The terminology of Professor Povilas Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics textbook (1960–1965)

ANGELĖ KAULAKIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

On September 18, 2007, 110 years had passed since the birth of academician Professor Povilas Brazdžiūnas, a pioneer of modern experimental physics in Lithuania. He was the first student of Professor Vincas Čepinskis; at the University of Lithuania he prepared the first laboratory physics assignments, wrote the first physics diploma thesis, and was the first of the university’s graduates to go abroad to deepen his knowledge of experimental physics (Makariūnienė 1990: 6). At the University of Zurich he attended lectures by Professor Erwin Schrödinger, who had just published important works on wave mechanics, and took part in seminars with the most prominent physicists of the 20th century, including Niels Bohr (Šiuolaikinė fizika 1997: 280). After completing his studies and receiving a doctorate in philosophy, he returned to Lithuania and resumed work at the University of Lithuania. His outstanding personality and wide-ranging work as a scientist and educator have been discussed in many publications issued in Lithuania (Akademikas 1992; Blažienė 1987; Fizikos istorija 1988; LTE II 1977: 255; Makariūnienė 1990, 1994, 2001; MLTE I 1966: 262; Šenavičienė 1982; Šiuolaikinė fizika 1997).

Fully aware of the importance of science to the culture of a nation, P. Brazdžiūnas held that a Lithuanian language of science, and especially its terminology, was essential to its development. It is perhaps no coincidence that the professor published as many as three quarters of his works in Lithuanian (Blažienė 1987). He took an interest throughout his life in standardizing and harmonizing Lithuanian physics terminology. In the preface to the 1958 Dictionary of Physics Terms (hereafter F), he wrote: “To express precise concepts, precise, rigorous, and consistently used terminology is necessary. Yet at present the terms used by physicists in our republic lack these qualities: very often two or even three terms are used to express one and the same concept; unsuccessful coinages occur, especially in translated popular physics literature; sometimes established, familiar terms are replaced, and so on. Therefore, physics terminology must be put in order—the matter is important and urgent” (F 1958:

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3). He adhered to precise, rigorous, and consistently understood terminological principles in writing both scholarly works and popular science articles and textbooks. This is clearly evident in Professor P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook for higher education, General Physics, which appeared about forty years after the publication of the first Lithuanian physics textbook for higher education, V. Čepinskis’s Lectures on Physics.

The textbook consists of four parts. The first three were published by the State Publishing House for Political and Scientific Literature, and the fourth by the Mintis publishing house. Each part is approximately the same length: Part 1, Mechanics and Molecular Physics, 1960, 416 pp.; Part 2, Electricity and Electromagnetism, 1961, 407 pp.; Part 3, Optics, 1963, 359 pp.; Part 4 (untitled), 1965, 438 pp. Each part was reviewed by specialists and received a positive assessment; particular emphasis was placed on the textbook’s clear, good, correct language (Jonaitis 1962: 175; Puodžiukynas 1962: 37).

As Henrikas Horodničius notes, “Part IV of General Physics completes Professor P. Brazdžiūnas’s substantial work, which is greatly needed by Lithuanian physicists and representatives of other exact sciences. In Lithuanian, following V. Čepinskis’s Lectures on Physics, written in haste and containing a series of methodological shortcomings, and now a bibliographic rarity, this is the first physics work of such scope written at a uniformly high level. It covers all branches of modern physics and, as is particularly evident in the final, fourth volume, presents information on the very latest achievements in physics” (Horodničius 1967: 877).

In view of such a favorable assessment by specialists, it is worth examining the terminology of Professor P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics and how it differs from the terminology of V. Čepinskis’s Lectures on Physics. These are the matters discussed in this article.

2. TEXTBOOK GENERAL PHYSICS TERMS: THEIR STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN

2.1. Physics is very closely related to electronics, electrical engineering, radio engineering, engineering, and other physical and technological sciences; therefore P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics also contains general terms from these fields, for example: environment BF III 173, winding BF II 314, storm BF II 164, quantity BF I 30, grate BF IV 379, iron BF II 208, chain BF II 72, thunder BF II 143, anchor BF II 318, voltage BF II 145, motion BF I 53, belt BF II 347, loop BF II 58, charge BF III 35, degree BF II 116, lens BF III 323, alloy BF I 354, trace BF II 272, beam BF II 271, dopant BF II 103, region BF

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II 57, core BF II 190, path BF II 272, gap BF II 150, water BF I 131, average BF II 41, vibration BF II 333, sign BF I 189, etc.

Some terms in General Physics can already be found in Keleivis (1849–1880), Aušra (1883–1886), Populariszkas rankvedys fyzikos (1889), K. Šakenis’s Physics (1920), J. Končius’s manuscript Physics Textbook (1919) and the glossary Terms for Physics (1923–1924), and V. Čepinskis’s Physics Lectures (1923–1926). Thus, by the second half of the 20th century these terms had already been in use for over 100 years, and counting up to the present day, they have a tradition of use stretching back 150 years, for example: axis BF I 344, cf. K 1851 25 98¹, PF 11, ŠF II 60, 726T², FP I 93, aszis A 1884 5–6 209; height BF I 134, cf. ŠF I 88, augštis FP I 33, augsztis A 1884 5–6 167; state BF I 221, cf. buvis A 1886 1 28; steam BF I 327, cf. A 1884 5–6 171; kibirķštis BF II 145, cf. K 1851 11 42–43, ŠF II 76, FP VII 114, kibirksztis A 1885 10–11 319; material BF II 42, cf. KF 2, ŠF III 10–11, 108T, FP VII 13, medega A 1883 2 48, PF 3, medžgina KF 2; air BF II 139, cf. K 1850 6 24; sun BF II 8, cf. A 1886 6 177; ray BF III 35, cf. K 1852 24 96, KF 159, ŠF III 14, 1417T, FP VI 6; current BF I 132, cf. K 1851 11 43, A 1886 6 177, ŠF II 71, 544T, FP VI 7, srioė A 1885 10–11 319; column BF II 7, cf. K 1851 11 43; heat BF I 324, cf. sziluma A 1883 6 173; šilima K 1851 11 42, KF 147, ŠF I 11, 1275T, FP III 3, szilima A 1884 5–6 171; light BF III 71, cf. PF 82, ŠF III 50, FP VI 6, szviesa A 1884 5–6 195; lightning BF II 6, cf. K 1856 27 107, PF 96, ŠF II 76, FP VII 122, etc.

