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AURELIJA TAMULIONIENĖ
Institute of the Lithuanian Language
PUNCTUATION FEATURES IN LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STATE MATRICULATION EXAMINATION PAPERS
KEYWORDS: essay, punctuation, punctuation mark, state matriculation examination.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, there has been much discussion about the Lithuanian language and literature matriculation examination: from literacy, the choice of literary works, and assessment to other matters. Literacy is most often understood as having spelling and punctuation skills1. The most characteristic tendencies in students’ spelling errors in state matriculation examination papers have been discussed before (Tamulionienė 2015). This article continues the discussion of student literacy from another perspective—by examining punctuation features in student texts.
The subject of this article is forty papers from 2014 and sixty from 2018 for the Lithuanian language and literature state matriculation examination, awarded 80–100 points, from various regions of Lithuania2. The article focuses on papers by the highest-scoring students in order to establish the punctuation features of students who received the best marks; if the punctuation cases identified pose problems for these students, they are likely to be unclear to students who received lower marks as well. Moreover, the author of the article has examined a large proportion of the 2014 state matriculation examination papers. These show that there are so many punctuation errors that describing them comprehensively in a single article is almost impossible; it was therefore decided to begin by examining the punctuation features of one group—the students who received the highest marks.
The aim of the article is, by conducting a language analysis of Lithuanian language and literature state matriculation examination papers, to identify the most characteristic punctuation errors in student texts, attempt to establish their causes and features, and reveal the punctuation characteristics typical of student texts.
1 In this article, the word literacy is used with the same meaning.
2 The papers were received from the National Examination Centre under a cooperation agreement between the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and the National Examination Centre.
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To achieve the objective, the following main tasks were set: 1) to examine theoretical aspects of punctuation; 2) to conduct a language analysis of forty 2014 and sixty 2018 Lithuanian language and literature state matura examination papers awarded 80–100 points; 3) based on the results of the analysis, to identify the most characteristic punctuation errors made by students; 4) based on the identified types of the most characteristic punctuation errors, to attempt to determine their causes; 5) to reveal the punctuation features of students’ written work.
The article uses a descriptive-analytical method to examine the punctuation features of students’ work, while a quantitative (counting) method is used to calculate and present the frequency of punctuation errors in students’ work.
The first section of the article reviews the relevance of the study; the second examines more characteristic problematic cases of punctuation and presents a comparative statistical profile of the errors. All the cases discussed in the article are illustrated with examples from essays. The language of the illustrative examples has not been corrected and remains authentic.
1. THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
Punctuation is defined as “an applied branch of syntax whose subject is the establishment of rules for the use of punctuation marks <...> in written language” (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 186); “it is a historically formed system of punctuation marks in written language, used to indicate the structural (grammatical), semantic, and intonational (melodic) division of a text and its units (especially sentences), and to clarify, emphasize, and activate current logical and emotional-expressive information. It is also a system of principles and rules governing the use of punctuation marks” (Abaravičius 2002: 8).
The beginning of normative Lithuanian punctuation can be traced to Jonas Jablonskis’s Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė (1911). The book states that punctuation marks help “to read more easily <...> and show where to pause while reading, where to raise or lower one’s voice” (Jablonskis 1957: 542). In J. Jablonskis’s Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, published in 1922, punctuation is already given a separate chapter, “Punctuation Marks.” On punctuation, it says: “when reading, one must sometimes pause, raise or lower one’s voice, say one thing or another exclamatorily or interrogatively <...> To show how we should read written text, we use separate little marks—separators, or punctuation marks” (Jablonskis 1922: 270). The history of punctuation standardization is described in detail in Vidas Valskys’s article “Iš lietuvių kalbos skyrybos norminimo istorijos” (2014). In the linguist’s view, the publication Lietuvių kalbos rašyba ir skyryba (hereafter LKRS; is the most comprehensive account of punctuation norms.
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trys leidimai: 1976, 1989, 1992). Šiame leidinyje „apibendrinta ir susisteminta visa skyryba: pateiktos išsamios taisyklės ir gausūs jų iliustruojamieji pavyzdžiai <...> glaustai suformuluoti pagrindiniai skyrybos norminimo principai: sintaksinis <...> ir intonacinis“ (Valskys 2014: 156). LKRS rašoma, kad sakinio dalies intonacinis ir prasminis savarankiškumas priklauso nuo įvairių aplinkybių, todėl rašančiojo gali būti skirtingai suvokiamas (1992: 128).
In 2006, the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language adopted the resolution “On the Rules for Mandatory and Optional Punctuation.” The resolution was prepared by a group of linguists led by Albinas Drukteinis. On 28 September 2006, the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language approved the new rules for mandatory and optional punctuation by resolutions No. N-2 (103) and No. N-3 (104).
