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PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ
Institute of the Lithuanian Language
ORCID id: orcid.org/0000–0002–8679–3253
Research fields: Lithuanian terminology, history of Lithuanian medical terminology.
DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all88–03
ON SOME DETERMINATIVE MEDICAL COMPOUND TERMS OF THE LATE 19TH–EARLY 20TH CENTURIES WITH A NOUN AS THE SECOND COMPONENT
On Certain Determinative Medical Compound Terms of Late 19th – Early 20th Century with Noun as the Second Component
ABSTRACT
The article primarily examines, from a structural perspective, determinative compound terms from publications on medical and health topics of the late 19th–early 20th centuries that are not recorded in LKŽe (or whose meanings alone are not recorded). One type of formation of these compounds—compounds with a noun as the second component—and its structural models are discussed; the entities named by the compounds, the meanings of the first components, and the ways in which the components are joined are clarified; and problematic issues concerning the relationship between the components, the selection of base words, and other related matters are considered. The compounds under investigation exhibit the structural models N + N, Adj + N, V + N, and Prep + N. The most productive are compounds whose two components are nouns. In most cases, the bases of both components and their relationship are readily understood; the terminological meanings derive from the derivational meanings and can therefore be easily identified. The compounds name body parts, organs, and diseases. However, the bases of some compound components are difficult to substantiate, the relationship between the components can be interpreted in several ways, or is difficult to describe at all. In the N + N structural model, the first components most often indicate belonging and a species concept, whereas in the Adj + N and V + N models they indicate a feature.
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In compounds of the N + N structural model, the components are more often joined by linking vowels (the vowel -a- predominates) than without them, whereas in the Adj + N, V + N, and Prep + N models, conversely, both components are predominantly joined without linking vowels.
The article takes a predominantly structural approach in analysing the determinative compound terms from medical and healthcare publications of the late 19th – early 20th century, which (or the meanings of which) were not recorded in The Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language. It focuses on a peculiar type of formation of the said compounds, i.e., compounds with the noun as the second component, and its structural models; it aims to find out what is designated by compounds, what meanings are conveyed by the first components and in what ways these components are combined; it also discusses the problematic questions of relationship between the components, the choice of base words, etc. The compound terms under analysis demonstrate the following structural models: D + D, B + D, V + D, P + D (where D stands for noun, B stands for adjective, V stands for verb and P stands for preposition). The most productive compounds are with nouns as their both components. As a rule, the base word of the two components and their relationship are easy to identify; their terminological meanings derive from their word-formation meanings, and they are therefore easily identifiable. Compound terms denote body parts, organs and diseases. However, the base words of certain components are difficult to explain; the relationship between components can be interpreted in different ways or it is difficult to describe altogether. The first components of the D + D structural model usually designate belonging and the concept of type/kind, whereas the B + D and V + D structural models express a feature. The components of the D + D structural model are more commonly combined by means of linking vowels (where the vowel –atakes the lead), whereas in the case of the B + D, V + D and P + D structural models, on the contrary, both components are usually combined without linking vowels.
Traditionally, in Lithuanian linguistics, a compound is understood as a word formed through univerbation from a combination of two independent words, having a lexical and a derivational meaning (the latter consists of the lexical meanings of the components and their mutual
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On Some Determinative Medical Compound Terms of the Late 19th–Early 20th Centuries with a Noun as the Second Component relationship). It is not problematic to identify and define it in Lithuanian¹ (Urbutis 1961: 65; LKG I 1965: 437; KTŽ 1990: 196; LKE 2008: 148, 281, cf. Stundžia, Jarmalavičius 2019: 18–19, 52).
According to the observation of Pranas Skardžius, a researcher of Lithuanian word formation, the productivity of compounds² reaches back to the very time of the Proto-Indo-European language. What is most important in compounds is the “internal (semantic) union of words,” and they have long been used mainly in “specialized scientific terminology.” Being of “more specialized content,” compounds “by their nature are mostly suitable for a more precise, more condensed, richer, and more meaningful mode of expression,” to denote one general entity (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 396–397, 401, 403).
Stasys Keinys, a classic of Lithuanian terminology who discussed the formation of Lithuanian compound terms perhaps most comprehensively in the late 20th century³, drew attention to the great activity of compounding in contemporary Lithuanian terminology, which he explained primarily by internal terminological needs to name compound concepts. The compounding method is convenient also because it helps create relatively short specific names, helping to avoid the accumulation of attributes. Compounds are also usually more terminological than the corresponding word combinations (Keinys 2005 [1983]: 129–130).
The object of this article consists of 72 determinative medical compound terms⁴ with nominal second components (excluding variants⁵), which (or their
¹ For more on the new approach to compounds and their classification, see Lieber, Štekauer 2009: 4–8; Guevara, Scalise 2009: 101–128.
² Pr. Skardžius called a compound the term “compound word” (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 393). In addition to the term “compound”, linguistic literature also uses the term “compound word” (KTŽ 1990: 196; LKE 2008: 148, 281), “composite” (LKE 2008: 148; Stundžia, Jarmalavičius 2019: 18).
³ The compounding of terms has been studied to a greater or lesser extent by: Auksoriūtė 2001, 2015, 2016; Gaivenis 2014 [1998]; Gedrimas 2003; Kaulakienė 2014 [1981, 1983]; Kurmiņa 2012; Labanauskienė 2009, 2010; Pospelova 2017; Rutkienė 2017, 2019, 2019a, 2021; Stunžinas 2004; Umbrasas 2005; Zemlevičiūtė 2016, 2019, and others.
⁴ The article excludes compounds that are problematic structurally and/or semantically, whose one component is difficult to establish as a base or whose meaning is entirely unclear (even from context), e.g., kastligė.