The following terms may be considered to have a somewhat shorter history of use, for example: wave BF I 173, cf. ŠF III 74, FP VI 113; nucleus BF IV 196, cf. FP III 80; particle BF IV 196, cf. PF 41, ŠF I 113, FP IV 34; work BF I 45, cf. KF 160, ŠF III 91, 789T, FP VII 332; law BF I 364, cf. FP I 25; gas BF II 133, cf. ŠF I 77, FP VII 385, duja KF 161; property BF II 62, cf. PF 82, FP VII 263; force BF I 28, cf. KF 39, ŠF I 24, 386T, FP II 48; angle BF II 49, cf. ŠF III 72, 1321T, FP I 87; path BF II 90, cf. FP I 13; quantity BF II 6, cf. FP VII 34; direction BF II 13, cf. FP I 9; furnace BF II 87, cf. FP VII 187; body BF III 35, cf. KF 157, ŠF III 35, 1377T, FP I 62; bow BF II 149, cf. ŠF II 51, FP VII 187; field BF II 6, cf. ŠF II 56, FP VII 313; equation BF I 223, cf. FP VI 55; surface BF III 130, cf. ŠF II 17, 915T, FP VI 56; shoulder BF I 53, cf. ŠF I 15, petis

¹ The first digits indicate the publication year of Keleivis and Aušra, the second digits the issue number, and the third the page.

² The number indicates the entry number of the term in the glossary Terms for Physics (hereafter T).

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FP I 64; plate BF II 25, cf. ŠF II 31, FP IV 39; plane BF II 162, cf. FP I 80; equilibrium BF I 99, cf. 1028T, FP I 63, pusiausvyra ŠF I 40; value BF I 9, cf. FP I 35; phenomenon BF II 5, cf. FP I 3; sphere BF II 25, cf. ŠF III 90, FP I 66; ratio BF II 153, cf. FP VI 58; number BF IV 79, cf. FP VII 421; layer BF II 245, cf. ŠF III 69, sluoksnys PF 65, sluogsnis FP II 3; flow BF III 22, cf. sriautas FP VII 59; source BF II 6, cf. FP VI 47; rule BF II 102, cf. FP VII 167; point BF III 35, cf. FP IV 37; network BF II 364, cf. FP VII 192; crown BF II 146, cf. FP VII 387; pipe BF II 267, cf. FP VII 385; resistance BF II 72, cf. FP VII 167; spring BF II 14, cf. FP VI 7; unit BF I 30, cf. FP I 12; earth BF II 21, cf. FP I 39; ring BF II 99, cf. ŠF II 71, FP VII 283; candle BF III 22, cf. FP VI 9, etc.

2.2. In structure, the terms of General Physics, like terms in any field of science, are single-word or multiword. Most single-word terms are ordinary Lithuanian words and derivatives that have acquired terminological status. Among the derivatives, suffixal and inflectional formations predominate, with some prefixal formations and compounds.

2.2.1. Among the verb-based forms, most are deverbal abstract nouns, or names of actions, with the suffixes –imas/–ymas, for example: turning back BF IV 110, turning around BF IV 240, reflection BF III 38, repulsion BF II 5, counting BF I 40, magnification BF III 44, bifurcation BF II 347, decay BF II 145, scattering BF III 206, liberation BF III 244, spreading BF III 126, degeneration BF I 297, retention BF I 49, expansion BF II 143, extrusion BF II 5, joining BF II 306, falling BF II 151, fracture BF I 186, change BF II 98, distribution BF I 293, rotation BF I 193, turning BF I 349, inclination BF II 162, transfer BF II 101, breakdown BF II 108, rarefaction BF II 155, clarification BF III 124, saturation BF I 332, vision BF III 95, crushing BF IV 193, splitting BF II 115, radiation BF IV 269, flowing BF II 330, stiffening BF I 337, compaction BF II 23, disturbance BF II 7, luminescence BF II 146, concentration BF II 111, transformation BF II 98, etc.

Some derivatives with the same suffixes –imas/–ymas can also be found in V. Čepinskis’s Physics Lectures (Kaulakienė 2006: 80–81).

Some of the suffixal –imas derivatives, which have become more specific in meaning in both V. Čepinskis’s Physics Lectures and P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics, may be considered names of the result of an action, for example: apsireiškimas ‘phenomenon’: ‘The subject and task of contemporary physics is the study of those natural apsireiškimų whose phenom-

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…the composition of bodies, or their substance, does not change at all” FP I 4; bending “bend”: “The formation of shadows proves that light travels in straight lines, without any bends” FP VI 4; tension “voltage”: “Thus, the electric tension acts only in the medium and ends at the conductor’s surface” FP VII 55; saturation “fullness”: “It is called the saturation curve” BF I 332; compression “pressure”: “Those additional compressions are called sound, or acoustic, compression” BF I 193; transformation “change”: “We regard as first-order phase transformations those such <...>” BF I 330; p-n junction “junction”: “Thus, the p-n junction separates the light-generated electrons and holes <...>” BF III 255.

The term transition in General Physics, as well as in physics publications of the period generally, denoted both a particular type of contact in an electric circuit, formed by joining two materials, and a change in the state of an electron (or positron), for example during the absorption or emission of light, and a certain change in matter or energy. Thus, several different phenomena were denoted by the same term. From the perspective of terminology, such a polysemous term hinders understanding of the concept; on the other hand, undifferentiated use of the term also makes communication among specialists more difficult. Accordingly, the term transition was abandoned in FTŽ, and the concepts mentioned were given Lithuanian terms: junction (asymmetric, deep, semiconductor, pn, linear, tensile, etc.), jump (reverse, nuclear, multiquantum, electron, single, etc.), transformation (nuclear, energy, phase, spontaneous, etc.) (Kaulakienė 1982: 41–42).