More than one article by a linguist appeared in the public sphere introducing readers to the rationale behind the punctuation reform, explanations of changes to certain cases, and so on (Drukteinis 2006; 2007a; 2007b; Kniūkšta 2007). The linguist A. Drukteinis writes that “[t]his stage in the regulation of punctuation shows that Lithuanian punctuation is currently at a crossroads. Reconciling the rules with the text creator’s communicative goals while also adhering to the principle of structural division, and additionally incorporating formal features, makes them partly inconsistent. The tendency to allow the writer greater freedom to decide is evident. This can be explained both theoretically and by punctuation practice. If this were a stage of further and more substantial reforms, such diversity of punctuation criteria could be tolerated for a time; in the long run, however, the rules could increasingly move toward free punctuation—that is, punctuation oriented toward textual clarity and expressiveness—at least where structural features are obvious and do not require the support of punctuation marks to be understood” (Drukteinis 2006: 205–206). A. Drukteinis identified the reasons why punctuation rules needed to be reviewed: the actual state of text authors’ ability to punctuate according to the rules, the possible complexity of the rules themselves, inability to apply them when punctuating specific cases, and so on (Drukteinis 2007b: 1–2). The linguist wrote that “[r]ules for mandatory punctuation are based on clear, usually formal (grammatical, structural) features. They are indicators of certain semantic elements, but do not allow those meanings to be interpreted subjectively. Rules for optional punctuation are formulated by reference to the text creator’s intention—the desire to emphasize or distinguish through intonation. Here, the writer is free to decide which nuances they wish to convey through punctuation marks” (Drukteinis 2007b: 1).
Lithuanian punctuation is based on three principles: syntactic, intonational, and semantic. The separation of mandatory and optional punctuation rules in 2006 was apparently intended to help both students and other writers apply those rules more easily. But is that what happened?
As soon as changes to punctuation were mentioned, discussions appeared in the public sphere suggesting that such a reform should make life easier for school students (Augulytė 2005; Gliožerienė 2005; Norvilaitė 2005).
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At that time, there was a great deal of active discussion. Later, as the discussions subsided, people began to question how the reform had affected the teaching process. This topic often comes up in meetings with teachers, and it is increasingly being said that the reform has not benefited students—the more freedom of choice, the greater the confusion. Looking at students’ written work as a whole, one sometimes gets the impression that the meaning of punctuation marks is often difficult to understand. As young people’s spoken-language intonation patterns change (they increasingly tend to raise their intonation at the end of a sentence, and so on), these intonational stresses can sometimes cause confusion when the structure of the sentence is not fully understood. The freedom to choose whether to use punctuation marks also entails great responsibility, which not everyone is able to manage. Other teachers, by contrast, welcome the reform, arguing that the point is not whether punctuation cases are mandatory or optional, but that everything depends on the ability to convey the rules, clearly teach sentence structure and the relationships between words. Admittedly, there is near-unanimous agreement that clearer explanations of some punctuation rules and examples from actual usage are needed, since current punctuation is based primarily on intonational and semantic principles. The question arises as to how far these principles can be relied on in the teaching process, because “to rely on intonation, as an element of a higher syntactic level, a writer must have sufficient knowledge of sentence structure” (Vasiliauskienė, Rimkutė 2007: 60).
Since 2015, the Institute of the Lithuanian Language has been examining papers from the state examination in Lithuanian language and literature, as well as other written work by school-leavers. The number of unjustified punctuation cases appears to be increasing; it seems that the significance of punctuation is not fully understood, which makes it difficult to make use of the options provided by punctuation rules. All this prompted the choice of this topic—to examine punctuation in students’ texts. It was no coincidence that papers by students who received the highest marks were also selected: the aim was to identify the most complex punctuation cases, which are unclear even to the students who write best.
It is worth noting that the punctuation problems arising today are similar to those of the past. Back in 1938, Pranas Skardžius wrote that “many people place punctuation marks without any order, as they happen to fall or as seems best to them” (Skardžius 1938: 38), while Petras Jonikas considered which punctuation system—grammatical-logical, pause-based, or intonational—should be relied on in Lithuanian (Jonikas 1939: 133).
It should also be noted that electronic communication (social networks, text messages, and emails) is particularly popular today. Fewer punctuation marks are used in electronic communication than in written texts. Linguist Asta Rykylienė conducted a study which found that authors of electronic texts not only choose whether or not to use punctuation marks, but also tend to use them either less or more often than necessary (Rykylienė 2001: 78),
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in text messages, “different usage tendencies and new ways of dividing up text can be observed” (Nevinskaitė 2010: 290); “there is a tendency to reduce punctuation, and some emails and online conversations contain none at all” (Crystal 2006: 94). As electronic communication grows, it is important to strengthen written-text punctuation skills.
Students’ punctuation skills in state examination papers have been studied by Vilija Salienė (2005: 101–103), and Kęstutis Bredelis (2011: 20–26) has written about students’ punctuation skills. Having examined the essay assessment criteria over several years, Zita Alaunienė writes in the article “The State of Lithuanian in Schools—What Can Be Corrected Right Now?” that the number of errors allowed is increased every year, that is, “literacy requirements are continually being lowered” (Alaunienė 2018: 6). At least as regards punctuation assessment, no major changes have been observed over the past five years (see Table 1). Every year, the National Examination Centre analyses and publishes statistical data on the state examination (available online: https://www.nec.lt/). Based on data from the National Examination Centre, Table 1 presents the punctuation assessment results for the 2014–2018 state examination in Lithuanian language and literature.
TABLE 1. Punctuation assessment results for the 2014–2018 state examination in Lithuanian language and literature, percent (compiled by the author based on data from the National Examination Centre)
2014
7 points are allocated to punctuation out of the total of 18 points allocated to language correctness
Points (number of errors)
7 (0–2)
6 (3)
5 (4)
4 (5–6)
3 (7–8)
2 (9–10)
1 (11–14)
0 (15–...)