⁵ In publications from the period under discussion, variant compounds were recorded not only in different texts but also in the same texts. Variant is understood here in a narrow sense, that is, as a formal variant of the same word having the same lexical and grammatical meaning and morphological structure (Miliūnaitė 2009: 141, cf. Mitkevičienė 2004: 124, 140). In other words, what is meant here is formal structural variation that does not exceed the boundaries of term identity and does not introduce any semantic shifts in the term; that is, it is unrelated to the differentiation of the semantic content of the term (Tatarinov 2006: 173). In the article, when a compound has variants (11 different medical terms vary throughout the empirical material), they are presented in a series, with the members separated by slashes. However, variation in medical compound terms is not the aim of this article; therefore, the variants are not examined in detail and are the subject of a separate study. It should only be noted that some compounds vary
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meanings) are not recorded in LKŽe. Determinative compounds6 are understood here as compounds in which the first component usually determines the second component, narrowing its meaning (Urbutis 1961: 68; 2009: 205; LKG I 437; KTŽ 1990: 196; LKE 2008: 148; Stundžia, Jarmalavičius 2019: 52).
The compounds were collected from medical and health-related publications of the late 19th–early 20th centuries—books and booklets written or translated not only by physicians but also by representatives of other professions, as well as articles published in newspapers and calendars of the period. From a subject-matter (medical) perspective, these publications are not equivalent, but their content has no bearing on the purely linguistic aim: to examine the structure of medical compound terms with a noun as the second component. The semantic aspect is also unavoidable: the study clarifies what concepts the compounds under investigation denote and what the meanings of their first components are. The most suitable method for solving these tasks is the analytical descriptive method, the derivational analysis method; the interpretation method is used, and, when necessary, the comparative method, as well as the counting method to show quantitative relationships among the compounds.
In the descriptive analytical part of the article, the following are indicated alongside the compounds: the source abbreviation, the lexical meaning of the compound (formulated by the author of the article on the basis of information from the source(s)), while the derivational meaning emerges from the base words given in parentheses. If a compound is recorded with different meanings in the sources, those meanings are provided together with the sources’ bibliographic data (abbreviation, year, issue number, if it is a newspaper, and page). Sometimes the meanings of a compound are not paraphrased by the author; instead, illustrative sentences or excerpts are provided, especially when the minimal context is informative for motivating the compound’s derivational meaning.
with vowels represented graphically in different ways, e.g., storžarnė and storžarnė. These are considered spelling variants. Other compounds vary in endings and linking vowels, e.g.: narikaulis and narykaulis, krioklīgė and kriokliga. These are considered derivational variants (for more on them, see Vaskelienė 2013: 208–210). Derivational variants are understood here as “derivatives having the same base words and the same derivational affix, which differ in some secondary derivational devices” (alternation of root vowels, a linking vowel, and/or an ending) (Vaskelienė 2019: 212). Here the ending is viewed not from the inflectional but from the derivational perspective; thus, variants differing in their endings are considered not morphological (cf. Mitkevičienė 2004: 133–135) but derivational variants (for more on the relationship between derivational and morphological variants, see Vaskelienė 2019: 209).
6 Pr. Skardžius called determinative compounds “subordinating, determinative compounds”, since their first component determines the second component (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 407, 410, cf. Urbutis 1961: 68).
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MEDICAL COMPOUND TERMS WITH A NOUN AS THE SECOND COMPONENT
In Lithuanian compound terms (as in simple words), the semantic and grammatical center is usually the second component, which the first component defines or qualifies in one way or another. When compounds⁷ are classified formally and morphologically, the connection of the base word of the second component with a part of speech is taken into account. According to this classification, one of the main and predominant types is compounds with a noun as the second component, based on a noun. The first components of compounds of this type may be based on other parts of speech; therefore, the compounds are further subdivided according to the part of speech to which the base word of the first component belongs (Urbutis 1961: 68–104; Keinys 2005 [1983]: 134, 164).
With respect to the aspect mentioned above, the following structural models are distinguished among the compounds of the type under investigation (see Table 1): compounds formed from two nouns (N + N), an adjective and a noun (Adj + N), a verb form and a noun (V + N), and a preposition and a noun (Prep + N), discussed in greater detail below. The noun-based second component of these compounds usually determines the meaning of the entire compound (concrete or abstract), and the majority of these compounds are usually specific names of entities denoted by the nouns underlying the second components (cf. Keinys 2005 [1983]: 135).
¹ LENTELĖ. Structural models of determinative medical compound terms of the late 19th–early 20th centuries with a noun as the second component, according to the part of speech of the first component
Structural model | Number of compounds | Percentage (%) N + N | 48 | 67 Adj + N | 14 | 19 V + N | 8 | 11 Prep + N | 2 | 3
1.1. Compounds formed from two nouns. The terminological meaning of compounds of this structural model is for the most part formed from the meanings of both components; in other words, it approximately coincides with the derivational meaning (however, as we will see from the examples discussed below, this coincidence is not of the same degree in all cases). The second component of these compounds determines what kind of entity is named, while the first, denoting some
⁷ For more on the classification of compounds, see Scalise, Bisetto 2005: 319–332.
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feature of the entity being named, determines that the compound functions as a specific name with a narrower meaning. The following are indicated by this latter, determining, component:
1) belonging:
• which body part or organ the entity denoted by the second component belongs to⁸: dirksniatinklis ‘the main nerve center located in the abdomen’ Žin 1911 107 (: dirksnis ‘nerve’ LKŽe + tinklas ‘net’), inkstapilvis ‘renal pelvis’ KS 1911 160 (: inkstas + pilvas 5. ‘indentation’ LKŽe). Both components of this compound function as names of organs, while the compound names a structural part of the organ whose name underlies the first component. As stated in a human anatomy textbook, the part in question usually resembles a funnel, but its shape is highly varied (ŽA 2005: 200). In Fig. 1, the part marked with the letter C appears somewhat curved. It is difficult to say what motivated the author of the book to choose the noun pilvas as the base of the second component. Perhaps the shape of that part influenced the choice, perhaps the Latin equivalent pelvis renalis, or perhaps entirely different considerations?
The right kidney cut lengthwise, viewed from the outer side inward: A, branch of the renal artery; C, renal pelvis; U, urinary tract.
