jerzy Pozera, burgher of Kaunas, and his wife, Mrs Barbara Pozerowa (GEN; MV 385) – honest(us) Georgy Pozera et Barbara Jurgiowna coniugum (S₂ 157); honest Katarzyna Wilhelmo-wa, widow of the late Piotr Wilhelm, formerly a burgher of Kaunas (MV 382) – hon(esta) Catharina Wakarynaiciowna honesti Petri Wilhelm civis caunen(sis) legitti-ma coniunx (S₂ 41) and so on.

Sometimes the same spouses are recorded with one shared personal name in one document and with two in another, for example: famatus Bartholomeus Ambrozieiunas refitio-nis caunen(sis) et Hedwigs Kupciowna Ambrozieiunowa coniugibus (MS₁ 106) – to Mr Bałtromieiowi Ambrozieiunas, a linen-weaver, and Jadwiga Kupciowna Bałtromieiowey Ambrozie-iunowey, spouses (DAT; MS₁ 106); honest(us) Martin Dackiewicz textor incola caun(ensis) et eius consorti Hedwigi Jusitowna Dackiewiczowa coniugibus (MS₁ 310) – to Mr Marcinowi Dackiewiczowi, a weaver, and his wife, Mrs Jadwiga Jusitownie Marcinowey Dackiewiczowey, spouses (DAT; MS₁ 311); Macieiu Razowski, councillor of Kaunas, and Mrs Zophiey Walentinowney Macieiowskiey (DAT; MS₁ 338) – spectabilis domini Mathias Razowski consularis caun(ensis) et eius consorte d(omi-na) Anna Walentynowna Razowjka (S₃ 210); spectabilem d(omi)n(um) Stanislaum Benedictum Surwil secretarium consularem caunensem et consortem eius [...] Elisabetham Razawszczankam Surwiłowam consularisem coniuges (MS₁ 273) – Mr Stanisław Benedict Surwił and Elżbieta Razowszczanka Stanisławowa Surwiłowa, spouses (MS₁ 141); spectabilis d(omi)ni Simonis Stegwil consularis caunensis cum [...] domina Sophia Rozowszczanka Stegwilowa (MS₁ 87) – to Symonie Stegwile, councillor of Kaunas, and Mrs Zophiey Razowszczance Symonowey Stegwilowey, spouses (MS₁ 338); Stanisław Wierzbicki et Elizabet Usowjka Wierzbicka coniuges (S₃ 335) – Stanisław Wierzbicki, councillor of Kaunas, and Elzbieta Usowjka Stanisławowa Wierzbicka, spouses, burghers of Kaunas (S₃ 336). Most examples of this kind occur in the 1662–1673 bench court books and the 1683–1773 and 1686–1776 magistrate and bench court books. The collections of court cases from these courts indicate that essentially all burghers already had surnames.

In the early seventeenth century, the forms of fathers’ and children’s surnames still varied, for example: uczciwy Andrzej Boniszkowicz the son of the late Fransyska Boniszko, burgher and bench court juror of Kaunas (MV 228); honest Matyasj Jodjewicz the son of the late Jana Jodzia, burgher of Kaunas (MV 120); hon(estus) Andreas Koiata fily sui Laurenty Koiatowicz civis caunen(sis) (S₁ 267).

It is difficult to say whether the son did not have a surname or whether it was simply left unrecorded in such cases, for example: Pawła Janowicza Plikożencia and his son Łukasza Pawłowicza (VSM 34); honest Jan Stanisławowicz, son of the late Stanisław Mikołaiewicz, a coppersmith, and Alżbieta Stanisławowa, burghers of Kaunas (MV 313); hon(estus) Joan Sczepanowicz ławnik, his son – Andreas Janowicz (M₅ 261). Such variations in the recording of fathers’ and children’s names are observed from the beginning of the seventeenth century.

The names of Kaunas residents in the seventeenth century attest to the particularly intensive formation of burghers’ surnames: 1) in the first half of this period, the number of surnames among members of the middle and lower strata of the burgher estate gradually increases;

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2) entries in the 1662–1673 bench court books and the 1683–1773 and 1686–1773 magistrate and bench court books show that virtually all burghers already had surnames; 3) surname formation had not yet been completed in the seventeenth century; 4) the inconsistent forms of recording make it difficult to assess the status of surnames in the process of formation. This latter feature prevents the final period of surname formation from being determined with great precision. In different documents, the same person’s surname may be recorded differently: altered in some way, distorted, given different derivational formants, and may also be Polonized, Germanized, and so on.