Distribution of points (percent)
12,9
7,0
7,4
13,7
12,3
11,1
14,7
20,8
2015
7 points are allocated to punctuation out of the total of 18 points allocated to language correctness
Points (number of errors)
7 (0–2)
6 (3)
5 (4)
4 (5–6)
3 (7–8)
2 (9–10)
1 (11–14)
0 (15–...)
Distribution of points (percent)
12,2
7,2
7,3
13,2
13,0
11,6
16,0
19,6
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2016 | 7 points are allocated for punctuation out of the 19 points allocated in total for language correctness Points (number of errors) | 7 (0–2) | 6 (3) | 5 (4) | 4 (5–6) | 3 (7–8) | 2 (9–10) | 1 (11–14) | 0 (15–...) Distribution of points (percent) | 12.2 | 6.8 | 7.1 | 13.0 | 12.4 | 11.7 | 15.7 | 21.0 2017 | 7 points are allocated for punctuation out of the 19 points allocated in total for language correctness Points (number of errors) | 7 (0–2) | 6 (3) | 5 (4) | 4 (5–6) | 3 (7–8) | 2 (9–10) | 1 (11–14) | 0 (15–...) Distribution of points (percent) | 11.1 | 6.4 | 6.9 | 12.9 | 13.0 | 11.3 | 16.6 | 21.7 2018 | 14 points are allocated for punctuation out of the 38 points allocated in total for language correctness Points (number of errors) | 14 (0–1) | 13 (2) | 12 (3) | 11 (4) | 10 (5) | 9 (6) | 8 (7) | 7 (8) | 6 (9) | 5 (10) | 4 (11) | 3 (12) | 2 (13) | 1 (14) | 0 (15–...) Distribution of points (percent) | 5.8 | 5.7 | 5.9 | 6.6 | 6.5 | 6.4 | 6.7 | 6.4 | 6.0 | 5.4 | 5.2 | 4.7 | 3.9 | 3.5 | 21.1
Comparative information is presented below in Figures 1 and 2. The 2018 data are presented separately because the assessment system changed.
FIG. 1. Comparative analysis of the assessment results for punctuation in the Lithuanian language and literature state maturity examination, 2014–2017, percent (compiled by the author, based on data from the National Examination Centre)
The possible number of errors is indicated in parentheses next to the points.
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FIG. 2. Analysis of the 2018 assessment results for punctuation in the Lithuanian language and literature state maturity examination, percent.
(compiled by the author, based on data from the National Examination Centre)
The possible number of errors is indicated in parentheses next to the points.
As the data presented in Table 1 and Figures 1–2 show, in all the years compared (2014–2018), the largest proportion consists of students’ papers that received 0 points for punctuation. In every year, this figure fluctuates around 20–21 percent. Thus, among students assessed for punctuation, the largest group comprises those who make 15 or more errors in their essays.
The number of points awarded for punctuation and the proportion of papers (percent) examined in this article are presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2. Summary of the assessment results (points) and papers (percent) for the best-rated Lithuanian language and literature state maturity examination papers examined in this article
(compiled by the author, based on data from the National Examination Centre)
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As can be seen, the authors of the largest share (almost half) of the papers examined in the article received the maximum number of points for punctuation, that is, they wrote without punctuation errors or made just one or two errors.
The statistics provided by the National Examination Centre (more information at www.nec.lt) are very useful; they show that the number of punctuation errors in school-leaving examination papers has not changed in recent years. These statistical analyses do not show specific cases; they provide only aggregated data and do not examine examples. Therefore, this article seeks to identify specific punctuation features.
A brief review of research and a general statistical analysis show that punctuation has been a relevant issue for many years, and that further attention is still needed to improve punctuation skills. First, it is necessary to identify the punctuation features characteristic of the present situation; only then will it be possible to offer recommendations on how to teach and apply certain punctuation rules.
2. MOST CHARACTERISTIC PROBLEMATIC PUNCTUATION CASES
This section of the article examines incorrect sentence-punctuation cases found in the 2014 and 2018 state school-leaving examination papers. The punctuation of the sentences examined in the article was assessed only with respect to the aspects found in the papers studied; the cases are presented according to the order established in the punctuation rules, taking sentence structure into account (simple and compound sentences). The order in which problematic cases are presented is unrelated to how frequently they occur.
An examination of the punctuation of homogeneous sentence constituents in state school-leaving examination papers shows that they contain various types of error. It may be that students do not fully understand the concept of homogeneity; apparently, they most often punctuate based not on sentence structure but solely on intonation. In the first case (a), the error consists not in separating homogeneous sentence constituents from one another, but in setting them off, since homogeneous sentence constituents listed without conjunctions must be separated (not set off) by commas, e.g.:
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(a) The guards could easily take a child’s, woman’s, or man’s life, 3 solely to reach the required number of bodies.
Every feeling and object has both good and bad qualities.
Even the simplest clouds and overcast skies can reflect the transience of life.
In student work, this rule is most often ignored when punctuating homogeneous sentence parts joined by non-repeating coordinating conjunctions; for example:
(b) A person can become a stranger not only to another person but also to society as a whole, or even to themselves.