FIG. 1. Right kidney cut lengthwise; KS 1911 160
⁸ The formulations of the meanings of the first components of this and most other compounds are based on the following sources: Urbutis 1961: 68–71; Keinys 1983: 135–176; LKG I 438–472.
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odataukiai ‘fat produced and secreted by one of the skin appendages—the sebaceous glands’ S 1907 142 (: skin + taukai),
smarkrakaulis ‘chin’ LB 1887 5/6 58 (: smarkas + kaulas). The terminological meaning of this compound can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, it may directly derive from the derivational meaning, but this hypothesis is made doubtful by the fact that such a facial bone is not distinguished in osteological nomenclature. It is therefore more likely that the compound denotes the protruding part of the body of the mandible—the chin (see ŽA 2005: 76),
smilksniokaulis ‘temporal bone’ S 1907 168 (: smilksnis see 1 smilkinys ‘the part of the head between the ear and the eye, temple’ LKŽe + kaulas),
sprandakaulis ‘a disease of the nape affecting small children as a result of rocking, carrying, or falling out of a cradle and injuring the nape’ MTV 1898 27, cf. sprandoligė (p. 5) (: sprandas + liga). This compound is interesting because its second component is an organ name, its first component a body-part name, while the compound itself names a disease; thus, its terminological meaning has diverged from its derivational meaning,
subingrobis ‘rectum’ GŽK 1902 6; Šlt 1912 37 583 (: subinė ‘buttocks, posterior’ + grobas ‘intestine’ LKŽe). In LKŽe this compound is recorded with only the meaning ‘rectum’, but in the sources under investigation it is also used with other medical meanings—‘large intestine’ Dž 1903 21, prolapse of the anus (prolapsus ani)’ MTV 1898 36,
žiotkaulis ‘jawbone (maxilla)’ MG 1913 2 11 (: žiotis ‘opening from the mouth into the nasopharynx’ LKŽe + kaulas);
• to what, by its origin, the entity denoted by the second component belongs:
balsodėžė ‘organ located at the top of the throat’ KS 1911 110 (: balsas + dėžė). This most likely refers to the glottis (Latin rima glottidis) (ŽA 2005: 191),
džiovugarai ‘the soot of the dwellings of consumptive patients’ LAK 1885 59 (: džiova + garai ‘soot, fumes’ LKŽe),
džiovunūdžiai ‘tuberculosis bacteria’ LAK 1885 60 (: džiova + 1 nuodai 1. ‘substance harmful to the organism’ LKŽe),
• what entity’s part the entity denoted by the second component constitutes:
kaulgalis ‘end of a bone’ U 1892 6/7 234 (: kaulas + galas),
rietgalis ‘loins’ VL 1890 38 9 (: rietas 1. ‘thigh, calf, shin’, 3. ‘inner side of the thigh, place between the thigh and lower abdomen, groin’, 4. ‘waist, loins, midriff’ LKŽe + galas). Based on the mentioned lia term
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contextual information: “in those families we see the disease of rietgalis (hip. disease), deformation of the spine” VL 1890 38 9, it may be assumed that diseases associated with the back and spine are meant here, which would support the meaning of the first component of the compound in question, rietas ‘waist, loins, midriff’;
2) species concept: • which species concept included in the genus concept expressed by the second component is meant: dirksnialigė ‘nerve disease’ S 1907 255 (: dirksnis ‘nerve’ LKŽe + liga), drigantligė (: drigantas (Pol. drygant) ‘stallion, colt’ LKŽe + liga). The source states that “that disease attacks young men because of their great desire for women” MTV 1898 33. Hypothetically, it may be assumed that this refers to a disease now called satyriaze or unrestrained male lust (satyriasis) MedŽ 1980: 492, džiovuligė ‘tuberculosis’ Žin 1911 158 (: džiova + liga), kaitraliga / kaitraligа ‘ague’ LK 1890 27 (: kaitra + liga), kirmelligė ‘helminthic disease (helminthiasis)’ MTV 1898 12 (: kirmėlė + liga), krupligė / krupligė ‘croupous laryngitis (croup, laryngitis crouposa)’ MTV 1898 13, NG (: krupas (Pol. krup, Rus. круп) ‘inflammation of the upper part of the respiratory tract, diphtheria’ LKŽe + liga), krutligė ‘chest disease’ NotGyd 1879 42 (: 1 krūtis ‘chest’ LKŽe + liga), niežligė / niežligė ‘scabies’ SŽL 1886 32, SŽL 1906 30 (: scabies + liga), opaligė ‘nerve disease (nervositis)’ S 1907 167 (: ulcer + liga). LKŽe records the current variant opaligė with an entirely different meaning: ‘a chronic illness involving gastric or duodenal ulcers’, raupleligė ‘smallpox’ Svk 1913 4 15 (: rauplės see raupai ‘a severe acute infectious disease manifested by a rash that makes the skin rough (variola)’ LKŽe + liga), saldyligė ‘diabetes mellitus’ Svk 1913 2 7 (: saldybė 1. ‘extraordinary sweetness’ LKŽe + liga). The structure of this formation can be supported by taking as an example the similarly formed word saldymedis, which, according to Pr. Skardžius, could have originated from saldyb-medis (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 421). Thus, by analogy, the first component of the compound saldyligė could also be derived from saldyb-ligė. As can be seen, the shortened stem of the base noun saldybė was taken as the basis of the first component. V. Urbutis called such formation of the base stem simple phonetic shortening of the base stem (Urbutis 2009: 235), sprandoligė ‘a disease of small children: when rocking or carrying them, or if a child falls from a cradle, the nape becomes injured’ MTV 1898 27, see sprandakaulis (p. 4) (: sprandas + liga), taukligė nom. sg. ‘?’ LKA 1907 79 (: taukai + liga). This is the only compound under investigation whose terminological meaning is difficult to identify, because it does not directly arise from the meanings of the nouns underlying the components, ‘fat disease’. The context of usage
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is uninformative—the term is merely presented alongside the names of other listed diseases, so it is problematic to determine what disease is named by the compound in question, utèlige ‘a skin disease caused by lice’ DMS 1912 21 (: utelė + liga).