Somewhat smaller groups of suffixal derivatives comprise names for the results of actions, formed with the suffixes -inys and -tis, e.g.: compound BF II 157, alloy BF I 354, phenomenon BF IV 409, solution BF I 159, rotation BF I 59, shot BF I 139; thrust BF II 144, composition BF II 106, friction BF I 111, friction BF I 104, etc.; names of tools or instruments used to perform an action, formed with the suffixes -iklis, -yklė, -uoklis, -uoklė, -tuvas, e.g.: burner BF I 142, receiver BF II 60, mixer BF II 349, indicator BF II 93, counter BF IV 212, solvent BF I 337, engine BF I 302; scales BF I 310; spring BF I 95; multiplier BF II 254, amplifier BF IV 215, accelerator BF IV 217, receiver BF I 209, rectifier BF II 244, sprayer BF I 137, transmitter BF II 344, amplifier BF IV 420; names of agents and bearers of verbal properties, formed with the suffixes -ėjas and -tojas, e.g.: [charge] carrier BF II 47, [mass] radiator BF II 348: “Injection of minority charge carriers from a metal into a semiconductor was used to amplify signals” BF IV 14; “The wavelength of the waves emitted by a mass radiator ranged between

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50–0.082 mm” BF II 349. As can be seen from the context, these terms name particular objects. Suitable replacements were later proposed for them: bloodstone (Klimavičius 2005: 210–214) and emitter, which physicists still use to this day; cf. FTŽ and RTŽ.

2.2.2. Among suffixal derivatives formed from nominal words and participles, the most numerous are names of properties with the suffix -umas, e.g.: reversibility BF III 36, illumination BF III 23, streamlining BF I 150, resistance BF I 107, multiplicity BF IV 106, frequency BF IV 74, spottedness BF II 164, power BF I 47, impressiveness BF II 193, sensitivity BF II 107, mobility BF II 117, hardness BF I 108, viscosity BF I 139, curvature BF I 24, conductivity BF II 105, uniformity BF IV 241, productivity BF III 33, uncertainty BF IV 173, heterogeneity BF IV 239, capacity BF III 294, permeability BF II 199, brightness BF III 24, compressibility BF I 114, steepness BF II 275, strength BF I 86, brightness BF III 96, capacity BF II 131, etc.

Some of these coincide with the -umas suffix derivatives in V. Čepinskis’s Physics Lectures (Kaulakienė 2006: 81).

As the examples show, with a few exceptions, most of the -umas suffix derivatives in General Physics are formed from adjectives with simple, morphologically uncomplicated stems. General Physics also contains a few terms formed from nouns with the suffixes -ininkas and -ynas, already found in earlier physics publications, e.g.: conductor BF II 24, resistor BF II 73.

By far the largest group consists of diminutives formed from nouns and having specialized or figurative meanings. The following diminutives were found in Part II of General Physics: line BF II 18, grating BF II 103, strip BF II 34, stopper BF II 9, loop BF II 176, bow BF II 37, leaf BF II 9, cage BF II 111, partition BF II 123, plate BF II 25, pointer BF II 5, ball BF II 26, thread BF II 86, hole BF II 25, stem BF II 9, brush BF II 65, gap BF II 336, bridge BF II 82, grid BF II 25, mirror BF II 176, whirligig BF II 197, hare BF II 176, ring BF II 69, etc. There would certainly be no fewer diminutives in the other parts of this textbook. It seems reasonable to conclude that the scientific language of the period tended to refer to small things with diminutive terms and to give them specialized or even figurative meanings.

2.2.3. Most of the zero-suffix derivatives formed from verbs ending in -a, e.g.: rise BF I 174, tension BF II 145, partition BF II 36, substitution BF I 355, admixture BF II 103, interaction BF II 7, and with the endings -is and -ys, e.g.: circuit BF I 82, state BF I 216, radiance BF IV 419, distance BF II 13, cross-section BF I 313,

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tilt BF IV 239, displacement BF II 41, afterglow BF IV 418, connection BF II 13, impact BF II 142, etc., denote the result of an action.

2.2.4. Suffixal derivatives formed from nouns ending in -is, for example: height BF I 134, size BF II 156, length BF I 175, can also be found in V. Čepinskis’s textbook Physics Lectures (Kaulakienė 2006: 82).

2.2.5. Among the compounds frequently found in P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook, the following may be mentioned: sound receiver BF II 343, parallelepiped BF II 18, clock BF II 64, half-life BF IV 188, semiaxis BF I 81, half-wave BF IV 384, half-equilibrium BF I 99, semiconductor BF I 357, penumbra BF III 36, cross section BF I 138, intermediate node BF II 103, water supply BF I 138, lightning conductor BF II 68, map BF II 162, etc.

2.3. In addition to Lithuanian single-word terms, another layer of general physics terminology consists of international terms and hybrids.

Most international single-word terms are of Latin or Greek origin, for example: absorption BF IV 384 (Latin absorb tio “absorption”), accumulator BF II 132 (Latin accumulator “gatherer”), anode BF II 268 (Greek anodos “way upward”), anisotropy BF I 343 (Greek anisos “unequal” + Greek tropos “direction; property”), deformation BF I 106 (Latin deformatio “change of form”), dispersion BF III 198 (Latin dispersio “scattering”), effect BF II 110 (Latin effectus “effect; result”), emission BF III 295 (Latin emissio “emission”), phonon BF IV 385 (Greek phōné “sound”), generator BF II 66 (Latin generator “producer”), indicator BF II 60 (Latin indicator “pointer”), cathode BF II 114 (Greek kathodos “way downward”), method BF II 236 (Greek methodos “way of inquiry”), moment BF II 53 (Latin momentum < moveo “I move”), neutron BF II 8 (Latin neutrum “neither”), proton BF II 8 (Greek prōtos “first”), rotation BF IV 352 (Latin rotatio “rotation”), system BF I 329 (Greek systēma “structure”), structure BF IV 49 (Latin structura), theory BF II 106 (Greek theōria “inquiry”), thermodynamics BF I 279 (Greek thermos “warm” + Greek dynamikos “of force”), vector BF I 30 (Latin vector “carrier”), etc.