Mykoliukas thinks and realizes that he cannot marry simply because his brother has started a family.
<...> those who managed to survive there even a little longer would begin to suffer from cold-related illnesses and scurvy.
<...> possesses all the necessary character traits: courage, insight, and a sense of his own power, and he has no intention of yielding to others.
Vincas Kudirka sought to demonstrate his patriotism to society and young people, so that they would follow the example of an upright citizen.
A noble person means someone who is sincere, loyal, and loving.
For example, what some fruit smells like, or porridge eaten in kindergarten as a child.
Several errors involved failing to punctuate homogeneous sentence parts joined by the same repeated conjunctions; for example:
(c) Meanwhile, Severiutė’s husband dies, and she is left in utter poverty, now having neither love nor money.
<...> that same memory can both hurt us and make us sad.
<...>when more precise events are recalled, it is always possible to either do or remember.
2.2. Problematic cases of punctuation of explanatory sentence parts
The concept of explanatory sentence parts in the currently valid punctuation rules has been expanded to include the notion of specification. In the students’ texts examined, only one or two inaccurate cases of marking explanations were found. This may also be because punctuation of appositional sentence parts has become optional, while the punctuation of several explanatory sentence parts is apparently clear to the best-writing students. Only an isolated case was found in which several homogeneous sentence parts before a summarizing word at the end of a sentence were not separated (a); a single-member explanation in the middle of a sentence should have been set off
3In the examples given in subsection 2.1, the homogeneous sentence parts are underlined.
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by identical punctuation marks on both sides (b); after homogeneous sentence parts, before a summarizing word, a dash should have been written (the wrong punctuation mark was used) (c), for example:
(a) Indeed, the feeling of love matures an individual and changes their understanding of important things in life, such as commitment, care, understanding and respect for another person—all this, 4 which matters most in life.
(b) Skirgaila, as a duke has all the necessary character traits.
(c) <...> white gloves concealing a ring given by his mother, a connection with the homeland—all these are circumstances that evoke a feeling of dehumanization.
2.3. Problematic cases of punctuation of comparative expressions
When punctuating comparative expressions, one must assess what function they perform in the sentence. When they can be regarded as explanatory sentence parts, optional punctuation rules apply. There are no major punctuation problems in these cases; errors occurred a few times in separating comparative expressions on only one side, for example:
His love is dry stubble from a clearing; it, like fire5 “devours” Tilius.
Sometimes life, like an unbearable burden, pushes a person forward.
2.4. Problematic cases of punctuation with attributes
The relatively large group of errors involving punctuation with attributes shows that students are not always sure how to punctuate attributes. In some cases, this may happen because an expanded attribute can be confused with an expanded adverbial modifier, whose punctuation is optional.
An expanded attribute following the word it modifies must be set off by commas; students sometimes fail to recognize this attribute in the text and do not set it off with punctuation marks (a), for example:
(a) “Radviliada” is a work written according to the requirements of the panegyric genre at the time6.
The work, printed in Königsberg, is a religious primer intended to teach the peasants of Prussia the truths of the faith.
The teacher compares a person who ignores his calling to an unlit lamp <...>.
4In the examples examined in subsection 2.2, explanatory sentence parts are underlined.
5In the examples presented in subsection 2.3, comparative sentence parts are underlined.
6In the examples cited in subsection 2.4, expanded attributes are underlined.
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<...> a work that evokes laughter is in fact a cruel reality, which people had to experience imprisoned in the fascist Stutthof concentration camp between 1943 and 1945.
<...> the world and the people living in it change quite rapidly <...>.
Every person living on earth is different <...>.
A person in love with someone surprises them <...>.
In other cases, only one side of the expanded attribute is set off—the end (b) or the beginning (c); apparently, students do not always grasp the structure of sentence parts, for example:
(b) <...> to them, it was simply a body marked with a number, and the most important thing was for everything to match the report on paper.
<...> armed guards standing and keeping order deprived them of all hope <...>.
(c) Antanas Škėma, a surrealist, writes about this moral degradation, which has led humanity to alienation in his work.
Garšva, cast by historical circumstances into a distant country, is forced to engage in work that secures his physical, but not spiritual, well-being.
Another episode proving this is the burial of the dead.
A person who sees the world from its dark side will never become noble <...>.
The protagonist, immersed in his inner world, lives <...>.
It is sometimes forgotten that expanded attributes must be set off when they precede a pronoun (d), for example:
(d) Inspired by the clergyman and national poet Maironis, and influenced by his parents’ urging that he enter the seminary (at the beginning of the 20th century this was considered prestigious), he chooses the priesthood.
Inspired by the newspaper “Aušra,” edited by J. Basanavičius (not for nothing did J. Jablonskis say that “Aušra” was the gospel of the younger generation), he set about editing the newspaper “Varpas” <...>.
Only one case was found in which an expanded attribute preceding the word it modifies was set off (e), for example:
(e) <...> we see discord and wars, political slander and, propaganda that destroys people’s minds,.