The terminological meanings of the compounds džiovâligė, krupligė, niežligė, opligė, raupligė completely coincide with the meanings of the nouns functioning as their first components—džiova, krupas, niežai, opa, rauplės—and mean ‘disease’ (cf. Urbutis 1961: 71; LKG I 440). The first components of other compounds denote various entities. Some are names of body parts and organs (dirksnis, krūtis, sprandas), indicating the location of the entity expressed by the second component. Compounds whose first component is the name of an animal (drigantas, kirmelė, utėlė), a substance (taukai), or a property (kaitra, saldybė) stand out in this group; in view of their lexical meaning, they might be more appropriately presented alongside compounds whose first component indicates a feature. Although the determining components of all the compounds mentioned are not unambiguous semantically, the compounds themselves are specific names of diseases classifiable on different bases. They can be brought together into one terminological group by the recurring second component liga;
3) feature:
• what possessed entity distinguishes the entity denoted by the second component: dilgerauplės ‘skin eruptions caused by poor digestion; a very persistent rash causing unusual itching and great restlessness’ SK 1905 50 (: dilgė see dilgėlė 1. ‘a herbaceous plant whose stem and leaves have stinging hairs (Urtica)’ LKŽe + rauplės),
dilgiaraupliai ‘an inflamed rash in the form of uneven blisters, characterized by burning and unpleasant itching[,] usually [arising] from improper digestion’ SK 1905 22 (: dilgė + raupai).
The first components of both compounds are based on the same noun dilgė, and the rash named by the compounds resembles stinging by the plant whose name constitutes the component in question,
kaitrastoges nom. pl. ‘colds resulting from heat’ LK 1890 28 (: kaitra + slogos see sloga 1. ‘inflammation of the mucous membrane of some organ’ LKŽe),
• what the entity denoted by the second component is suitable for moving (going, sliding, flowing): mėšlazarnė ‘rectum’ KS 1911 240 (: mėšlas 2. ‘feces’ LKŽe + žarna), orangis ‘opening between the vocal cords’ KS 1911 278 (: oras + anga). The terminological meaning of the compound is probably the same as that of balsodėžė (see p. 5). Without context, it is not obviously medical, since in this case too the terminological meaning implied by the relationship between the components and the derivational meaning are divergent,
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pienaindis ‘lymphatic vessel of an intestinal villus’ KS 1911 52 (now called the lymphatic vessel of an intestinal villus (ŽA 2005: 176) (: pienas + 1 indas 2. ‘duct, vessel’ LKŽe). The terminological and derivational meanings of this compound are even further removed from one another—the second component denotes a duct, while the first denotes the name of the fluid flowing through it. The compound names a part of an organ (see Fig. 2). The source explains why this duct is so called: “this little duct is called pienaindis because the fatty fluids in it are like white milk”;
Villi of the small intestine; magnified approximately 80 times. On the left side of the illustration, the pienaindžiai, a, b, c, are full of white matter; d, blood vessels. On the right side of the illustration, the pienaindžiai themselves are full of dark fluid. The epithelium covering the villi and their muscular fibers are omitted.
FIG. 2. Section of an intestinal villus; the pienaindžiai are marked with the letters a, b, c, KS 1907 52
• what the entity denoted by the second component does: kraujaleidikas[s] U 1891 9 419 ‘one who lets blood (by cutting a vein)’ LKŽe (: kraujas + leidikas < leido < leisti 12. ‘to make flow, let run’ LKŽe + –ikas). The structure of this compound is atypical, different, because its second component is a derived, suffixal noun, whereas in the material under investigation, the second components of compounds are usually underived nouns;
5) similarity:
• what the entity denoted by the second component resembles, recalls, or can be compared with:
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arklakaulis ‘vomer (the bone of the nasal septum) (os vomeris)’ MG 1913 2 11 (: arklas ‘an implement for ploughing the soil, plough, ard’ LKŽe + kaulas), piensvyviai KS / piensvyviai KS, Žin ‘milk juices (intestinal lymph during food absorption) (Latin chylus)’ MedŽ 1980: 107 (: pienas + svyai), plaukagyslė ‘capillary’ DK 1908 48 (: plaukas + gysla), ragaplevė ‘cornea’ VK 1913 120 (: ragas + plėvė). This term is given in the source in parentheses beside the term leliukė: ‘for diseases of the leliukė (cornea)’. Here it is not entirely clear whether ragaplevė is considered a synonym of leliukė, or whether these are designations of different parts of the eye—the cornea (Latin cornea) and the pupil (Latin pupilla). Although synonyms are usually given in parentheses in sources from the period under study, in this case the second interpretation seems more likely. Regarding the base noun ragas selected as the first component of the compound, it may be assumed that this choice could have been determined by the Latin equivalent (in Latin, cornu means ‘horn’).
Among the compounds discussed, the compound kaullavoniai ‘human skeleton’ V 1890 3 38 (: kaulas + lavonas) stands out in another respect. Most likely, the components of this compound have been transposed, apparently either by the author of the article himself or possibly as a typographical error, although the latter assumption is unlikely. But, I think, neither possibility can be ruled out. Thus another hypothesis may also be raised, for example, whether this compound might have arisen from the phrase kaulai lavonų, especially since an inverted word order is common in texts from the period in question, e.g. galvoviršis MTV 1898 and viršugalvis⁹ SK 1905; Žin 1911; Svk 1912–1914, 1920 (Urbutis 1961: 80, 103–104). This conjecture is further supported by the information in LKŽe. According to the dictionary, the compound lavonkauliai ‘skeleton, bones’ is attested in late-nineteenth-century East Prussian newspapers: Laukas, pilnas lavonkaulių Kel1881,240. Tekvepia į lavonkaulius, kad jie atgytų Ns1847,2.