1. 3. The eighteenth century

The eighteenth-century court cases make it entirely clear that all burghers had surnames. This is especially evident where spouses are recorded side by side, for example: Piotr Apolinski, tailor, and Roza Szukiewiczowna Apolinska, spouses (Ał₂ 26); d(omi)nus Paulus Danilewicz consularis caunen(sis) et d(omi)na Catharina de Datowscys Danilewiczowa consularisa (Ał₄ 68); to Mr Michał Datowski, juror of the city of Kaunas, and Mrs Anna Datowska, spouses (DAT; Ał₁ 348); honorati domini Simonis Dobrzyałowski scabini caunensi, his wife – domina Agnetis Dobrzyałowska (Ał₁ 57); famata Elisabetha Gurska fam(atus) d(ominus) Joannis Gurski civis caunen(sis) derelicta vidua (MS, 388); to the honest Piotr Harmatowicz, husband, and Agnieszcie Charmatowiczowey, wife, master of the weavers’ guild (DAT; L₅ 71); famatus Stephanus Jasulewicz, his wife – Catharina Barbara Jasulewiczowa (Ał₁ 214); to the honest Szymon and Maryanna Palczewski, carters of Kaunas (DAT; L₄ 76); with the honored Kazimierz and Anna Paschalski, surgeons (INSTR; Ał₁₁ 48); the honest Jakub and Magdalena Pietruszewscy, masters of the carpenters’ guild (L₁₁ 188); Michał and Anna Piotrowscy, spouses, masters of the shoemakers’ craft (Ał₇ 191); to Jan and Maryanna Rozewki, married burghers (DAT; L₁₁ 74); the honest Jakub and Marianna Rozmyfławowiczowie, masters of the Brotherhood of Angels (L₁₀ 135); the honest Michał and Barbara Rudzianscy, carpenters of Kaunas (L₁₁ 147); Maciej and Magdalena Rudzianscy, spouses, tanners of Kaunas (GEN; SV₁ 89); Marcin and Klara Sinkiewicz [...] of the carpentry trade (L₄ 33); Mr Adam Stanisław Skuderowicz, mayor of Kaunas, and Mrs Sawlulewiczownę Skuderowiczową (Ał₁ 145); d(omi)na Elisabeth Razowska Surwitowa spectabilis olim d(omi)ni Stanislai Surwił consularis caunensis vidua (Ał₂ 54); Jozef and Marianna Stankiewiczowie, masters of the tailoring craft (L₇ 15); Jan and Marianna Szarlota Steffanowiczowie, masters of the tanning craft (Ał₁₀ 200); with the honest Maciej and Roza Swifcy, spouses of the blacksmithing trade (L₆ 126); to Antoni and Anna Szabanowski, masters of the weaving craft, spouses (DAT; Ał₉ 650); Antoni and Elzbieta Szyleykowie, married carters (L₈ 60); Franciszek and Katarzyna Szynkiewiczowie, spouses (L₇ 33); Jan and Katarzyna Szyrami, burghers of Kaunas, spouses (INSTR; Ał₉ 404); the honest Jozef and Teresa Szyrmowie, spouses, masters of the carpentry craft (L₇ 53); to Maciej and Krystyna Szotkowski, pastry cooks of Kaunas (DAT; Ał₉ 121); Dawid and Krystyna Tyl, masters of the blacksmithing craft (INSTR; Ał₁₀ 22); Jerz and Katarzyna Tyminscy, masters of the carpentry craft (L₇ 37); to Jozef and Rozalia Tyszkóm, spouses of the city of Kaunas (DAT; Ał₇ 379); Paweł and Maryanna Tołoczkowie, masters of the carpentry craft

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(L₆ 78); to Jan and Katarzyna Urbański, townspeople (DAT; B₂ 23); to the honest Antoni and Teresa Wroblewski, coachmen of Kaunas (DAT; L₁₁ 201); to the gentlemen Kazimierz and Maryanna Zahor[ki], councillors of the city of Kowna (GEN; L₁₀ 117); the honest Teodor and Katarzyna Zdanowicz, spouses (L₁₁ 200); to Michał and Anna Zołądkiewicz, master craftsmen of the shoemaking trade (DAT; A₁₉ 389), etc.

When spouses are named, it is often additionally indicated which family or kin group the wife came from, e.g.: to the honest Wilhelm and Szarlo cie Radkow Matuciom, spouses and master craftsmen of the tanning trade (DAT; A₁ 668); of Antoni and Katarzyna Narocki, née Kuleszow [...] councillors of the city of Kowna (GEN; A₁₇ 25); to Bazylemu and Rozaly Palijewski, née Bartoszewiczow, citizens (DAT; A₁₀ 437); Franciszek and Anna Pietraszewicz, citizens of the city of Kowna (A₁₇ 364); of Jozef and Katarzyna Pilecki, née Wilczynskich, spouses and citizens of the city of Kowna (GEN; A₁₉ 1); of Michał and Anna Piotrowski, née Jucewiczow, master craftsmen of the shoemakers' guild (GEN; L₈ 45); the honoured lord Joannes Chrysophorus Plew, alderman of Kaunas, whose wife was – the honoured lady Anna de Plekały Plewowa (A₁ 130); to the gentlemen Maciej and Terefe Pozerski, née Pacewiczow, scribes of the Kaunas magistrate (DAT; A₁₁ 295); Jan and Anna Poziemski, née Dzienkowskich (A₁₉ 771); to the honest Jakub and Maryanna Rozmystowicz, née Oppowskich, coachmen of Kaunas (DAT; A₁₇ 277); to Jan and Anna Sielicki, née Szatynskich, Kaunas townspeople and spouses (DAT; A₁₇ 40); Jan and Elzbieta Sinkiewicz, née Runcewiczow, spouses and master craftsmen of the Kaunas trade (L₆ 68); to Michał and Konstancyi Skaczkowski, née Szyleykow, townspeople (DAT; A₁₈ 616); of Jozef and Magdalena Staszynskich, née Orłowskich, master craftsmen (GEN; A₁₉ 26); Bartłomiey and Barbara Steffanowicowie, née Moze ykow, townspeople of Kowna and spouses (A₁₇ 437); of Antoni and Anna Szabanowskich, née Cimazewskich, master craftsmen of the weaving trade and spouses (GEN; A₁₁ 5); Mikołay and Magdalenna Szatkiewiczowie, née Urbanowiczow, citizens of the city of Kowna (A₁₉ 207); Wawrzyniec and Terejsa Taramowiczowie, née Wroblew[kich], spouses and citizens of the city of Kowna (A₁₇ 181); the estimable gentlemen Jozef and Rozalia Tyszkowie, née Łoybow, townspeople (L₆ 89); Piotr and Elzbieta Uszakowie, née Pileckich, citizens and townspeople (A₁₀ 81); with Franciszk and Kat rzyną Zarzeckimi, née Brawinskich, citizens (INSTR; A₁₈ 187); Jerzy and Maryanna Zy ciewiczowie, née Sobolewskich, spouses and citizens (A₁₀ 519), etc.