2.5. Problematic cases of punctuation with extended adverbials
Paragraph 4 of the Optional Punctuation Rules approved in 2006 states: “An extended participial, half-participial or gerundial adverbial, or two or more non-extended ones, may be set off with commas if one wishes to highlight their semantic and intonational independence.” Thus, the punctuation of these adverbials
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is optional, and it might seem that punctuating texts should not pose any major difficulties. Examples from students’ written work show that problems arise because there is a tendency to separate an extended adverbial on only one side. Errors are most common when punctuating an extended participial, half-participial or gerundial adverbial that follows a conjunction. In terms of sentence intonation, a pause after the conjunction is not naturally required; it comes after the extended adverbial, and this leads to errors, as students forget that an extended adverbial must be set off on both sides, for example:
<...> the lines show that having run back into the safety of home,7 he does not dare go outside for three days. Therefore, Vasaris begins writing in secret and, having written his first poem about the longing for freedom, hides it in his Latin vocabulary notebook. <...> it is often more important to receive than to give, but despite humanity’s growing materialism, probably many would agree that, most often, no rules apply in love <...> the author of “The National Hymn” had become Polonized, but after reading “Aušra,” the newspaper edited by the nation’s hero J. Basanavičius, he turned to Lithuanian identity. Nevertheless, it is not for nothing that people say that when one has great power, one must be responsible. It may seem to many that to bring about changes in society, a country, a continent, or even across the entire planet, a majority of people is needed <...>. It was precisely in this way that the German authorities decided to take revenge on Lithuanians because, when mobilization was announced in Lithuania, young people did not join the SS units. For him, writing was the only way to give meaning to his existence and, while far from his homeland, to nurture its culture. <...> Mykoliukas goes to church on Sundays, where, settled in the grass, he plays the fiddle he made himself.
Other punctuation errors in students’ work occur when a comma is placed at the beginning of an extended adverbial, but the grammatical principle of punctuation is not followed, and the end of the adverbial is therefore left unmarked, for example:
A morally strong, motivated personality, believing in their own abilities and the idea they promote can successfully change a person’s outlook and values. The writers of this literary movement, creating fantastical, otherworldly images that often frighten the reader, use situations to convey the absurdity, instability and meaninglessness of life. Thus, even one person, possessing the necessary character traits, can determine the fate of an entire nation.
The examples provided show that students most often make mistakes when punctuating extended adverbials because they rely on the intonational principle of punctuation, forgetting that if a comma is not required intonationally
7In the illustrative examples in subsection 2.5, the extended adverbials are underlined.
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if the circumstantial phrase is needed at the end, then at its beginning one must also remember the other—grammatical—principle of delimitation.
2.6. Problematic cases of punctuation for parenthetical elements
The examples examined show that it is not so easy to determine, and it is not always clear, which word in a sentence is a parenthetical element. This may have resulted from the optional punctuation of modal words (modal words that are not normally set off may be set off if the writer sees a resemblance to parenthetical elements). A. Drukteinis points out that it “would be most useful for a student to set off everything that has meanings characteristic of parenthetical elements and does not function as a sentence part. If they wish not to set off words whose punctuation is optional, they must recognize them and not confuse them with genuine parenthetical elements” (Drukteinis 2007a: 10). As the examples examined show, students do not always set off parenthetical elements in a sentence (a), e.g.:
(a) Despite this8 every individual experiences love in one way or another in their life.
Perhaps you will agree that Mykoliukas lived in a similar way.
According to the Jewish-born writer Icchokas Meras, a human being is a world, and beneath every stone lies a story.
According to him, life is a theater, and all people are like marionettes.
But over time, one young man after another would dare to climb up, of course the first to begin climbing.
Everyone wants to be loved, just as probably everyone feels love for those close to them.
For example, when two people love each other, that is enough for them.
In my opinion, love provides the strongest source of nobility.
<...> we overheard by chance, of course this information is the least reliable of all.
Which of course endures and is passed on to later generations.
Clearly, she teaches her little daughter to play the piano, but gives no time to anyone else.
One further problem concerning the punctuation of parenthetical elements should be mentioned separately. Some words classified as modal are particles. In the past, when modal words did not need to be set off, there was no confusion about which particles functioned as modal words and which did not—all of them were left unpunctuated. Now all that remains is to memorize the individual particles that may be set off and not confuse them with others that do not function as modal words. The examples examined show that such errors do occur (b), e.g.:
(b) However, no everything ends so happily.
However, others disagree, arguing that relationships without mutual love only cause pain <...>.
8 In subsection 2.6, the examples under discussion have underlined parenthetical expressions (a) and particles (b) that are confused with parenthetical expressions.
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Therefore, as people from a village culture—a close-knit community—moved to cities, they became estranged and drifted apart.
After all, love can exist not only between two people.
Nevertheless, Elena does not leave her husband, and that is noble.
However, one day he came upon people working in the forest, and from then on everything changed.
2.7. Problematic cases of punctuation for ellipsis
In a sentence, a dash may be used in place of an omitted sentence part if it is to be emphasized intonationally, or nothing may be written. Using a comma in such a position is considered an error. All erroneous punctuation of ellipsis found in the students’ examined papers involves using an inappropriate mark where a dash may be used or no punctuation mark at all may be used, for example:
<...> respect, integrity. 9it is the pillar of nobility.
Love, a powerful feeling that leads people forward.
A person, a source of feelings, memories, and warmth.
Family, the people closest to a person, for whom one can do a great deal.