The term narikaulis MTV, BL and its working variant narykaulis Dž (: narys ‘outgrowth, tumor, sore’ LKŽe + kaulas) is recorded in the sources with two different meanings—anatomical (‘gland’ BL 1904 15, ‘vertebra’ Dž 1903 21) and clinical (‘nerve node; a node of the tendon sheath or articular capsule (ganglion); tumor (neoplasm); accumulation of fat [lipoids] (atheroma); muscular tumor (myoma)’ MTV 1898 15; MedŽ 1980: 63, 218, 362), whereas in LKŽe this compound has only the meaning ‘a hard tumor in some part of the body’.
⁹ There are compounds whose constituent parts can exchange places, although their meaning does not thereby change. As Pr. Skardžius observed, there are few such compounds in our language; they occur mainly in dialects or are used in isolation, and their formation is quite old. Thus galvoviršis was probably once galvos viršus ‘top of the head’, while viršugalvis was viršus galvos ‘top of the head’. This should be explained by the fact that certain groups of words, before becoming a single word, did not have entirely uniform positions for their constituent parts (Skardžius 1996 [1943]: 438).
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The relationship between the components of the compound under discussion is difficult to describe, while its terminological and working meanings are altogether far removed from one another.
The individual, atypical, difficult-to-describe, or even plainly incomprehensible relationship between compound components was discussed by the master of word formation Vincas Urbutis (Urbutis 1961: 71). Among compounds whose intercomponent relationship is difficult to explain, one could also include the term padmotai ‘callositas’ MTV 1898 17, cf. rumbuotumas, kietumas (callositas), nuospaudos susidarymas (tyllosis) MedŽ 1980: 86, 562 (: padas + 2 × motas (cf. 1. szmata) see plotas ‘piece, patch, spot’ LKŽe). On the basis of the phrase pado motai written in parentheses beside the compound, it can be stated that its components are based on these two words.
The terminological meaning of the compound šunrauplės (: šuns < šuo + rauplės) is unclear from the context: “[fever with pustules] most often attacks young people suffering from chickenpox, šunrauplės and smallpox” SK 1905 56. The first component šun originated from the noun šuo ‘dog’, but has diverged from it and acquired a meaning of falsity associated with disparagement and contempt (Urbutis 1961: 74). Thus šunrauplės could mean ‘false, inferior smallpox’.
The compound pusskritulis ‘hemisphere of the cerebrum’ KS 1911 183 (: pusė + skritulys, cf. 1 pusskritulis ‘half of a disk’ LKŽe) deserves separate mention; its second component defines the first, unlike the compounds described above.
The tendencies in linking the components of the D + D structural-model compounds discussed above are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
TABLE 2. Linking compound components with linking vowels
10 V. Urbutis considers this component a prefixoid (Urbutis 1961: 74; see also LKG I 442; DLKG 2005: 152–153).
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1.2. Compounds of an Adjective and a Noun. The first component of the compounds in this structural model is based on an adjective denoting an external or internal property of the entity named by the nominal second component (cf. LKG I 449; Keinys 2005 [1983]: 150–151).
TABLE 3. Distribution of compounds whose components are linked with and without linking vowels
Structural model | Number of compounds whose components are linked without linking vowels | Number of compounds whose components are linked with linking vowels D + D | 20 | 30 B + D | 11 | 6 V + D | 8 | 1 P + D | 2 | –
The largest group of the compounds under discussion consists of formations functioning as names of diseases. Their first components denote a property characteristic of, distinguishing, or otherwise possessed by the entity named by the second component; the terminological meaning of these compounds differs to a greater or lesser extent from their derivational meaning, e.g.:
geltondrugis “[a disease] transmitted by the bite of a particular species of mosquito, and only when that mosquito has drunk its fill of the blood of a person suffering from drugys” KS 1911 338 (: geltonas + drugys),
pikt-plaukis BGL 1895 18 / piktaplaukis NamG 1907 11 (: 1 piktas 5. ‘large, severe; non-healing, painful’ LKŽe + plaukas). The symptoms of the diseases named by the compounds are not detailed in the sources; only their treatment methods are indicated (incidentally, the latter are almost identical, so the author of the later source may have relied on the earlier source). The context makes clear that an external wound of the body is being discussed, but its location is unclear. The synonym čėrt-plaukis given in BGL clarifies the meaning of the compound, cf. xčertplaukis see xčertaplaukis 2. ‘whitlow (panaritium)’ LKŽe. Thus, based on this information, it can be stated that the terminological meaning of the compound is ‘a boil at the end of a finger (under the nail), whitlow, felon (Panaritium)’ LKŽe,
plikakatis ‘baldness (calvities, phalakrosis)’ MTV 1898 21 (: plikas + kakta). In LKŽe this word is recorded only with the meaning ‘a bald person’. The second component of the compound denotes a body part (forehead), while the compound itself functions as a disease name,
negaliu smarkiai bėgti (Salantai, Kretinga District). Man oro trūksta, tokia trumpa dvasia (Baisogala, Radviliškis District). Trumpos dvasios esu, mun vis sunkumas ant širdies (Palanga)). The LPr compound could undoubtedly also mean ‘weak, inadequate breathing’, but in that source the compound term trumpa dvasia means ‘asthma’, which allows us to state that the compound’s meaning may be the same.
In another group of compounds, the second component most often denotes a body part or organ (the generic concept), while the compound itself functions as the name of a body part or organ (the specific concept), e.g.:
gyvaplaukis ‘human body hair’ SK 1905 42; KS 1911 51 ‘intestinal villus’ / gyvplaukis ‘human body hair’ Ž 1909 2 14; Svk 1914 4 13 (: gyvas + plaukas). This compound was used with two meanings in medical and health-related texts, and only one meaning is recorded in LKŽe: gyvaplaukis 1. ‘human body hair (usually on the arms or legs)’ LKŽe), glitodė ‘mucous membrane’ Svk 1914 1 1 (: glitus 1. ‘slimy; slippery’ LKŽe + oda), glitplėvė ‘mucous membrane’ A 1915 32 418 (: glitus 1. ‘slimy; slippery’ LKŽe + plėvė), pasturrukė ‘anus’ BL 1904 16 (: pasturas 2. see pastaras 6. ‘posterior’ + rukė ‘excretory opening’ LKŽe), plonagyslė / plongyslė ‘capillary’ DK 1908 4 (: plonas + gysla), slidžiaodė ‘mucous membrane’ ŽD 1913 5 (: slidus + oda), storžarnė KS 1911 54 / storžarnė SŽK 1902 90 ‘large intestine (colon)’ LKŽe (: storas + žarna), tuštviduriai ‘hair shaft (scapus pili)’ S 1907 282; MedŽ 1980: 493 (: tuštas 1. see tuščias 4. ‘containing nothing, empty, vacant’ LKŽe + viduriai).