Less often, spouses share two personal names, e.g.: the distinguished lord Casimirus Inkiewicz, councillor of Kaunas, and his wife Katharzyna Kazimierzowa Inkiewiczowa, a Kaunas customs officer, spouses (A₁₁ 48); to lord Antoni Łukaszewicz and the lady herself Jadwiga Antoniowa Łukaszewiczowa, weavers (DAT; A₁₂ 38); to lord Matheusowei Steffowsk iemu, mayor of the city of Kowna, and the lady herself Katarzyna Matheuzowey Steffowskiey, mayoress of Kaunas, spouses (DAT; A₁ 312); Piotr Surwił, mayor of the city of Kowna, and his wife Magdelena Surwitowna Piotrowa Surwiłowa, spouses (A₁₁ 521); I, Stanisław Urbanowicz, weaver, and I, Helena Stanisławowa Urbanowiczowa, spouses and citizens of Kaunas (A₁₂ 122), etc.

Other examples may also be given which confirm that after marriage a woman acquires her husband's surname: the gentlemen Maciej and Krystyna Szołkowskich, née Marcinkiewiczow, in her first marriage Waluz yckiey, citizens of the city of Kowna (A₁₈ 131); Szymon and Elzbieta Kołuccy, née Kuliszewskich, formerly Antonina Bielecka, master craftsmen of the shoemaking trade and spouses (A₁₇ 64); and Maryanna Maiewska, first married name Eydukiewiczowa, second mar-

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to Łukaszewiczowawith my husband Jan Majewskimmaster of the shoemaking trade (AĮ₁₁ 350); the lady Elżbieta Razowszczanka, formerly Jeryna Boniszkownaand then Stanistawowa Surwitowaa Kaunas customs officer (MS₁ 376).

Sometimes the woman's given name and maiden surname are omitted, with only the reference sama, żona—that is, herself, wife—being supplied, e.g.: of Paweł and his wife Tołoczkow (GEN; L₁₀ 131); to Teodor and his wife Wafilewskim (DAT; L₁ 21); Kazimierz and his wife Wienckowiczowie (L₁₁ 158); to Michał and his wife Wisztortom (DAT; B₂ 67); Antoni and his wife Zarębowie (B₂ 4). This shows that in the 18th century, as earlier, women were recorded inconsistently, with incomplete naming. Perhaps this was a certain scribal convention.

The context of the records clearly indicates that other family members too—for example, a father and son or brothers—shared the same surname: Andrzey Dziękowski, alderman of the city of Kowna, and the honest Michał Dziękowski, brothers (SV₂ 227); of lord Marcin Sinkiewicz and to Jozef Sinkiewicz, his brother (AKA₂ 38); Jakub and Teodor Bielawski, citizens of the city of Kowna (GEN; AĮ₁₀ 300); to the estimable gentlemen Bartłomiej and Stanisław Dawidowski, townspeople of Kaunas (DAT; L₉ 22); Adam and Fran Gronkim, citizens of the city of Kowna (DAT; AĮ₇ 673); to the honest Maciej and Stanisław Kierewicz, master craftsmen of the weavers' guild (DAT; L₁₀ 23); Michał and Jakuba Kleynow, master craftsmen of the shoemakers' guild (GEN; L₇ 102); to the honest gentlemen Dominik and Tomasz Kontakiewicz (DAT; L₃ 165); of the honest Mikołaj and Maciej Suchodolski, citizens of Kaunas (GEN; AĮ₈ 173).