And a person, a unique being capable of using this knowledge.
The tactile sense, a memory that is also quite accurate.
2.8. Problematic cases of punctuation in subordinate clauses
The linking of subordinate clauses in complex sentences is discussed constantly. It might seem that punctuation is not all that difficult for those who understand sentence structure well. One need only memorize the subordinating words, identify the grammatical centres, pose a question to the subordinate clause, check by simply omitting it, and find not only where the subordinate clause begins but also where it ends. Incorrect punctuation of subordinate clauses in students’ work makes up the largest group of punctuation errors. Most often, students fail to identify the beginning of a subordinate clause (a), and less often its end (perhaps because a sentence quite frequently ends with a subordinate clause) (b); several cases occurred in which a subordinate clause in the middle of a sentence was not set off on either side (c); sometimes, in complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, students fail to set off the second subordinate clause (d), for example:
9In the examples discussed in subsection 2.7, the point of omission is underlined.
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(a) Everything changes when Petras decides to join the revolt and fight for a better life10.
Many authors, seeking to emphasize the importance of these matters, tried to depict how a person feels in an alienated world.
<...>thoughts that religion is like a garment which a person changes as they grow, he seeks love and peace with Ona Duonitė.
Unfortunately, his hopes were destroyed when the returning communists began carrying out even harsher repressions.
Nevertheless, Garšva found a way to resist the foreign environment and express his thoughts.
Kafka, by turning a person into a beetle in his book, wanted to show how easily a person can lose their sense of purpose in society.
The ruler no longer knows what to choose; one can argue that he is becoming similar to Liudas Vasaris, the protagonist of Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas’s intellectual psychological novel In the Shadow of the Altars.
<...> but the mountain’s ghosts try to frighten those who dare to climb up.
<...> and that very evening, having forgotten gratitude, Dalba finishes what he began.
<...> I will try to answer the question of whether love does, after all, lend nobility to a person’s everyday life.
<...> one feels like going there where they have gone.
<...> there is no emptiness that drives a person to despair or causes them to grieve.
(b) Thus, memory, which keeps our memories within us is extremely important.
He can enjoy everything that grows in the forest and smell its fragrance.
Literature speaks of love, which changes a person and their everyday life.
The prisoners’ marches and cruel, torturous labor, for which they receive barely a crumb of bread show how insignificant and meaningless human life is.
Realizing that Monika does not love him and that her love is false, Doveika feels devastated, old, and unwanted.
The lines of the novella show that the character is deeply shaken by the kitten’s death.
(c) However, there are moments when nothing beautiful can be seen around us, and then we feel very sad.
It is difficult to imagine where Lithuania would be today if people had never emerged.
This means that everyone must understand what they live for and feel responsible for the things they do in life.
(d) A striking episode is the one in which A. Garšva wonders why wax figures of Napoleon cannot stand in shop windows.
V. Mykolaitis-Putinas and B. Sruoga, who himself experienced what it means to be a concentration-camp prisoner.
<...> Four stages of his life are described, through which we see how the hero grew, and witness the course of the Livonian War and the hero’s death.
10 In subsection 2.8, subordinate clauses that are incorrectly punctuated are underlined in the illustrative examples.
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Young people are urged to hurry, because the most important tasks must be completed while there is still enough strength and desire; later, material well-being becomes the priority.
Several isolated cases of incorrect punctuation of comparative subordinate clauses (e) should be mentioned separately. These clauses may be confused with comparative phrases, whose punctuation is optional; one case was also found in which homogeneous subordinate clauses were joined by the non-repeating conjunction and (f) and separated by a comma, e.g.:
(e) Often, such enthusiasts’ hopes of changing the world may seem somewhat utopian; however, a person’s influence on those around them can be considerable as most people imagine.
Thus, alienation in Lithuanian literature is revealed as though we had no values, had become dehumanized, and were inadequate.
(f) The ruling power may decide who is destined to live and enjoy the beauty of “exalted moments,” and who will have to suffer and fight.
2.9. Problematic cases of punctuation in quotations
As the examples examined show, students have a good grasp of how to set off quoted text. Most students’ essays include excerpts from literary works, and these are punctuated correctly, apart from two isolated cases in which a colon after introductory words was omitted, e.g.:
Repeating a line of the poem, the author writes “Arise, arise, arise, arise...”11.
Although Dovydas understands that Galijotas is superior (the work says “My hands are only a shepherd’s staff”), he nevertheless shows moral strength by entering an unequal struggle.
2.10. Problematic cases of punctuation in compound coordinate sentences
When examining the punctuation of compound coordinate sentences, it is apparent that it is clearer to students: most often, the clauses of coordinate sentences are joined by the conjunctions and, but, however; students remember these conjunctions well, so it is easy to distinguish the sentence clauses they connect. Only a few cases were found in which punctuation marks were missing before the less common conjunctions only, therefore, for that reason, which join the clauses of a compound coordinate sentence, e.g.:
11The quotations in the examples in subsection 2.9 are underlined.
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Indeed, this principle has endured even in our times but now it is more democratic and every citizen can express an opinion12 <...>.
The poem “National Hymn” became the anthem so the lyrical subject there places it above material things.
Their relationship became nothing more than a spiritual bond so Mykoliukas knew that he would never forget her.
