Anželika Gaidienė

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

THE ENEMY IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

Keywords: enemy, concept, illustrative sentence, semantics, Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language.

Abstract

The aim of this study is to discuss, on the basis of illustrative sentences, a fragment of the ENEMY concept recorded in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereinafter _e).

The study showed that in the LKŽ_e, the enemy is primarily the hostile army of another country that has launched an attack, whose actions toward the country being attacked (or having been attacked) are stereotypical. The actions in warfare of the country defending itself against the enemy are also fairly predictable and stereotypical. Rarely, when the country defending itself against the enemy is discussed, is Lithuania (or Lithuanians) named in the illustrative sentences in the LKŽ_e. A specific enemy of Lithuania (or the Lithuanians) is also named very rarely in the illustrative sentences presented in the LKŽ_e.

In illustrative sentences in the LKŽ_e, an enemy may also be a hostile person or animal; something that causes harm or is detrimental to a person, an abstract phenomenon, or a specific object; a person or people with opposing convictions; and someone or something that one condemns or considers harmful or bad.

Introductory remarks

Identity is understood by emphasizing distinctiveness, which may be associated with distancing oneself from others or even with opposition to them. In his book Creating the Enemy and Other Occasional Writings, Umberto Eco states: “Having an enemy is important not only in order to define our identity, but also to acquire an obstacle,”

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against which we can measure our system of values and, by clashing with it, demonstrate our worth. Therefore, when there is no enemy, one must be created” (Eco 2011: 11). According to U. Eco, enemies are different from us and behave according to customs that are not ours; the enemy must be ugly, because beauty is identified with goodness; the enemy always stinks; sometimes the enemy is perceived as different and ugly because of low origins (Eco 2011: 11–35). Discussing fears of waves of immigration and giving the example of Italy, where the image of the Romanian is an ideal scapegoat for society, U. Eco writes: “On the one hand, we can recognize ourselves only in the presence of the Other, and the rules of coexistence and custom are based on this. Yet we prefer to regard that Other as intolerable, because they are not us. Thus, by turning them into an enemy, we create our own hell on earth” (Eco 2011: 35).

The aim of this study is to discuss, on the basis of illustrative sentences, a fragment of the ENEMY concept¹ recorded in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ). The article sets out the following tasks: 1) to discuss definitions of enemy in explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language; 2) to identify and discuss possible enemies, their characteristics, and their actions as recorded in the illustrative sentences of the LKŽ. The research methods are semantic analysis, interpretation, and description.

This article does not set out to describe the ENEMY concept² as a whole; rather, it seeks to reconstruct the fragment of the concept recorded in the LKŽ. As Aloyzas Gudavičius (2011: 113) states, “the concept itself is not an object of lexical semantics. However, the linguistic expression of a concept is a subject of linguistics.” According to Alan Cruse (2014: 396), “the primary function of a word is to activate the concept with which it is associated.” Ronald

¹ This article’s subject—the ENEMY concept—was chosen for a reason. A collective scholarly study by several authors (Veslava Čižik-Prokaševa, Anželika Gaidienė, Aurelija Gritėnienė, Danutė Liutkevičienė, Loreta Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė), Friends and Enemies of Lithuania, 1922–2022: Semantic and Structural Changes, is currently being written. It reveals the semantic and structural changes, and their causes, in selected identity words (friend, enemy, Russia, Germany, etc.).

² In this study, a concept is understood as a unit of structured knowledge held by an individual and society, accumulating complex knowledge about a particular thing, phenomenon, action, etc., and associated with the categorization and conceptualization of the world. A concept’s content and structure may change depending on the surrounding world (Gaidienė 2016: 15).

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Langackerio (1987: 56) teigimu, žodžiai yra konceptualiųjų žinių struktūros „prieigos taškai“.

Zinaida Popova ir Josifas Sterninas (2007: 79) taip pat teigia, kad „kalbinė nominacija – raktas, atveriantis žmogui konceptą kaip mąstymo vienetą, leidžiantis operuoti juo mąstymo procese“. Taigi galima teigti, kad kiekviena atskira nominacija atspindi tik tam tikrus koncepto požymius, vadinasi, atspindi tam tikrą koncepto fragmentą (Gudavičius 2009: 51).

According to the Lublin ethnolinguists, “the understanding present in language, which encompasses certain concepts, must be brought to light from various language sources and then divided by style and genre, time and space” (Smetonienė et al. 2019: 12). The resulting constituent parts are called profiles of the view of the world, and their description makes it possible to formulate a comprehensive picture of the subject (Smetonienė et al. 2019: 12). We concur with the view that “[A]n analysis of dictionary data makes it possible to reconstruct the lexicographic view of the world in a language” (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 31), and that a comprehensive picture of a subject requires analysis of different types of data—not only systematic (lexicographic) data, but also questionnaire and textual data (for more on this, see Smetonienė et al. 2019: 12–16).