This is particularly true of parents and children recorded together, e.g.: Simonis Misielewicz et Magdalena Misielewiczowna famati Valentini Misielewicz filij (MS₁ 395); Petri Narwosz, councillor of Kaunas [...] to my son Dominik Narwosz and Katarzyna Narwoszowna, daughter from the first marriage (MS₁ 390); Karol, father and master of the weavers' guild, and Jozef, son, Puchowscy (L₁₁ 113); to Dominik Sakowicz and his daughter Sakowiczowna (DAT; L₁₁ 30); the gentlemen Jakub, father, and Jozefat, son, Abramowiczowie, townsmen, merchants and citizens of the city of Kowna (SV₁ 52); Maciey and Magdalena Rudzianscy, née Zykiewiczow, spouses and citizens of Kaunas (AĮ₇ 348), their son – to Felicjan Rudzianski, son (DAT; AĮ₇ 348); and Maryanna Maiewska, first married name Eydukiewiczowa, second married name Łukaszewiczowa [...], Wincenty, son, and Aniella, née Myszevskich, daughter-in-law, Eydukiewiczowie, spouses (AĮ₁₁ 350); Katarzyna Łukajfewiczowa and her daughter Dorota Łukajfewiczowna (L₂ 46); Jozef Macewicz and Rozalia Macewiczowa, his mother (B₂ 3); I, Jozef Narocki, a citizen of Kaunas, [and] my mother Katarzyna Narocka, a Kaunas councillor (AĮ₉ 753); of Anny Pazerowa, mother, and Andrzej Pazer, son (GEN; MS₁ 418); Magdalena, mother, and Kazimierz, son, Stankiewiczami (INSTR; AĮ₆ 400); Dominiki Wasilewska, first married name Abramowiczowa, scribe of the city of Kowna, and at present Michalkiewiczowa, and her son Klemens Abramowicz (AĮ₇ 638); to Elżbieta Jerzowa Ulewiczowa, mother, and Stanisław Ulewicz, son (DAT; L₇ 61); Maciey and Magdalena, parents, and Katarzyna, daughter, Rudzianscy, master craftsmen of the tanning trade (L₈ 2).

Thus, the context of 18th-century documentary records clearly shows that people from all strata of the townspeople estate already had surnames.

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3. SURNAMES OF MEMBERS OF THE KAUNAS LUTHERAN COMMUNITY

2. 0. General remarks

Research into the origins of personal names in the 16th–17th centuries has shown that some Kaunas townspeople’s anthroponyms were of Germanic origin (Ragauskaitė 1999: 147; 2000: 105–106). Of course, the origin of a personal name does not always indicate the nationality of its bearer. But Germans lived in Kaunas, and it is natural that their designations appear in the city’s record books (Kiaupa 2000: 67). According to historians, the Kaunas Lutheran community was German from the first days of its existence (Kiaupa 1977: 14–18; Oksas 2000: 177–210). As early as 1544, the vogt’s book mentions German scribes in Kaunas: дан от себе мо писарю немецкому Станиславу (DAT; V₂ 66), Тома неме писа́ (V₂ 66).

There are also Germans who lived in the city without holding such positions: Матус Кегуба неме (V₂ 68), z Hanus Niemczem (INSTR; V₂ 55), Pomkcyu němu (DAT; V₂ 59). Since most Kaunas Lutherans were of German nationality, one could simply omit discussion of the formation of their surnames. This is not done for several reasons. First of all, these people were members of the local Kaunas townspeople’s community. From 1655 they secured the right to hold six seats on the city magistrate: three aldermen and three jurors. Thus they participated in city government, and it is simply impossible to overlook them (Kiaupa 1977: 13–26). This community was very important in Kaunas public life⁹.

It is interesting to compare the chronology of the formation and stabilization of surnames among Germans in Kaunas and residents of German cities. In addition, it is important to determine in what ways the formation of surnames among Kaunas townspeople of German origin resembled or differed from that among other members of the local Kaunas community.

2. 1. The sixteenth century

A review of the earliest sources showed that German townspeople in Kaunas already had surnames in the first half of the 16th century. They are evident in records of parents and children, e.g.: 1522–1545 famatus Joachim Schotner... omnes cives testame(n)ti olim famati Georgy Schotner (M₁ 133); 1582 honestus Albertus Bytner famati olim Bernati Bytner civis caunen(sis) filius (V₇ 369); 1580 pan Frydrich Bidner ławnik matki swei paniei Bernatowei Bitnierowny burmistrzowei kowien[kiey] (V₇ 18); 1562–1564 uthcziwÿ Jan Korczak ojca swego niebo[es]cika Friderica Korczaka burmitrza kowien[skie-go] (V₅ 157); 1583–1591 hon(esta) Anna Korczakowna Szmicowa Georgi Korcsak fratris sui (M₄ 693) – 1583–1591 hon(esta) Anna Georgy Korczak scabinus caunensis filia legittima (M₄ 632).

It can be inferred that the surname occurs in designations of brothers and of fathers and sons, e.g.: 1564 uthcziwÿ Gregier Heyn Floryana Heyna brata swe(go) (V₆ 27); 1583–1591 ho(nestus) Georgius et Michael Flancy cives (M₄ 58).

As with other Kaunas residents, two shared personal names have been observed in the designations of Germans, e.g.: 1567–1568 uthcziwa pani Malgorata Jacubowa Sulczowa (V₆ 225), her husband

⁹ Išsamesnę darbų apžvalgą apie Kauno evangelikus liuteronus žr. Oksas (2000: 177–210).

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– in 1553, Jakub Schulcza wojta kowien(skiego) (Gen; V₄ 162); in 1568–1572, f(ama-tus) d(ominus) Wolfgang Nimpcy scabinus caunen(sis) (M₃ 12), his wife – in 1580, mieszczanka kowien­ska pani Benigna Wolf Niemczowa (V₇ 121).