Only a dozen or so international terms have come directly or through intermediary languages from English, for example: streamer BF II 144 (English stream “to flow”), track BF II 272 (English track “trace”), etc., or from English but of Latin origin, for example: impedance BF II 291 (English impedance < Latin impedio “I hinder”), coherer BF II 337 (English coherer < Latin cohaerere); from French, for example: barrier BF II 249 (French barrière), burette BF II 114 (French burette), insulator BF II 24 (French isolateur), contour BF II 333 (French contour), relay BF II 208 (French relais), or of Latin or Greek origin, via French

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language, for example: capacitor BF II 30 (French condensateur < Latin condenco “I condense”), polarization BF III 168 (French polarisation < Greek polos “axis”), resonance BF I 164 (French résonance < Latin resonans “resounding”), statistics BF IV 205 (French statistique < Latin status “state”); from German or Dutch, for example: drift BF II 94 (Dutch drifen “to drive”), throttle BF II 293 (German drosseln “to damp”), conductance BF II 293 (German Konduktanz), lamp BF II 273 (German Lampe), etc.

Some international terms in P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook General Physics that have survived to the present day can already be found in earlier physics publications, for example: center BF I 41, cf. ŠF I 40, FP I 87; dyne BF I 30, cf. F III 84, FP I 56; electricity BF II 8, cf. A 1883 8–10 281, PF 94, F II 29, FP VII 385; electrolyte BF II 117, cf. F II 44, FP VII 204; energy BF IV 388, cf. F III 91, FP I 56; physics BF I 7, cf. F I 3, FP I Foreword, kvizika A 1884 1–3 35; gram BF I 30, cf. F I 3, FP I 11; constant BF II 41, cf. FP VII 82; line BF II 160, cf. PF 5, FP VI 3; magnet BF II 157, cf. K 1851 11 42, F II 11, FP VII 3, magnas A 1885 10–11 319; magnetism BF II 200, cf. FP VII 3, magnetismas A 1886 6 170, magnetism K 1851 12 46; mass BF IV 25, cf. ŠF III 84, FP I 24; machine BF I 100, cf. FP I 61, maszina A 1884 5–6 168, maszyna A 1885 9 288; matter BF II 13, cf. A 1886 5 140, FP VII 385; mechanics BF I 13, cf. FP I 69, mekanika ŠF III 84, mēkanika A 1883 7 207; motor BF II 306, cf. ŠF II 75, FP VII 313; pol(i)us BF II 138, cf. A 1885 10–11 320, ŠF II 6, polis A 1884 5–6 209, FP VII 249; spectrum BF III 125, cf. PF 89, ŠF II 6, FP VII 3, etc.

Thus, the international terms mentioned have been used in Lithuanian physics terminology for a long time—some for 120–150 years. Moreover, in General Physics, some of them were established in the phonetic or morphological forms now familiar and beyond question, for example: amplitude BF I 173, anion BF II 115, battery BF II 138, cylinder BF II 171, formula BF I 129, gram-molecule BF I 220, hypothesis BF I 7, ion BF II 110, molecule BF IV 26, osmosis BF I 337, scale BF I 223, etc.

To name curves of equal values, P. Brazdžiūnas chose the following morphological forms: isodyname (curve of equal strength), isogone (curve of equal deviation), isocline (curve of equal inclination) BF II 164; cf. also isobara, isochora, isogona, isoclina, isoterma, isotropa F 1958: 38–39, which a dozen or so years later were replaced by: isobar, isobath, isochore, isochromate, isochrone, isodyname, isogone, isotache, isotherm FTŽ 1979. However, the newly compiled Dictionary of Physics Terms (2007) returned once again to the morphological forms for naming these curves used in P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook.

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General Physics textbook uses hybrid terms formed from components and affixes of different origins. The following may be mentioned: 1) an international base word with a Lithuanian affix, more precisely, the suffix -imas, e.g.: autofazavimas BF IV 218 (: autofazavo), įelektrinimas BF II 5 (: įelektri-no), išsielektrinimas BF II 7 (: išsielektrino), persielektrinimas BF II 141 (: per-sielektrino), įmagnetėjimas BF II 190 (: įmagnetėjo), įmagnetinimas BF II 202 (: įmagnetino), jonizavimas BF IV 210 (: jonizavo); -umas, e.g.: elastingumas BF I 115 (: elastingas), intensyvumas BF IV 366 (: intensyvus), koherentiš-kumas BF III 106 (: koherentiškas), multipletumas BF IV 107 (: multipletus), poliarizuojamumas BF III 174 (: poliarizuojamas), proporcingumas BF I 107 (: proporcingas), radioaktyvumas BF IV 195 (: radioaktyvus), reliatyvumas BF III 286 (: reliatyvus), stabilumas BF IV 258 (: stabilus), etc.; 2) a Lithuanian base word with an international component, e.g.: ampervalanda BF II 71, ampervija BF II 185, antidalelė BF IV 200, antimagzis BF I 174, an-timedžiaga BF IV 336, bilėšis BF III 109, elektrovara BF II 90, fotodaugintu-vas BF II 255, fotolaidumas BF III 248, fotoplokštelė BF IV 206, fotosluoksnis BF IV 208, fotosrovė BF III 240, fotovarža BF III 248, hiperbranduolys BF IV 330, kilovatvalanda BF II 86, magnetovara BF II 183, ortovandenilis BF IV 367, paravandenilis BF IV 367, piezoašis BF II 63, piezogarsikal-bis BF II 60, superlaidininkis BF II 98, superlaidumas BF II 97, supertakumas BF II 100, termoelektrovara BF II 256, termokryžius BF II 258, ultragarsas BF I 207, etc.

There are also a few adjectives or participles formed in this way that function as secondary components of compound terms, e.g.: antiužtveriamasis [layer] BF II 245, autosvyruojanti [system] BF I 170, elektroneigiamos [gas] BF I 217, hipersmulkioji [structure] BF IV 139, ultraprarė­tintas [state] BF I 257, ul-tratrumpoji [radio wave] BF II 348, etc.