2.11. Unnecessary punctuation marks
An analysis of punctuation in students’ essays revealed cases for which it is difficult to justify the motivation for using punctuation marks: in one case, it may be confused with the punctuation of parenthetical elements; elsewhere, an instance of clarification may be discerned; most cases of unjustified punctuation occur when a comma is placed between the subject and predicate; other cases are apparently accidental, e.g.:
Isn’t it sad that the character became completely unneeded, simply because he grew old?13
Sometimes, when life becomes an unbearable burden, love, the only thing, pushes a person forward.
Because what we remember best is good feelings, time spent together <...>.
<...> Tilius, unconditionally yearning for young, fair-haired, windblown Agnė.
This trait is associated with a decent, honorable, noble person.
A person has several memories <...>.
And the feeling of love for one’s family will never fade.
It was extremely difficult for Mykolas, but because of love he played with all his might at the wedding.
<...> because we often want to touch and handle new items, feel them with our hands <...>.
2.15. Summary
An examination of students’ work revealed that most problems arise in punctuating subordinate clauses (28 percent of all instances of errors found in the work). Although the punctuation of complex sentences has essentially not changed (more complex or less frequent punctuation cases are not covered at school), it remains the most difficult area for students. This shows that students do not fully understand how to identify subordinate clauses; apparently, they also have difficulty grasping sentence structure. Although textbooks and other teaching resources on punctuation rules contain many recommendations for avoiding errors when punctuating subordinate clauses, these do not help.
12 In the illustrative examples in subsection 2.10, the clause of a compound sentence that should have been preceded by a punctuation mark is underlined.
13 The examples in subsection 2.11 contain underlined instances of unjustified punctuation.
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Clearly, students’ skills in understanding sentence structure and word relationships need to be strengthened; then both the rules and other methodological advice will be more effective.
Students also find the punctuation of attributes difficult (18 percent of all instances of errors found in the work).
Students most often make mistakes in punctuating extended attributes that follow the word they modify: that is, they usually fail to notice and set them off, or set them off on only one side. This, too, once again demonstrates that sentence structure and the relationships among sentence parts are not understood. In some cases, this may be because students confuse extended attributes with extended adverbials, whose punctuation is optional.
Students also make quite a few errors in punctuating parenthetical elements (17 percent of all instances of errors found in the work). It may seem simple to distinguish them: the lists of both parenthetical elements and modal words are nearly exhaustive, so one need only memorize them. Confusion may also arise from changes to punctuation rules—modal words were not previously set off, but now they are. Particles, except for beje, were also not set off; in the revised rules, the list of particles that may be set off has been expanded, so mistakes are often made when setting off particles on the assumption that they indicate modality.
Errors are also quite often made in punctuating homogeneous sentence parts (14 percent of all instances of errors found in the work). Students tend to set off homogeneous sentence parts as a group (rather than separate one from another); the examples show that students are unsure how to punctuate homogeneous sentence parts with repeated or non-repeated conjunctions. It may be that they rely solely on intonation when punctuating homogeneous sentence parts.
The optional punctuation of extended adverbials remains confusing for students (11 percent of all instances of errors found in the work). These adverbials could simply be left unpunctuated, but intonation apparently sometimes creates a perceived need to set them off, and students forget that in such cases they must be set off on both sides.
Other problematic punctuation cases are few, occurring only once or twice each. A somewhat larger group consists of sentences (9 percent of all instances of errors found in the work) for which one can only speculate about the reasoning behind the punctuation. The option to punctuate or not does not always help with cases of ellipsis (6 percent of all instances of errors found in the work): the only possible punctuation is a dash, or no punctuation at all; however, this is sometimes apparently forgotten, and an intonational pause is marked with a comma instead of a dash. Only a few errors occurred in punctuating clauses of compound sentences (3 percent of all instances of errors found in the work), explanatory sentence parts (3 percent of all instances of errors found in the work), and comparative expressions (3 percent of all instances of errors found in the work). Figure 3 shows the percentage distribution of typical punctuation errors in students’ essays.
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FIG. 3. Characteristic punctuation errors in students’ essays (%)
This article discusses only the most characteristic punctuation errors found in students’ essays that received the highest marks. The study is ongoing. After examining more essays (including those that received lower marks), conducting other necessary research, and consulting teachers, we hope to present comprehensive research findings. In the future, we also hope to examine teachers’ assessments of punctuation errors—that is, what problems and uncertainties teachers encounter when assessing students’ work, in which cases their assessments differ, and so on. This would further clarify the causes of punctuation errors and make it possible to provide specific recommendations on how to avoid them.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Lithuanian punctuation is based on three principles—semantic, intonational, and grammatical. At present, the semantic principle, associated with the grammatical one, predominates. Greater freedom entails greater responsibility, especially when it comes to the teaching process. Rules can be applied, and numerous errors avoided, only by having a good understanding of the sentence’s internal structure and the relationships between words in the sentence, as well as a strong and precise sense of intonation.
2. An examination of punctuation errors in one hundred Lithuanian language and literature state matriculation examination papers scored at 80–100 points showed that errors in punctuating subordinate clauses are the most common. When punctuating complex sentences, one most often needs to rely on the grammatical
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principles of punctuation (other methodological recommendations can, of course, also help—for example, learning subordinating words, and so on). The abundance of errors indicates that instruction in sentence structure and word relationships needs to be strengthened.