It is more difficult to assess cases in which family members recorded alongside one another do not share the same personal names, for example: in 1522–1545, Dorothea uxoris olim Petri Heyn aurificis caunen(sis) (M₁ 151); in 1522–1545, famat(us) domi(nus) Erhardus Szlegel honeste Anne uxoris (M₁ 414); in 1545, pan Fredrich Corczak jam od siebie y od zony swej panyey Anni (V₇ 54); in 1545, stawetny pan Andrzej Schulcz swoje małzonką panią Barbarą (V₃ 44); in 1562–1564, uthciwej paniey Małgorzati wdowy nieboszcika pana Ewarda Berkmana burmiftrza (V₅ 292); in 1583, honesta Helizabeta famati d(omi)ni Bernati Bythner consulis caunen(sis) coniuga (V₇ 306); in 1568–1572, honesta Anna coniuga Georgy Demers (M₃ 20); in 1581, famatus Lucas Eggi­erth cum Anna coniuge sua (V₇ 219); in 1561, pany Barbara niebosczyka Erasmuſa Heyna małzonka (V₅ 8); in 1568–1572, honesta Barbara olim Joannis Hon relicta coniunx (M₃ 90); in 1582, hon(esta) Catherina olim Klaus Kierſtin relicta vidua (V₇ 266); in 1568–1572, honesta Catharina quonda Georgy Knebelis civ(is) caunen(sis) relicta (M₃ 32); in 1561, pani Zophia pana Michala Schimbella małzonka (V₅ 63); in 1583–1591, hon(estatus) Andreas Syram civis caunen(sis), his wife – Margareta Lunikowna (M₄ 514); in 1583–1591, famatus domi(nus) Georgius Szeper coniugis sua Catharina Korczakowna (M₄ 293), and so on.

These examples most clearly show that persons occupying high social positions were also recorded without a shared personal name, that is, a surname. As noted earlier, Lithuanians belonging to the nobility already had hereditary anthroponyms at that time. This circumstance suggests that, most likely, in the cases presented, shared personal names were simply not recorded. It is even possible to suppose that married women were identified by their father’s name, following a particular orthographic tradition. Perhaps this tradition was also established by various collections of formulas for writing city court cases of the period (Jablonskis 1979: 222).

This merely confirms the earlier supposition that at least some such cases do not indicate the absence of a surname. Apparently, this was in fact due to variations in naming, the writing traditions of foreign scribes, and so on (Jablonskis 1979: 222). K. Jablonskis stated that the scribes who kept the city books of records not only knew very well the language in which they wrote, but also had collections of formulas for various documents composed in that language (ibid.). Without doubt, they followed these when recording the people of Kaunas, their wives, and their children.

2.2. Seventeenth century

In later records, that is, those from the seventeenth century, instances were noted in which Germans were recorded with and without a surname. Most often, these individuals were recorded with surnames. The same personal name for parents and children occurs in cases such as: honorati d(omi)ni Friderici Freyer scabini, his daughters – Anna, Dorothea et Catharina Freyerowna (MS₁ 189); Petry Fux filiy famati d(omini) Christophori Fux civis caunen(sis) (S₃ 563); famatum Petrum Fux, his daughter – famata Anna Fuxowna (S₃ 183); pan Heliaſz Helchner uczciwa pani Barbara Helchnerowa mieczka kowien­ska matka iego po nieboszczyku Filipie Helchneru oycu iego pozostałei (V₉ 140).

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There are cases in which husband and wife are recorded with the same surname, for example: famata d(omi)na Anna Wefselowna Hennigowa famati d(omini) Joannis Hennig civis et negotiatoris caunensis (S₃ 44); p(ana) Jana Naugarda racvy kowien(skiego) y Doroty Wefelowny Naugardowey (S₃ 473); honorat(us) d(omi)n(us) Petrus Peterson scabinus caunen(sis) et honorata d(omi)na Ursula Hoffmanowna Petersonowa coniugibus (MS₁ 160); Jakub Szenfeld y Anna Naugardowna Szenfeltowa obywatele miasta Kowna (S₃ 342).

Other spouses have two shared personal names, for example: famata Barbara Urbanowiczowna Albrychtowa Beynartowa, her husband – famat(us) Albrycht Beynart (S₃ 361); Reinholdowa Jansonowa et [...] Reinholdum Janson civis caun(ensis) (S₁ 20); famat(us) d(omin)us Joannes Kinner civ(is) et negotiator caun(ensis) jako opiekun paniey Anny Forchontowney Jannowey Kinerowey małżonki swey (MS₁ 239); uczciwy Tomasz Kop tutejszy bywszy szklarz y uczciwa Anna Niszowna Thomaszowa Kopowa małżonkowie (MS₁ 60); Tomafz Langans y Anna Jachym Wolkowna Tomafzowa Langanfowa małżonkowie mieszczanie (S₃ 528).

In some records, the same spouses have one shared personal name, and in others two, for example: panu Andrzejowi Harderowi aptekarzowi kowien(skiemu) y małżonce onego paniey Giertrudzie Peterfenownie Harderowey (DAT; MS₁ 74) – panu Andrzejowi Harderowi mieśczaninowi kowien(skiemu) i małżonce onego paniey Giertrudzie Peterfenownie Andrzejowey Harderowey (DAT; MS₁ 81), and so on.

Brothers, too, share the same surname: p(ana) Frydrycha Freyera ławnika, Reinholda Freyera bracia mieszczan (GEN; MS₁ 37); bratankowi memu Thomasa Freza, Pawłowi Frezowi mieszczaninowi kowien(skiemu) (S₂ 194).