2.4. The textbook contains predominantly compound terms—two-word and three-word terms. According to their head component, they can form certain families and subfamilies, e.g.:

axis: electric a. BF II 10, horizontal a. BF II 36, magnetic a. BF II 158, nonpolar a. BF II 61, optical a. BF II 61, polar a. BF II 61, ferroelectric a. BF II 57;

wave: elastic w. BF II 63, electromagnetic w. BF II 331, electron w. BF III 315, phase w. BF III 313, longitudinal w. BF I 175, radiated radio w. BF II 345, coherent w. BF III 107, microwave radio w. BF II 358, undamped radio w. BF II 340, plane w. BF I 183, radio w. BF III 19, spherical w. BF I

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183, transverse w. BF I 175, propagating w. BF I 173, shock w. BF I 150, standing w. BF I 181, but standing w. BF III 127, standing electromagnetic w. BF II 336, light w. BF III 128, ultrasonic w. BF II 63, ultrashort radio w. BF II 348;

law: Ampère's l. BF II 172, generalized Coulomb l. BF II 54, Biot–Savart l. BF II 168, law of electromagnetic induction BF II 6, Faraday's l. BF II 120, Faraday's law of electrolysis BF II 110, Faraday's law of induction BF II 324, Fermi distribution law BF II 91, Kepler's l. BF II 12, Curie's l. BF II 194, classical (Maxwell) distribution law BF II 91, Coulomb's l. BF II 11, Lenz's l. BF II 226, Maxwell distribution law BF II 91, Ohm's l. BF II 109, dilution law BF II 117, Poole's l. BF II 108;

energy: activation e. BF II 109, atomic e. BF I 48, chemical e. BF I 48, electrical e. BF I 48, electric field e. BF II 34, electrokinetic e. BF II 230, electromagnetic e. BF I 48, electron kinetic e. BF II 142, electric current e. BF II 85, energy of a charged conductor BF II 34, ionization e. BF II 142, ion activation e. BF II 110, kinetic e. BF I 46, free e. BF I 297, magnetic e. BF I 48, mechanical e. BF I 48, zero-point e. BF I 361, surface e. BF I 308, potential e. BF I 47, potential-barrier e. BF II 249, bond e. BF I 359, radiation e. BF I 48, stored e. BF II 34, bound e. BF I 297, excitation e. BF II 106, thermal e. BF I 48;

velocity: electron v. BF II 142, angular v. BF I 26, cathode-particle v. BF II 153, critical v. BF II 187, instantaneous v. BF I 20, constant v. BF II 139, relativistic v. BF I 36, speed of light BF II 187, drift v. BF I 36, average v. BF I 20;

force: atomic f. BF II 42, repulsive f. BF II 158, electric f. BF II 13, electrostatic f. BF II 117, electromotive f. BF II 79, gravitational f. BF II 12, inertial f. BF II 89, alternating ponderomotive f. BF II 177, guiding f. BF II 43, Coulomb f. BF II 13, but Coulomb repulsion f. BF II 24, magnetomotive f. BF II 183, molecular f. BF II 42, ponderomotive f. BF II 173, intermolecular f. BF II 133, thermoelectromotive f. BF II 256, attractive f. BF II 158, valence f. BF II 117;

crystal: dielectric c. BF II 110, biaxial c. BF I 344, ionic c. BF II 42, molecular c. BF I 357, ferroelectric c. BF II 57, liquid c. BF I 344, valence c. BF I 357, uniaxial c. BF I 344;

charge: electric ch. BF II 8: particle electric ch. BF II 40, elementary electric ch. BF II 38, volume electric charge³ BF II 9, induced electric ch. BF II 27, par-

³The secondary component of this and other compound terms whose head component is the term charge or current (see below)

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upper electric charge BF II 10, specific electric charge BF II 89, bound electric charge BF II 45, point electric charge BF II 9, volume electric charge BF II 71, induced charge BF II 26, negative dipole charge BF II 55, surface charge BF II 45, positive dipole charge BF II 55, but positive space charge BF II 144;

conductance: defect conductance BF II 105, gas electrical conductance BF II 133, electrical conductance BF II 72, electronic conductance BF IV 389, non-self-sustained gas conductance BF II 135, air conductance BF II 68, impurity conductance of a semiconductor BF II 104, intrinsic semiconductor conductance BF II 104, hole conductance BF IV 389, specific conductance BF II 73, thermal conductance BF II 101;

field: electric field BF II 6, electric force field BF II 13, electromagnetic field BF II 324, critical magnetic field BF II 210, magnetic field BF II 6, magnetic force field BF II 159, annihilating electric field BF II 59, polarizing external field BF II 27, potential field BF II 22, solenoidal force field BF II 183, rotating magnetic field BF II 307, vortex-free field BF II 183, vortex electric field BF II 325, uniform magnetic field BF II 99, Earth's electric field BF II 66, Earth's magnetic field BF II 162;

rays: electron rays BF II 106, gamma rays BF II 106, canal rays BF II 154, cathode rays BF II 153, cosmic rays BF II 135, neutron rays BF II 106, X-rays BF II 153, hard X-rays BF II 155, soft X-rays BF II 155, light rays BF III 35;

current: displacement current BF II 301, extra current BF II 229, electric current BF II 70: two-phase electric current BF II 304, Foucault current BF II 232, charging current BF II 131, discharging current BF II 131, alternating electric current BF II 286, convection current BF II 170, quasistationary electric current BF II 287, molecular electric current BF II 159, direct electric current BF II 69, nonstationary electric current BF II 286, displacement electric current BF II 325, stationary electric current BF II 286, three-phase electric current BF II 305; current of ideal fluids BF I 132, ionization current BF II 135, concentration current BF I 346, convection current BF II 68, conduction current BF II 325, laminar current BF I 131, saturated ionization current BF II 138, fluid current BF I 131, stationary current BF I 132, still-air current BF II 68, turbulent current BF I 131, etc.