3. Another large group of punctuation errors involves incorrect punctuation of extended postpositive attributes. In their structure, extended attributes may resemble extended adverbial modifiers, whose punctuation is optional. A poor understanding of the difference between them and of sentence structure causes problems with punctuating attributes (in the cases examined, they were not punctuated at all). On the other hand, as for punctuation of extended adverbial modifiers themselves, it is also clear that the option of leaving them unpunctuated does not always help. Intonationally, the beginning or the end of these modifiers is emphasized in the sentence, so errors arise when they are punctuated on only one side.
4. The revised punctuation rules changed the punctuation of modal words and expanded the list of particles that may be set off. Examples examined from students’ written work show that this is somewhat confusing for students: when they have not learned the lists of parenthetical and modal words and of particles that may be set off, they confuse these particles with others and set them off as modal words.
5. The boundaries of coordination are not always easy to determine (after the rules were revised, there is no longer a strict boundary between explication and coordination); examination of students’ texts showed that errors most often occur in punctuating straightforward and clear cases of enumerative coordination. There is a tendency to set off such coordinated sentence parts rather than separate them. This may be influenced by confusion with the punctuation of explicative sentence parts (which may be set off on both sides in a sentence).
6. Other cases of the punctuation errors examined point only to isolated punctuation issues: sometimes unmotivated punctuation marks are used; there is confusion over omission punctuation (a comma is most often used instead of a dash or the option of leaving the text unpunctuated); quoted text is punctuated inaccurately on several occasions; and clauses of compound sentences joined by less frequently used adversative or conclusive conjunctions are left without punctuation marks (tik, tad, dėl to).
7. An overall statistical analysis of Lithuanian language and literature state matriculation examination papers shows that the frequency of students’ punctuation errors has remained almost unchanged over the past five years. The largest share of students (about 21%) make 15 or more punctuation errors in their essays and thus receive 0 points for punctuation; on average, about 11–12% of students receive the maximum number of points for punctuation. This figure has also remained almost unchanged for five years.
8. An overall analysis of statistical data and individual punctuation errors shows that punctuation is difficult for many students. These difficulties apparently arise for various reasons: because of the rules
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misunderstanding, because of the teaching of punctuation, confusion between optional and mandatory punctuation cases, misunderstanding of sentence structure and the relationships between individual words, etc.
9. To identify more specific causes of punctuation errors and ways to avoid them, it is important to continue examining the work of other students and to analyze separately the most difficult cases of teachers’ punctuation assessments, which themselves give teachers cause for doubt.
LITERATŪRA
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Įteikta 2018 12 10
Priimta 2018 12 30
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THE SPECIFICS OF PUNCTUATION IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE NATIONAL GRADUATION EXAM PAPERS
Summary
This article deals with the punctuation in the papers (essays) of the Lithuanian language and literature national graduation exam, covering a scope of forty essays from the 2014 Lithuanian language and literature national graduation exam and sixty, from the 2016 exam; all essays were graded between 80 and 100. The study aimed to find out which of the punctuation mistakes were the most typical in student papers, attempting to dissect their causes and specifics and disclose the typical punctuation qualities of student texts.
Statistical analysis of punctuation mistakes covering a period of five years has shown that punctuation is a rather significant problem, with a substantial group (21 per cent) of students still receiving 0 grades for their punctuation (which means they make 15 mistakes and more).
A more thorough investigation of the punctuation in the top-graded papers has revealed that most of the punctuation mistakes present in them relate to punctuation of secondary clauses. Another large group of mistakes is found in the punctuation of extended attributes. These attributes structurally resemble extended adverbial modifiers a lot, leading to confusion in punctuation. On the other hand, in terms of the punctuation of extended adverbial modifiers as such, it is evident that the possibility of using no punctuation at all does not always help either. As far as intonation is concerned, it is natural to want to stress either the beginning or the end of this modifier, and mistakes are only made in punctuating the adverbial modifiers on one side. Changes in the punctuation of modal words have expanded the list of particles that can be punctuated, and students do not always memorise this list and tend to mix these particles up with others, punctuating them. Mistakes are made in punctuating cases of listed uniformity as well. There is a clear inclination towards punctuating such uniform parts of the sentence on both sides instead of separating them. Other cases of punctuation mistakes covered only point to individual characteristics of punctuation, with students sometimes using unmotivated punctuation marks, showing confusion in terms of hiatus punctuation, repeatedly making mistakes in punctuating quotes, elements of coordinate clauses, and so on.
The overall analysis of statistical data and separate punctuation mistakes shows that punctuation is difficult to a lot of school students. The difficulty is most likely caused by various reasons: the understanding of the rules, the teaching of punctuation, the confusion in choosing
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optional and mandatory punctuation cases, the failure to understand the grammatical composition of the sentence and the connections between individual words, and so on. To be able to narrow down the specific causes for making punctuation mistakes and potential methods of avoiding them, it is critical that analysis of the papers by other students continues and the most complicated cases of grading punctuation by teachers, those that even the teachers themselves are dubious about, are investigated separately.
KEYWORDS: essay, punctuation, punctuation mark, national graduation exam.