As in records from the sixteenth century, a shared personal name may be omitted, for example: sławetny pan Jerzi Alert mieszczanin kowień(ski) z małżonką swą Dorotą Eggertowną (VSM 238); hon(esta) Barbara Felgerowna olim Henrici Banth civis et negotiatoris caunen(sis) derelicta vidua (S₂ 195); famata domina Dorothea Kalawowna famati olim domini Benedicti Feyzak civis caunen(sis) derelicta vidua (MS₁ 473); Anna Hans Butgierowna małżonka pomienionego pana Thomasa Freza mieszczanie kowieńscy (S₂ 193); Dorotea olim Joannis Hoffman consulis caunen(sis) derelicta vidua (S₂ 32); hon(esta) Elizabetha Rumfeltowna olim Gaspari Hoffman derelicta vidua (S₁ 121); hon(estus) Hanusius Jung sutor caunen(sis) et hon(esta) Zophia Szpernikowna coniuges (S₂ 222); hon(esta) Barbara Foltynbekierowna, her husband – fam(ati) olim Friderici Korczak civis caunen(sis) (S₁ 257); fam(atus) Nicolai Kruz civis et negotiatoris caunen(sis), his wife – Petronelle Dyonizowna (S₂ 230); honor(ata) olim Clara Policzanka, her husband – Joanis Litkie civis caunen(sis) (S₂ 230); fam(atus) Chriſtofor Peterſen et Helijabeth Tydmansdorfnie coniugis civibus (S₂ 105); fam(atus) Hanufius Teyfer civis et chirurgus caunen(sis) et Anna Kallow­na coniuges (S₂ 101); hon(estus) Thobia Wasergraf et Brigita Gabriel Langowa civibus (S₁ 28); Hanufii Zagier aurifex caunen(sis), his wife – Barbara Betkierowna (S₂ 79).

2. 3. The eighteenth century

All persons identified by personal names of Germanic origin in the eighteenth century have surnames. They are observed in the designations of spouses, for example: uczciwym Johanowi i Elżbiecie Dytry

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master craftsman of the carpentry trade (DAT; AI₈ 1025); the councillors Jan and Bogumiła née Kantel, the Faber spouses, of the city of Kaunas (AI₇ 657); the honest Jan Frydrych and Barbara née Mertens, the Fahrenholtz spouses, masters of the Kaunas guild of blacksmiths (DAT; AI₇ 216); Henryk and Johanna née Rhod, the Fergiell merchants of the city of Kaunas (DAT; AI₁₁ 300); the honest Krzysztof and Marya Erdmuty née Rataw, the Fo[s spouses, masters of the weaving craft (DAT; AI₇ 353); the honorable Michael Freylich, and his wife – Elisabetha Rozenberkowna Freilichowa, residents (AI₁ 37); Jan and Barbara née Reymer, the Fux spouses, citizens of the city of Kaunas (GEN; AI₁₁ 226); Jan Chrystyan and Anna née Otto, the Gaterman spouses (DAT; AI₇ 617); Jerzy and Anna Barbara Helm, masters of the tanning trade (AI₁₁ 93); Krzysztof Hofman, councillor of the city of Kaunas, and his wife Anna Dorothy Farenheytowna, the Krzysztof Hoffman spouses (GEN; AI₁ 76); the honorable Ernestus Fridericus Kienich[z]teten, citizen of Kaunas, and his wife –the honorable Anna Dorota Kienich[z]etowa (AI₄ 13); the esteemed Jan Kiner and his wife Anna Forchuntowna Kinerowa, citizens of Kaunas (AI₅ 10); the honest Andrzej and Katarzyna née Stankiewicz, the Miller spouses, masters of the weaving craft and citizens of Kaunas (AI₁₁ 270); the honest Jan Krzysztof and Marya Giertruda Szreter, spouses and masters of the saddlery craft (DAT; AI₉ 499); the honest Krystyan and Eleonora Sztruz, masters of the locksmithing craft (DAT; AI₈ 659); Jan Bernard Szwarc, surgeon of Kaunas, and his wife Elżbieta Zelmerowna Szwarcowa (AI₃ 160); Jan and Anna née Konart, the Walter spouses and citizens of Kaunas (AI₆ 124).

In summary, it can be said that the Germans of Kaunas, like the Lithuanian nobility, already had surnames at the beginning of the sixteenth century. German anthroponymists do not agree on the more precise emergence and stabilization of urban surnames. V. Fleischer and H. Naumann indicate that they first began to appear in Germany’s large cities around the twelfth century. By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, most townspeople already had surnames (Fleischer: 12–15; Naumann 1987: 12–15). The material from the sources examined shows that some Germans of Kaunas had come from other German cities and later became residents of Kaunas. This merely confirms the earlier assertion that these foreigners certainly already had surnames in the first half of the sixteenth century¹⁰.

It is impossible to determine whether, in every case, a person entered under a personal name of Germanic origin was indeed German. For example, personal names of Germanic origin also occur in the baptismal, marriage, and death registers of Kaunas Parish Church of St Peter and St Paul (the present-day cathedral basilica) that were examined. They are also found in the marriage register for 1732–1798¹¹, for example: Jacobus Wacht (JUNGTK 3)¹², Michal Kreycer (JUNGTK 4), Josephus Rex (JUNGTK 5), Joannes Speyzer (ibid.), and so on. One or another is also found in the death register of the same church for 1763–1791¹³:

₁₀ For more on the community of German Lutherans who lived in Kaunas in the sixteenth–eighteenth centuries, see Kiaupa (1977: 13–26; 1988: 28; 2000: 67).