P. Brazdžiūnas has far more specific terms in General Physics than V. Čepinskis does in Lectures on Physics. Moreover, some generic and specific terms in both textbooks that designate the same concepts differ, for example:

the element electric would seem redundant; cf. FTŽ: space charge, specific charge, point charge, volume charge; two-phase current, Foucault current, alternating current, convection current, quasistationary current, nonstationary current, direct current, stationary current.

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wave: transverse wave BF I 175 and transverse wave FP I 56;

state BF I 221 and condition FP VII 206;

element: concentration element BF II 123 and concentration element FP VII 223;

energy: chemical energy BF I 48 and chemical energy FP I 60, electric energy BF I 48 and electrical energy FP I 60, potential energy BF I 47 and potential energy FP I 59, thermal energy BF I 48 and heat energy FP I 60;

velocity BF I 26: angular velocity BF I 26, uniform velocity BF I 19–20, average velocity BF I 26 and speed FP I 85: angular velocity FP I 85, uniform velocity FP I 52, average velocity FP I 17;

force: electromotive force BF II 79 and electromotive force FP VII 167, friction force BF I 103 and friction force, rubbing force FP I 27;

phenomenon BF II 6: piezoelectric phenomenon BF II 61 and phenomenon FP VII 1: piezoelectric phenomenon FP VII 118;

current: two-phase electric current BF II 304 and two-phase current FP VII 334, three-phase electric current BF II 305 and three-phase current FP VII 334;

oscillator BF I 95 and pendulum FP I 90, etc.

However, there are quite a few generic terms shared by both textbooks (Kaulakienė 2006: 87). This shows that some physics terms of the time had already become established. Particularly many terms from General Physics have survived to the present day; compare:

electric, magnetic, optical axis;

electromagnetic, electronic, longitudinal, plane⁴ (FTŽ plane), radio, spherical, transverse, travelling (FTŽ travelling), light, ultrasonic wave;

Ampère’s, Biot–Savart’s (FTŽ Biot and Savart), Faraday’s law of induction, Kepler’s, Curie’s, Coulomb’s, Ohm’s law;

activation, atomic, chemical, electric-field, electrokinetic, electromagnetic, kinetic, free, magnetic-field, zero-point, bond, radiation, stored (FTŽ stored), bound, excitation, thermal energy;

angular, instantaneous, constant (FTŽ constant), light, average speed;

atomic, electric, electrostatic, electromotive, gravitational, inertial, magnetomotive, ponderomotive, intermolecular, thermoelectric, attractive force;

bielectric, ionic, molecular, ferroelectric, liquid crystal;

electric, elementary (FTŽ elementary) electric, induced (FTŽ induced) electric, bound electric charge;

electrical, electronic, intrinsic semiconductor, hole, specific conductivity;

⁴ Most General Physics compound terms have secondary constituents formed by adjectives or participles in non-definite forms.

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electric, electromagnetic, magnetic, potential, and solenoidal fields; gamma rays, canal rays, cathode rays, hard X-rays (FTŽ Rentgeno), soft X-rays (FTŽ Rentgeno), X-rays (FTŽ Rentgeno), cosmic rays, etc.

The abundance of terms in the General Physics textbook used to date indicates that both the textbook’s author and its editors undertook substantial terminological standardization work. Only a few, apparently in the author’s opinion, questionable compound two- or three-word terms are written in quotation marks, e.g.: “quantity of magnetism” BF II 157, “material point” model BF II 91, “friction” force BF II 89, although some of these are still used today: material point, frictional force (FTŽ).

The textbook also contains compound terms of four or even five words, which most often appear as subsection headings or are set in italics in the text, e.g.:

component⁵: component of electric field strength BF II 18; energy: magnetic energy of electric currents BF II 231; generator: magnetron generator of ultrashort waves BF II 352, generator of undamped radio waves BF II 340, generator of a retarding electric field BF II 349, rotating electric-current generator BF II 318, ultrashort radio-wave generator BF II 348; velocity: angular velocity of electron motion BF II 195; inertia: inertia of electric-charge carriers BF II 90; force: mutual interaction force of magnetic poles BF II 157, ponderomotive force of the magnetic field BF II 172; coefficient: coefficient of internal friction of gases BF II 41, coefficient of expansion of ideal gases BF II 96, temperature coefficient of resistance of metals BF II 95, X-ray absorption coefficient BF II 156, coefficient of specific electric polarization BF II 53; charge: electric charge of opposite sign BF II 35; conductivity: self-sustained electrical conductivity of gases BF II 133, but non-self-sustained electrical conductivity of gases BF II 133; system: absolute Gaussian system of magnetic units BF II 160, absolute MKSA system of practical units BF II 188; radiation: radioactive radiation from water sources BF II 135; current: electric current of audio frequency BF II 177, sinusoidal alternating electric current BF II 287, three-phase alternating electric current BF II 304; capacitance: electrical capacitance of the Earth BF II 31;

⁵There are only a few such terms, formed from substantivized participles or adjectives, in P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics, e.g.: resultant: resultant of components BF II 225, resultant of forces of attraction BF II 308; component: horizontal component BF II 49, tangential component BF II 149, component of magnetic moment BF II 198, normal component BF II 46, perpendicular component BF II 49; multiple: multiple of the elementary electric charge BF II 40; tangent: tangent to a ring BF II 90.

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density: energy density of the electric field BF II 35;

resistance: resistance of an alternating-current circuit BF II 288;

unit: strength of a magnetic pole BF II 158;

transition: second-order phase transition BF II 98, first-order phase transition BF II 98.

Some compound three- or four-word terms have a somewhat unusual word order, e.g.: gas electrical conductivity BF II 133, electrolytic polarization of electrodes BF II 119, kinetic energy of an electron BF II 142, free path of electrons BF II 90, discrete structure of electricity BF II 38, magnetic energy of electric currents BF II 230, magnetic moment of a gram-atom BF II 193, free path of ions BF II 135, thermionic emission of the cathode BF II 148, electrical polarization of conductors BF II 27, dielectric polarization of a material BF II 43, temperature coefficient of resistance of metals BF II 95, electrical resonance of a current BF II 295, temperature coefficient of resistance BF II 96, etc.