Using the LKŽ as a corpus is not a new undertaking. One of the first to write about the LKŽ as a foundational text of Lithuanian culture that must be read and studied was Viktorija Daujotytė-Pakerienė (2002: 34). The LKŽ is distinctive in that it “has read Lithuanian writing, a large part of the classics <...>” (Daujotytė-Pakerienė 2002: 36). The dictionary is also unique in its historical character and wealth of dialectal material; therefore, research using it as a source may help reconstruct, through lexis, fragments of the Lithuanian worldview up to the 21st century.

The LKŽ’s value and interest as a research source have already been demonstrated by scholarly studies:

the political worldview recorded in this dictionary has been studied (Zabarskaitė 2010); using material by Adalbert Bezzenberger recorded in the dictionary, the Curonian Lagoon, the area around it, and its inhabitants have been described (Zabarskaitė 2012); and the images of rowan (Gritėnienė 2016), the dictionary (Gritėnienė 2017), terminology (Umbrasas 2019), and Russia (Gritėnienė 2020) have been studied.

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The research material for this article was gathered from the electronic version of the dictionary, which comprises all volumes of the dictionary (hereafter LKŽ_e). A detailed search yielded over 450 illustrative sentences containing the lexeme priešas³. Ninety percent of the sentences found in LKŽ_e are drawn from various written and manuscript sources: sentences found in the works of particular writers, cultural figures, and others (e.g., Maironis, Salomėja Nėris, Petras Cvirka, Justinas Marcinkevičius, Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius, Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas, Žemaitė, Ieva Simonaitytė, Antanas Vienuolis, Jonas Jablonskis, Juozas Balčikonis, and others), as well as sentences found in encyclopedias, dictionaries, and anthologies, and sentences occurring in written language (rš = a word or sentence from a written source) and the press (sp = a word or sentence from the press). Only about 10 percent of the sentences found in LKŽ_e that contain the lexeme priešas consist of sentences recorded from spoken language.

Since a larger share of the written-language sentences consists of excerpts from various written works and the press, it is important to recall that during the Soviet period LKŽ did not escape (self-)censorship and ideological interference in the contents of the dictionary (for more on this, see Gritėnienė 2020: 42–43, among others), and only “from Volume XVI onward did ideological material in the dictionary decline, and after the restoration of independence it disappeared altogether” (Zabarskaitė 2010: 128). However, as Vytautas Vitkauskas (2002: 11) argues, even during the period of (self-)censorship, “the facts of dialects and old texts, living sentences that brought the life and thought of the nation into sharper focus, were of foremost importance to scholarship.”

From a linguistic perspective, the ENEMY concept has received little study.

Gana plačiai šis konceptas aptartas Viktorijos Makarovos (2014) straipsnyje, kuriame pristatomi lietuvių kultūros koncepto PRIEŠAS ir rusų kultūros koncepto ВРАГ lyginamosios analizės rezultatai. Tyrimas buvo atliktas remiantis 100 pavyzdžių iš publicistikos diskurso (lietuvių kalbos ir rusų kalbos tekstynų). Prieita prie tokių išvadų: 1) tas pats subjektas lietuvių tautos sąmonėje gali būti draugu ir virsti priešu; 2) lietuviams priešai yra lenkų puolančios

³ Loreta Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė (2020) wrote about the FRIEND concept in journalism.

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groups and the Bolsheviks; 3) Lithuanian culture does not allow a speaker to attach the label “enemy” (‘X is an enemy’) to someone, but this can be done in a milder form, for example, using the construction ‘X’s enemy’; 4) a Lithuanian can describe the enemy’s actions neutrally, without negative connotations (Makarova 2014: 191).

Regarding the ENEMY concept in anthropology, history, philosophy, ethnology, and other fields, it should be noted that these disciplines explore more extensively the oppositions savas (one’s own) and kitas (svetimas) (the other [stranger/foreign]), (cf. Savoniakaitė 2014), in which kitu (svetimu) (the other [stranger/foreigner]) may not only bring out features of national identities, but kitas (svetimas) (the other [stranger/foreigner]) may also be perceived as an enemy. Philosopher Leonidas Donskis (1997) has reflected on the enemies of mass culture.

1. PRIEŠO APIBRĖŽTIS AIŠKINAMUOSIUOSE ŽODYNUOSE

In explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language—the LKŽ, Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne (DŽ_7i), and Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne (BŽ)—the number of meanings of the word priešas varies (see Table 1).

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TABLE 1. Meanings of the word priešas in Lithuanian dictionaries

LKŽ⁴:

DŽ_7i:

1. a hostile person who wishes to do harm

1. one who fights over opposing interests

2. the army of a hostile, invading country

2. a hostile person who wishes ill to another

3. a person with opposing convictions and hostile interests

3. the country and army with which one is at war

4. that which harms or causes damage

4. one who dislikes or rejects something

5. one who condemns something, considers it harmful or bad

5. everything that causes harm or discomfort

6. a robber, evildoer

7. an opponent

8. opposition, antithesis

9. something hostile, unacceptable (?)