₁₁ F. 669. Ap. 1. B. 2.

₁₂ The number in parentheses indicates the page of the church register on which the person is mentioned.

₁₃ F. 669. Ap. 1. B. 3.

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Jacobus Rexa (MrtK₁ 23), Joannes Kieyzer (MrtK₁ 18), Joannes Ofman (MrtK₁ 15). People with such surnames may have been of German origin. This is borne out by examples found in the death register for 1791–1827: Jerzy Zyffert Felczer niemiec żonaty z Miaſta Kowna (MrtK₂ 22); Francįek Harain Niemiec wdowiec (MrtK₂ 30); Jan Wulf z Niemieckiey Religy (MrtK₂ 53). These residents of Kaunas apparently considered themselves Catholics, since they married and were buried according to the precepts of this confession.

As discussed above, by the second half of the seventeenth century all Kaunas residents had surnames. This by no means implies, however, that they were firmly established by that time. Given also that Lithuanian personal names were recorded in non-Lithuanian texts, it is quite difficult to discuss the stabilization of Kaunas residents’ surnames. As the subsequent development of these surnames shows, this process was unnatural and haphazard.

Many surnames of Kaunas residents in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were rendered quite accurately by scribes. They were recorded with Lithuanian endings, Lithuanian patronymic suffixes, and so on. This suggests that the Lithuanian language was widely used in public life in Kaunas (Lebedys 1976: 28; Jablonskis 1979: 219–220; Kiaupa 2000: 66–92). As early as 1540, Sigismund the Old ordered that Lithuanian be used in the courts of Kaunas (Kiaupa 2000: 89). It is likely that scribes, for example in the vogt’s court, could also understand Lithuanian. However, the chancelleries of the Kaunas city vogt, council, and aldermen’s court wrote their books, in which townspeople were recorded, not in Lithuanian but in Old Belarusian, Polish, Latin, and, to a small extent, German. Thus, the personal names of Kaunas residents were Slavicized, Germanized, Latinized, and so on. Consequently, an already established surname belonging to the same person could be altered in some way or greatly distorted in different documents within the same case. Spoken language also had a considerable influence on this. In court records, Lithuanian forms of personal names used in everyday speech were often replaced by equivalents with Slavic patronymic suffixes -evič or -ovič. The use of various languages hindered the stabilization of written surname forms. The form of a surname often depended on the person who drew up the document as well. As a result, historical sources contain a great many surname variants. J. Oksas, who researched the history of this city, also drew attention to some instances of variation in townspeople’s surnames (Oksas 2000: 183). Thus, the further stabilization of the surnames already formed among Kaunas residents should be considered separately.

From what has been said, it may be inferred that the surnames of most Lithuanian townspeople became established later than those of the nobility¹⁴. The latter began to appear as early as the fifteenth century and were formed intensively in the sixteenth century and thereafter (Maciejauskienė 1991: 112). Some historical circumstances may also be recalled. The noble-born were citizens of the state and participated in its governance; their surnames therefore had to be legally recognized and written uniformly, or at least more consistently. They owned considerable property, so uniformity in their surnames was essential. The nobility had particular reason to care for their family genealogy, and so on. Townspeople were less affluent than the nobility. The status of their surnames was generally established by the documents of their city. For these reasons, they had less need to ensure uniformity in their surnames. Townspeople had no civic rights, at least until the Constitution of 3 May 1791¹⁵. The municipal law incorporated into this constitution-

¹⁴ It is a pity that no original city record books from the very end of the fifteenth century have survived. Such anthroponymic material would make it possible to refine this statement.

¹⁵ Plačiau apie tai žr. Glemža (1998: 43–69).

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-tion granted townspeople with substantial real estate rights that placed them on an equal footing with the nobility. They were permitted to be ennobled. This constitution was a very important event in urban life. In short, the new laws created a universal urban law (Glemža 1998: 47–8; 2000: 211–214). Without a doubt, these historical circumstances could not have had any major influence on the formation of townspeople’s surnames. They merely show that conditions favorable to the nobility’s having stable surnames emerged much earlier than for townspeople.

According to V. Maciejauskienė, peasant surnames began to appear only sporadically at the very end of the sixteenth century, and most of them were formed in the seventeenth century. The author argues that by the eighteenth century they had become fully established (Maciejauskienė 1991: 112). The data discussed in this article show that as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, the Germans and Lithuanians of Kaunas certainly had hereditary personal names. In the second half of the seventeenth century, people from all strata of the townspeople’s estate undoubtedly had surnames. The subsequent stabilization of surnames can be traced approximately to the end of the eighteenth century.

CONCLUSIONS

1. An examination of 12,000 designations of Kaunas residents from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries established that surnames arose at different times among all local groups of the urban community.

2. The surnames of wealthy townspeople arose earliest. As early as the first half of the sixteenth century, Kaunas residents holding a higher social position, as well as people recorded with anthroponyms of Germanic origin (perhaps members of the Lutheran community), had surnames. In the second half of that century and the first half of the seventeenth century, some people from the middle and lower strata of the townspeople’s estate had the same hereditary anthroponym.