As the examples show, the bases of the second components are most often underived nouns; however, one compound was found whose second component has a more complex structure. This is the isolated, atypically formed compound baltkraujigė ‘in this disease, “so many white blood corpuscles appear in a person’s blood that the blood almost takes on the color of milk,” leukemia’ GŽK 1902 27 (: baltas + krauligė see krauligė 2. ‘blood disease’ LKŽe). The second component of this compound is itself the compound word krauligė, with the stem of the first component’s base word shortened.
The methods of linking the components of compounds in the structural model under discussion and their quantitative distribution are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
1.3. Compounds of a Verb Form and a Noun. Compounds in this structural model most often function as names of abstract concepts. Most of the compound terms whose first component expresses a property of the entity designated by the recurring second component name diseases; such compounds sharing the same second component form a group of specific terms, e.g.: blyšktiligė ‘anemia’ DMS 1912 34 (: blykšt–antis, blykšt–amas < blykšti ‘to turn white (usually of the face)’ LKŽe + liga). Another possibility for the base of the first
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component’s base may not be excluded—this component could also be based on the adjective blyšktus see blyškus ‘pale, faded, with a light hue’ LKŽe,
dilginligė ‘urticaria’ “the name of the disease itself says that, when suffering from this disease, the rash is entirely similar to the rash that appears on the skin after being stung by a nettle” NG 1908 29 (: dilgin-antis < dilginti 1. ‘to cause stinging (with a nettle)’ + liga / dilgynė ‘nettle’ LKŽe + liga),
kriokligė ‘diphtheria’ LUK 1886 46 / krioklige nom. sg. ‘diphtheria’ VL 1890 274; 1890 286 / kriokliga U 1890 4 5 ‘diphtheria’ U 1892 8 294 (: kriok-iantis, kriok-iamas < 1 kriokti 3. ‘to breathe with difficulty, wheeze, puff’, 7. ‘to cough’ LKŽe + liga). In all the sources cited, this varying term denotes the same disease—diphtheria. In the latest of the sources mentioned here chronologically, we even find an explanation of why the disease is so called: “the pain from the palate passes to the throat. Then the voice changes, the patient becomes hoarse, and then begins to breathe and wheeze with difficulty (hence kriokligė)” U 1892 8 294,
siutalige V 1890 10 153 / siutlige ‘rabies, hydrophobia’ V 1891 4 54; VL 1891 10 115 (: siunt-antis < siusti 1. ‘to suffer from rabies’, siutas ‘rabies’, siutus ‘raging, furious’ LKŽe + liga). The basis of the first component of this compound appears to be the most ambiguous. First, it can be associated with the past-tense verb siut-, but a connection with the finite form is nevertheless unlikely, since a much closer relationship appears to exist with the active participle siuntantis (‘a disease that sends into a rage’). Second, a connection with the noun siutas (‘the disease of rage’) may also be discerned, or, third, even with the adjective siutus (‘a raging disease’). The second interpretation of the first component’s connection with the noun siutas can be supported by the coincidence of the linking vowel with the stem-final vowel,
skaudligė ‘rheumatism’ SŽL 1886 30 / skaudligė ‘rheumatism’ SŽL 1906 28 (: skaud-antis, skaud-amas < skaud-ėti, skaudą ‘pain’, skaudus 1. ‘painful, aching, hurting’, 2. ‘causing pain’ LKŽe + liga). The relationship of the basis of the first component of this compound should be interpreted analogously. This component could be based on either a participle (in this case, both an active and a passive participle are possible) (‘a painful or aching disease’), the noun skauda (‘the disease of pain’), or the adjective skaudus (‘a painful disease’).
Of the compound terms discussed, only the bases of the first components of dilginligės and kriokligės are clear—they are based on participles, very probably active ones—whereas the basis of the component in the other compounds could still be debated.
The first components of the other three compounds not belonging to the described group of specific terms likewise express a property of the entity designated by the second components, but only two of them name diseases, while one functions as the name of a part of an organ, e.g.:
dilginraupiai ‘dilgiaraupiai’ (see dilgiaraupiai, p. 6) SK 1905 22 (: dilgina, dilgino < dilginti 1. ‘to cause stinging (with a nettle)’ LKŽe + raupai),
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siurbglislė ‘intestinal villus’ S 1907 245 (: siurbia, siurbė < siurbti + gysla). The first component of this compound most likely denotes the function performed by the entity named by the second component; thus the working meaning of the compound is ‘a vessel that sucks nutrients into the blood’,
traukipirdė ‘rectal spasm (proctospasmus)’ MTV 1898 37 (: traukia, traukė < traukti 26. ‘of a painful sensation of stretching or cramping in muscles or vessels’ + pirdė 1. ‘buttocks, backside’ or pirda ‘loud breaking of wind’ LKŽe). The disease named by this compound is described as follows: “the disease comes from prolonged sitting, [...] the sides and the end of the abdomen begin to ache; after an hour, pain attacks the intestines, rolling through all the bowels like a ball, like a cat mewing. And when you begin to walk, [...] you begin to break wind from the bowels and fart”.
The basis of the first components of the latter compounds does not appear problematic—their connection with a verb form is evident—as is also their most likely connection with an active participle.