Among the few compound coordinate terms, the following are noteworthy: electrode–collector BF II 253, electrode–grid BF II 274, droplet–particle BF II 39, solenoid–toroid BF II 168, source–standard BF III 21, etc.

3. SYNONYMIC AND VARIANT EXPRESSION OF GENERAL PHYSICS TERMS

Compared with V. Čepinskis’s textbook General Physics, there are very few instances of synonymous and variant forms of terms in P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook Lectures on Physics.

3.1. Several synonymous one-word terms are found, joined by the disjunctive conjunction or, before which a comma may or may not be written, or one of the synonymous one-word terms is given in parentheses, e.g.: multiplicity, or multiplet BF IV 106, defect, or recombination BF II 103, dielectric, or insulator BF II 24, emulsion or suspension BF I 333, coulomb, or ampere-second BF II 12, spin, or spin rotation BF II 204, rotation, or rotation BF I 243, rheostat, or rheostat BF II 76, watt-hour or kilowatt-hour BF II 85;

mass (or weight) BF I 44, but center of mass or center of gravity BF I 41, beating (pulsation) BF I 179, adhesion (cohesion) BF I 216.

There are somewhat fewer concepts designated by a compound and a one-word term, or by two or several compound terms with the same meaning. Such synonymous terms are likewise joined by the disjunctive conjunction or, or one of them is given in parentheses, e.g.: two-electrode tube, or diode BF II 273, sound dispersion, or dispersion BF I 201, magnetization, or

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magnetic polarization BF II 190, inductive reactance, or inductance BF II 293, ion recombination, or molization BF II 116, but molization, or recombination, coefficient BF II 116, first anode, or accelerating electrode BF II 268, self-inductance coefficient, or self-inductance BF II 229, capacitive reactance, or conductance BF II 293, oscillating electric dipole, or oscillator BF II 334; multiple term (multiplet) BF IV 108, etc.

3.2. Somewhat more numerous are compound terms that differ in synonymous subordinate elements. Such terms are joined by the conjunction or, or one of them is given in parentheses, e.g.:

motion, or kinetic, energy BF I 46, spark, or breakdown, potential BF II 144, condensation, or Wilson, chamber BF II 271, body cubic, or volume, expansion coefficient BF I 358, body position, or potential, energy BF I 47, luminescent, or daylight, electric lamps BF II 152, minimum, or elementary, electric charge BF II 40, molecular attraction, or cohesion, pressure BF I 308, inhomogeneous, or nonhomogeneous, field BF II 55, semiconductor excitation, or activation, energy BF II 106, regenerative, or feedback, receiver circuit BF II 346, self-induction, or extra, current BF II 229, hole, or p-type, semiconductor BF II 105, liquid, or electrolytic, rheostat BF II 77, compressibility, or compression, coefficient BF I 114, current surface, or skin, effect BF II 234, string, or thread, electrometer BF II 37, freezing, or cooling, temperature BF I 337, shear, or torsional, modulus BF I 111, valence, or optical, electron BF II 90, homogeneous, or uniform, field BF II 55, equipotential, or equal-potential, surface BF II 22;

induction (or displacement) vector BF II 28, slowly varying (quasistationary) electric current BF II 183, molecular (molar) heat BF I 243, thermal (random) velocity BF II 94.

Usually, terms are presented this way when they are mentioned for the first time; thereafter, only one of them is used in the text, e.g.:

“We call this rotation of the electron spin, or spin rotation. As the electron rotates, an additional magnetic moment of spin is formed. In ferromagnets, the magnetic spin moments of two neighboring atoms are directed parallel <...>” BF II 204.

“<...> we usually connect rheostats, or rheostats, into the circuit. For this purpose, we change the resistance of the circuit’s rheostats <...>. <...> In laboratories, sliding-contact rheostats are most commonly used” BF II 76; compare also: decade, graphite, platinum, wire rheostat BF II 77.

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“We call the energy possessed by a moving body energy of motion, or kinetic energy. Let us differentiate the expression for kinetic energy <...>.” BF I 46. “The derivative of kinetic energy with respect to velocity expresses the momentum of a moving body” BF I 47.

“An electric field whose strength <...> is the same everywhere is called a uniform, or homogeneous, field” BF II 55. “In a uniform electric field, a torque <...> will act on the body in a uniform field, a dielectric body tilts in the direction of the electric field <...>” BF II 56 et al.

There is only one other instance in which compound terms differing in synonymous secondary components are both presented throughout the textbook, for example: “We call this type of deformation shear. We describe it by the shear, or torsional, modulus <...>. G is the shear, or torsional modulus, depending only on the elastic properties of the material. <...> in this case, we can express G as the shear, or torsional, modulus <...>” BF I 111.

3.3. Apart from the cases noted above in which synonymous expressions occur among the secondary components of compound terms, P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics contains only a few instances of variants among the secondary components of compound terms, for example: Joule heat BF II 87 and Joule’s heat BF II 202, ether hypothesis BF II 6 and hypothesis of the ether BF II 52, Coulomb force BF II 13 and Coulomb repulsion force, positive dipole charge BF II 55 and positive spatial charge BF II 144 et al.

From these few instances of synonymous and variant expressions among both single-word and compound terms’ secondary components, one may conclude that most terms in P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics had already been standardized. Later authors of physics publications and compilers of physics terminology dictionaries also drew on it.

4. CONCLUSIONS

P. Brazdžiūnas’s General Physics was the second Lithuanian four-part physics textbook for higher education, appearing approximately forty years after the first higher-education physics textbook, V. Čepinskis’s Lectures on Physics.

The terminology of both General Physics and Lectures on Physics comprises not only terms from pure physics but also general terms and physics terms related to other fields of physical and technological sciences.

2. The terminology of General Physics comprises Lithuanian words used as terms, derived forms, and international terms. Among derivatives, the most common suffixes are -imas/-ymas, -umas, -ybė, -inys, -iklis, -yklė, -tuvas, and the most common endings are -a, -is.