3. The 1662–1673 aldermen’s book and the 1683–1773 and 1686–1776 magistrate’s and aldermen’s books show that by then essentially all Kaunas residents already had surnames.

4. Comparing data on the formation and stabilization of surnames among the nobility and peasantry with the period in which Kaunas residents’ surnames formed revealed that townspeople’s surnames arose earlier than peasants’ but later than those of the nobility. The latter are thought to have already had surnames in the fifteenth century, after which these formed intensively in the sixteenth century and thereafter. Peasant surnames began to appear only sporadically at the very end of the sixteenth century, developed very rapidly in the seventeenth century, and completed their formation in the eighteenth century. By contrast, Germans and Lithuanian Kaunas residents (the elite) living in Kaunas in the first half of the sixteenth century certainly had hereditary personal names. In the second half of the seventeenth century, people from all strata of the townspeople’s estate had surnames. Their stabilization continued into the eighteenth century.

SOURCES¹⁶

Books of the self-government institutions of the city of Kaunas

A₁ – book of act entries for 1693. Vilnius University Manuscript Department (hereinafter – VUBRS). F. 7. B. 13868, 1.

A₂ – book of act entries for 1738–1749. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13868, 2.

¹⁶The year of the document, place of preservation, fonds, and call number are indicated.

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AĮ₃ – book of act entries for 1743–1748. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13868, 3.

AĮ₄ – book of act entries for 1749–1753. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13868, 4.

AĮ₅ – book of act entries for [1747], 1757–1762 [1768]. Lithuanian State Historical Archives (hereinafter – LVIA). F. SA. B. 13870.

AĮ₆ – book of act entries for 1763–1773. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13871.

AĮ₇ – book of act entries for 1771–1781. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13872.

AĮ₈ – book of act entries for 1780–1784. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13873.

AĮ₉ – book of act entries for 1781–1788. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13874.

AĮ₁₀ – book of act entries for 1789–1792. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13877.

AĮ₁₁ – book of act entries for 1796–1798. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13877.

AKA₁ – description of archival books for 1779–1781, 2. LVIA. F. SA. B. 18657.

AKA₂ – description of archival books for 1788–1809. LVIA. F. SA. B. 18653.

B₁ – 1779–1780 mayor’s book. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19625.

B₂ – 1780–1785 mayor’s book. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19622.

L₁ – 1754–1759 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19588.

L₂ – 1755–1763 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19592.

L₃ – 1763–1765 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19602.

L₄ – 1768–1771 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19596.

L₅ – 1771–1773 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19599.

L₆ – 1773 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19601.

L₇ – 1773–1775 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19605.

L₈ – 1775–1776 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19606.

L₉ – 1776–1778 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19607.

L₁₀ – 1778–1781 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19627.

L₁₁ – 1780–1781 court book of the lentvaitis. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19610.

M₁ – 1522–1545 magistrate’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13838.

M₂ – 1555–1564 magistrate’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13843.

M₃ – 1568–1572 magistrate’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13848.

M₄ – magistrate’s book for 1583–1591. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13850.

M₅ – magistrate’s book for 1604–1610. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13856.

M₆ – minutes of magistrate meetings for 1752–1786. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19587.

M₇ – magistrate’s meeting book for 1786–1796. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19560.

MS₁ – mixed book for 1683–1773: minutes of magistrate meetings, minutes and acts of the magistrate’s and benchers’ courts. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13867.

MS₂ – mixed book for 1686–1776: minutes of magistrate meetings, minutes and acts of the magistrate’s and benchers’ courts. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13867.

MV – mixed magistrate and vogt’s book for 1603–1629. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13855.

S₁ – benchers’ book for 1610–1622. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13861.

S₂ – benchers’ book for 1622–1640. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13863.

S₃ – benchers’ book for 1662–1673. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13865.

SV₁ – book of the benchers’ and vogt’s court for 1758–1762. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19589.

SV₂ – book of the benchers’ and vogt’s court for 1763–1767. LVIA. F. SA. B. 19593.

V₁ – vogt’s book for 1542–1544. LVIA. F. 166. Ap. 2. D. 14.

V₂ – vogt’s book for 1544. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13839.

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V₃ – 1545 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13840.

V₄ – 1551–1555 [1593] alderman’s book. LVIA. F. SA. B. 13842.

V₅ – 1561–1565 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13846.

V₆ – 1564–1569 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13847.

V₇ – 1580–1584 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13849.

V₈ – 1587–1591 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13851.

V₉ – 1606–1608 alderman’s book. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13859.

VSM – 1608–1616 mixed book of the alderman, benchers, and magistrate. VUBRS. F. 7. B. 13860.

Church registers

JungtK – 1732–1798 marriage registration book of Kaunas Parish Church of St. Peter and St. Paul. LVIA. F 669. Ap. 1. B. 20.

MrtK₁ – 1763–1791 death registration book of Kaunas Parish Church of St. Peter and St. Paul. LVIA. F. 669. Ap. 1. B. 3.

MrtK₂ – 1791–1827 death registration book of Kaunas Parish Church of St. Peter and St. Paul. LVIA. F. 669. Ap. 1. B. 62.

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