How the components of compounds in the V + D structural model are linked is shown in Tables 2 and 3.
1.4. Compounds of a Preposition and a Noun.
Only two compounds of this structural model were found. Although both are recorded in LKŽe, they are interesting because in the sources they are used with meanings different from those given in the dictionary:
tarppnosis ‘nostril’ SK 1905 15 (: tarp / tarpas + 1 nosis 2. ‘nasal cavity, nostril’ LKŽe), cf. tarpnosis ‘space between the eyebrows’ LKŽe, tarpsienis „ryjamoji stemplė [...] guli gangreit visa krūtinėje, bet paskui perduria tarpsienį (of the skull) and enters the lower empty part of the body, where it merges with the abdomen” GŽK 1902 20, cf. “[the esophagus] descends downward in front of the spine into the superior and inferior posterior mediastina, passes through the diaphragm and [...] ends in the stomach” ŽA 2005: 169 (: tarp / tarpas + siena), cf. tarpsienis 2. ‘interior wall of a room, partition, divider’ LKŽe.
The working meaning of these formations differs from their terminological meaning—the two compound terms name organs of different organ systems.
Incidentally, the connection of the first component of these compounds can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, their recurring first component could be associated with the preposition tarp ‘between’. In that case, the structural model of the compounds would be preposition + noun. On the other hand, the first component can also be associated with the noun tarpas ‘space’ (cf. Urbutis 1961: 103). Then the structural model of these compounds would be noun + noun. Nevertheless, V. Urbutis appears more inclined to associate the component in question with the preposition tarp ‘between’. For example, in compounds whose second component denotes a body part or organ, he considers the first component a preposition with a locative meaning (see Urbutis 1961: 104).
¹² In this and the adjacent sentence, italics by the article’s author—P. Z.
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CONCLUSIONS
Seventy-two determinative medical compounds with a nominal second component were found in late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century medical and health-related publications; they are absent from LKŽe or their medical meanings are not recorded in the dictionary.
They exhibit four structural models—D + D, B + D, V + D, and P + D—which, in terms of productivity, correspond to the compounding tendencies of terms, as well as of words, in present-day Lithuanian.
The most frequent, and therefore most productive, are compounds whose two components are nouns (67 percent of all examples examined). There are almost five times fewer compounds with an adjective as the first component (19 percent), while compounds with a verb form and a preposition as that component are quite rare (11 percent and 3 percent, respectively). The assignment of some compounds to one of the aforementioned models may be interpreted ambiguously; that is, the relationship of the components of such compounds to one or another part of speech may be explained in two or even three ways.
The bases and relationships of the components of most compounds are transparent, and their terminological meanings are readily identifiable—they approximately coincide with their derivational meanings, although the degree of this coincidence is sometimes uneven. In cases where it is less pronounced, the context of usage is helpful. Compounds generally designate basic medical concepts, functioning as names of body parts and organs and of diseases, although there are isolated compounds whose component relationship is difficult to describe and whose choice of base words cannot be clearly substantiated; consequently, the meaning of such compounds is only conjectural or could not be established at all.
In the D + D structural model, the first components most often indicate possession or belonging (which body part or organ the entity named by the second component belongs to) and the concept of a type; less often they indicate a feature (the thing possessed by which the entity named by the second component is distinguished), purpose (what the entity named by the second component is suitable for moving), and resemblance (what the entity named by the second component resembles).
The first components of compounds in the B + D and V + D structural models primarily indicate a property characteristic of the entity named by the second component.
It was established that the components of compounds in the D + D structural model are more often linked with linking vowels (the vowel –a– predominates) than without them (the ratio of compounds is 31 to 20), whereas, conversely, in compounds of the B + D, V + D, and P + D structural models, the two components are predominantly linked without linking vowels (the ratios of compounds are 10 to 6, 7 to 1, and 2 to 0, respectively).
The study showed that among nouns functioning as second components of compounds, -ligė / -liga is the most active component for forming a group of specific terms.
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ŠALTINIAI
KNYGOS IR KNYGELĖS
BL – Apie blogąją ligą arba syfilį (prancus), pagal d-ro M. Členovo veikalėlį sutaise d-ras A. V., Tilžėje, 1904.
BGL – Būdai gydymo nekur(i)ų ligų, išleido Sveiklinkis dėl pagalbos savo brolems lietuviams, 1-oji laida, Tilžėje, 1895.
DK – Daktaras kiseniuje: aiškūs pamokinimai kaip užlaikyti sveikatą ir kaip nuo ligų apsiginti, su daugeliu receptų surinktų nuo geriausių daktarų, sutaise M. Paltanavičia, Worcester, Mass: spausdinta spaustuvėje M. Paltanavičiaus, 1908.
DMS – Daktaras bei mokslas apie sveikatą: naujausia knyga, Philadelphia, Pa.: išleido The Philadelphia Medical clinic, 1912.
DN – Daktaras namuose, arba, Aprašymas ligu ir ju gydymas, pagal daktarus Basanavičiu, Vileizsi, collins, Stout ir daugelį kitu sutaise K. W. Gedeminas, So. Boston, Mass.: [išleid. ir] spauda Gedemino ir Mickevičiaus, 1906.
Dž – Dr. Knopf Siegmund A.: Džiova ir kova su ja: populiariškas konkursinis darbas, apdovanotas ant kongreso Berlyne (24–27 geg. 1899 m.), susirinkusio apsvarstyti kovos įrankius su džiova, sutaise D-ras A. V., Tilžėje, 1903.
GŽK – Kaip apsireiškia gyvastis žmogaus kune? Sutaise pagal Lunkevyčių D-ras A. V., Tilžė, 1902.
KS – Sveikata, arba, Tiesus ir trumpas kelias į sveikatą, sutaise dr. A. L. Graičunas, Chicago, Ill, 1911.