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Derivatives and compounds. Among compounds, formations with a verbal second constituent are more common.

Most international terms are of Latin and Greek origin, or entered through English or French from Latin or Greek.

3. Both in General Physics and in the textbook Lectures on Physics, there are perhaps the greatest number of compound two-word and three-word terms, which can be classified into certain clusters according to their main constituent. There are incomparably more such clusters in the General Physics textbook than in Lectures on Physics. Most compound terms in the General Physics clusters remain in use today. This demonstrates the considerable standardizing work done by both the textbook’s author and its editors.

4. The limited synonymic and variant expression of both one-word and compound terms in General Physics shows that most of the terms used in P. Brazdžiūnas’s textbook had already been standardized at the time and became the basis for later terminographic publications on physics.

LITERATŪRA

Akademikas 1992: Akademikas Povilas Brazdžiūnas. Sudarytojai E. Balnytė, V. Kalesinskas, E. Makariūnienė, Vilnius.

Blažienė I. 1987: Povilas Brazdžiūnas. Literatūros rodyklė, Vilnius.

Fizikos istorija 1988: Fizikos istorija Lietuvoje. I (1579–1940). Autorių kolektyvas: P. Brazdžiūnas, H. Horodničius, H. Jonaitis, A. Puodžiukynas, I. Šenavičienė, Vilnius.

Horodničius H. 1967: Bibliografija, – Lietuvos fizikos rinkinys 7(4), 877–879.

Jonaitis H. 1962: Bibliografija. – Lietuvos fizikos rinkinys 2 (1/2), 175.

Kaulakienė A. 1982: Dėl kelių sudėtinių verstinių terminų. – Kalbos kultūra 43, 39–43.

Kaulakienė A. 2003: Lietuviškų fizikos vadovėlių elektros ir magnetizmo terminai. – Terminologija 10, 107–116.

Kaulakienė A. 2006: Pirmojo lietuviško aukštosios mokyklos fizikos vadovėlio terminija. – Terminologija 13, 76–96.

Klimavičius J. 2005: Leksikologijos ir terminologijos darbai: norma ir istorija, Vilnius.

LTE II 1977: Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija 2, Vilnius.

Makariūnienė E. 1990: Povilas Brazdžiūnas. Kaunas.

Makariūnienė E., Klimka L. 1994: Lietuvos fizikų ir astronomų sąvadas, Vilnius.

Makariūnienė E., Klimka L. 2001: Lietuvos fizikų ir astronomų sąvadas, Vilnius.

MLTE I 1966: Mažoji lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija 1, Vilnius.

Puodžiukynas A. 1962: Bendroji fizika. – Mokslas ir technika 3, 37.

Šenavičienė I. 1982: Fizikos raida Lietuvoje (1579–1940), Kaunas.

Šiuolaikinė fizika 1997: Šiuolaikinė fizika Lietuvoje. Sudarytojai: E. Makariūnienė, E. Rupšlaukis, D. Usorytė, Vilnius.

ŠALTINIAI

A – Aušra. Laikraštis, išleidžiamas per Dra. Bassanavičių (1883–1886).

BF – Brazdžiūnas P. Bendroji fizika. 1–4 d., Vilnius, 1960–1965.

F – Fizikos terminų žodynas. Red. P. Brazdžiūnas, Vilnius, 1958.

FP – Čepinskis V. Fizikos paskaitos. I–VII sk., Kaunas, 1923–1926.

FTŽ – Fizikos terminų žodynas. Vyr. red. P. Brazdžiūnas, Vilnius, 1979.

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K – Keleivis iš Karaliaučiaus broliams lietuvininkams žinias parnešąs (1849–1879).

KF – Končius I. Fizika: Fizikos vadovėlis gimnazijoms [Rankraštis] (VUBR. F1. F1039), 1919.

PF – Neris P. Populiariskas rankvedis fyzikos, Šenandoras, 1889.

RTŽ – Radioelektronikos terminų žodynas. Vyr. red. V. Palenskis, Vilnius, 2000.

ŠF – Šakenis K. Fizika, Tilžė, 1920.

T – Terminai fizikos reikalams. – Lietuva, 1923–1924.

TERMINOLOGY OF THE TEXTBOOK BENDROJI FIZIKA BY POVILAS BRAZDŽIŪNAS

Bendroji fizika (General physics) by Povilas Brazdžiūnas was the second original textbook of physics for universities in four parts written in Lithuanian. It was published approximately forty years after the first Lithuanian textbook of physics for higher schools Fizikos paskaitos (Lectures on physics) by V. Čepinskis.

The terminology of Bendroji fizika and Fizikos paskaitos consists not only of pure terms of physics, but also of general terms and terms of physics related to other fields of physical and technological sciences. In Bendroji fizika terms are terminologized common words, word formations and international terms.

Among the word formations the most frequent are derivatives with suffixes -imas/-ymas, -umas, -ybė, -inys, -iklis, -yklė, -tuvas, -alas and with endings -as and -is and compounds. Among the later more frequent are compounds with a verbal second element.

The majority of international terms are of Latin or Greek origin or have come from Latin or Greek through English or French.

In both textbooks Bendroji fizika and Fizikos paskaitos the majority of terms are two or three word complex terms, which could be separated into a few families of words according to their main element. In Bendroji fizika there are lots more of such families than in Fizikos paskaitos. The majority of complex terms from Bendroji fizika are still in use. This demonstrates how successful was the normalization performed by both the author and the editor of the textbook.

All surnames of foreign scientists, which make subordinate elements of complex terms in Bendroji fizika have adapted forms with Lithuanian endings according to their approximate pronunciation. It can be concluded that foreign surnames in the language of science from the middle of the 20^th century have an adapted form according to the pronunciation.

Sparing usage of synonyms and variants of simple or complex terms shows that the majority of terminology of Povilas Brazdžiūnas’ textbook was already normalized and became the basis for the subsequent terminographical publications of physics.

Gauta 2007-09-19

Angelė Kaulakienė, Lietuvių kalbos institutas, P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, E. paštas [email protected]

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