LPr – Ligonių Prietelius. Kelrodys visiems tiems, kurie prie atsirandančių Ligų patys sau pirmąją Pagalbą prisiteikti nor ir tai Progai geras Namų Pyprowas įsiteikti uelėjęs, Friedrich Adolph Richter, Leipcikėj’ Rikterio Iszleidimo Įtaisymas (Drukawotos prie F. Ad. Richter & Draugai, Rudolstadt), 1883.
MTV – Medega musu tautiszkai vaistinykystai, parupino Dr. J. Basanavicius, atspauda isz „Dirvos“, Shenandoah, Pa, 1898.
NamG – Naminis gydytojis, parašė A. Aitvaras, Ryga: lesos A. Macejevskio, [i.e. 1906] (Ryga: H. Hempel ir ko), 1907.
NG – Naminis gydytojas: Trumpas aprašymas prasčiausių ligų ir prasčiausių vaistų kovoje su jomis: D. 1. Apie žmonių ligas ir jų gydymą, sutaise D-rs A. Vileišis, Seinai, 1908.
NotGyd – Isz dyka suglaudimas isz Dr. Airy’o „Noturôs-gydymo-mokinimo“, arba Isztikimas privedimas, pagal kurį tankiausey prie žmonių atsirantanczias ligas per prastas
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bey permegotas priprovas tvirtay bey greitay pats gali gydyti: su daugeropais į raszto zōdzius įdrukawotas ž́mogaus, senarū dalykeliu abrozais, perdirbtas Dr. Adolpo Richterio, kuriai yra Ricerys portogyziško Kristaus=garbės=zenklo bey tuneziseziszko niszan istikar zenklo apturetojis ricerijų= kryziaus bey auksinės wertybės=medalijos nu gan maryno draugsanaris auksz taymokitu draugyscziū Paryzuze bey Neapolyje irtoliaus, Leipzig: [s.n.], 1879 ([Rudolstadt: drukawotas pas F. Ad. Richter & Draugai, Rudolstadt]).
S – Sveikata, iš vokiečių kalbos vertė kunigas J. Gerutis [Jonas Balvočius], Kaunas, 1907.
SŽK – Kaip sutaisytas žmogaus kūnas, parašė S. M., Plymouth: Pa, 1902.
SŽL – Svarbiausios žmonių ligos, Petro Nėrio, Tilžėje, 1886.
SŽL – Svarbiausios žmonių ligos, Dr. Mikols, Tilžėje, 1906.
ŽD – Kas reikia žinoti apie džiovą, iš vokiečių kalbos vertė D-ras Bagdonavičius, Vilnius, 1913.
Žin – Žinynas: knyga žinių iš mitologijos, historijos, etnografijos, astronomijos, aritmetikos, medicinos ir kitų mokslų bei jų šakų / iš įvairių šaltinių surinko J. Laukis [Domininkas Keliauninkas], Chicago, Ill.: „Aušros“ knygynas, (Chicago, Ill.: „Lietuvos“ spauda), 1911.
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Zemlevičiūtė Palmira 2019: Словосложение литовской терминологической медицинской лексики в большом польско-литовском словаре Симонаса Даукантаса [Slovosložĕnije litovskoj terminologičeskoj medicinskoj leksi-ki v bol’šom pol’sko-litovskom slovare Simonasa Daukantasa]. – Slovo. Slovar’. Termin. Leksikograf: сборник статей по материалам Международной научно-практической конференции памяти доктора филологических наук, профессора Юрия Николаевича Марчука (г. Москва, 1–2 марта 2019 г.) [Slovo. Slovar’. Termin. Leksikograf: sbornik statej po materialam Meždunarodnoj naučno-praktičeskoj konferencii pamjati doktora filologičeskich nauk, professora Jurija Nikolaeviča Marčuka (g. Moskva, 1–2 marta 2019 g.)], Министерство образования Московской области Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего образования Московской области Московский государственный областной университет Лингвистический факультет [Ministerstvo obrazovanija Moskovskoj oblasti], 251–261. Prieiga internete: https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=38527972.
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On Certain Determinative Medical Compound Terms of Late 19th – Early 20th Century with Noun as the Second Component
SUMMARY
The article addresses the determinative compound terms from the medical and healthcare publications of the late 19th and early 20th century with the noun as the second component, which do not appear in The Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language or their medical meanings are not recorded in the dictionary; it discusses their structural models and attempts to find out what is designated by compound terms, what meanings are conveyed by their first components, in what ways the components are combined; it also considers the problematic questions of relationship between components, the choice of base words, etc.
A total of 72 compound terms demonstrating D + D, B + D, V + D ir P + D structural models and responding to the compounding tendencies apparent in the terms and words of Modern Lithuanian were identified in the study.
Most compound terms have nouns as their both components (67% of the examples). There are nearly five times less compounds featuring the adjective as the first component
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(19%), whereas the compounds with the verb and the preposition as the first component are very rare (11% and 3% respectively). The attribution of certain compounds to one of the above models may be rather ambiguous.
The base word of most of the components and their relationship are transparent, whereas their terminological meanings are easy to identify as they roughly coincide with their word-formation meanings. When the coincidence is not so pronounced, the context of usage is of help. Compounds denote body parts, organs and diseases. The relationship between components is difficult to identify and the choice of their base words is difficult to substantiate in isolated cases only.
As a rule, the first components of the D + D structural model express belonging (to which body part or organ the thing expressed by the second component belongs to) and the concept of type/kind; less commonly, it designates a feature (what makes the thing expressed by the second component distinct from others), purpose (what movement the thing expressed by the second component is intended for) and similarity (what the thing expressed by the second component is similar to).
The first components of compounds featuring the B + D and V + D structural models mostly designate a feature characteristic of the thing expressed by the second component.
The components of compounds which fall to the D + D structural model are more commonly combined by means of linking vowels (with the vowel –a– taking the lead) than without them (proportion 31:20), whereas in the case of the B + D, V + D and P + D structural models, on the contrary, both components are usually combined without linking vowels (proportions 10: 6, 7: 1, 2: 0).
The study revealed that out of all the nouns used as the second component of compound terms, –ligė / –liga is the most active component in forming the group of terms expressing type/kind.