In the BŽ manuscript⁵:

1. a person who is unfriendly, wishes another person ill, and hates them

2. a person with opposing beliefs

3. a country and army with which one is at war

4. someone who dislikes something and considers it harmful

5. something that causes damage, does harm

⁴The word priešas is presented in LKŽe as a homonym. In this case, the relevant one is priešas, marked with the first homonym number.

⁵ After the word priešas, the formulation and number of senses may change during the final editing of the lexicographic entry.

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The meanings given show that the senses of _7i and enemy recorded in DŽ_7i and in the BŽ manuscript are defined similarly; only the order in which they are presented differs. Compare the first and second definitions: 1. “someone who fights over conflicting interests” in DŽ_7i and 1. “a person who is hostile, wishes another person ill, and hates them” in BŽ (manuscript); 2. “a hostile person who wishes another ill” in DŽ and 2. “a person with opposing beliefs” in BŽ (manuscript).

In LKŽ_e, enemy_7i has nine meanings, five of which coincide with those recorded in DŽ and in the BŽ manuscript; compare meanings 1–5 of LKŽ_e given in Table 1. The last four meanings in LKŽ_e (6–9) are specific and are recorded only in this dictionary.

In summary, it can be said that in the aforementioned explanatory dictionaries, enemy is defined as a hostile person who wishes others ill (e.g., After the argument, they became enemies LKŽ_e); an enemy is a person with opposing beliefs (e.g., Enemy of the people LKŽ_e; Ideological enemy BŽ); an enemy is a country and army with which one is at war (e.g., Repel [defeat] the enemy BŽ); an enemy is someone (a subject, that is, a living being) who dislikes something and considers it harmful (e.g., An enemy of smoking LKŽ_e); and an enemy is something (an object, that is, something inanimate) that causes harm or damage (e.g., Frost is the greatest enemy of orchards LKŽ_e).

Let us examine what fragment of the ENEMY concept is captured in the illustrative sentences of LKŽ_e—who this enemy is and which of its attributes and actions are highlighted as most important.

2. THE ENEMY IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES

2.1. The enemy—the army of the attacking country

The largest share of LKŽ_e illustrative sentences consists of sentences depicting a fight against the enemy—an unfriendly army that has invaded another country. The abundance of such sentences

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is due to the long-standing necessity of defending one’s territories and having external enemies who, it would seem, are always ready to attack. Compare the incident described in U. Eco’s book: “Once, in New York, I took a taxi driven by a man with a name that was difficult to decipher. He explained that he was Pakistani. He asked where I had come from; I replied, Italy. <...>. Finally, he asked who our enemies were. When I asked, ‘Pardon?’, he patiently explained that he wanted to know which peoples we had been at war with since time immemorial over territory, ethnic hatred, constant border violations, and the like. I replied that we were at war with no one. <...> He was left dissatisfied” (Eco 2011: 10). Thus, it turns out that it is important for a nation to have enemies with whom it can wage war.

In the sentences recorded in LKŽ_e, the army is depicted through the actions it performs, and it is often unclear which specific country the army mentioned belongs to. It is also often not stated who “we”—those at war—are: Lithuania or another country.

2.2. The actions of the attacking country's army during warfare

Speaking of the enemy—the army of the attacking country—we can state that the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e reflect stereotypical behavior:

a) at first, the enemy makes preparations, for example, builds a fleet and gathers its forces, e.g.: The enemy has now again built a large fleet and is preparing to send an army into our land J. Balč⁶ (s.v. kelti). The enemies are massing their forces rš (s.v. traukti);

b) organizes an attack, for example, spots the enemy and encircles them, e.g.: The enemy discovered their campsite rš (s.v. stovyklavimas). Before the inhabitants could get moving, the enemies had already managed to surround the whole cityrš (s.v. remti). And the enemies surrounded them in a ring of fire E. Miež (s.v. lankas). The enemies wanted suddenly to ambush us rš (s.v. klupti);

⁶ Abbreviations such as LKŽ_e.

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c) launches an attack, for example, invades, breaks into, penetrates a town, castle, or similar place, e.g.: The enemies, in a wild frenzy, attacked the town rs (see sėlimas [attack]). Defends its lands and people against enemy incursions rs (see veržimas [incursion]). Having breached the wall, the enemies broke into the castle Š (see griauti [demolish]). The enemies pressed forward from three sides NdŽ (see veržti [press]). The enemy broke in, and war broke out S. Nėr (see įbrauti, liepsnoti [break in, blaze]). The enemies, with battering rams, would batter their way into the town rs (see mušti [strike]). A fierce battle broke out. The enemy desperately⁷ wanted to break back through V. Myk-Put (see siautėti [rage]) The enemy’s penetration deep into the country stirred Lithuanian writers to take up arms rs (see skverbimas [penetration]);

d) shoots (from cannons, machine guns, and the like), e.g.: The enemy attacked our positions rs (see atakuoti). The enemy returned fire DŽ1 (see šaudyti). The enemy fired continuously from cannons rs (see patranka). The enemies hurled thousands of stones from slings M. Valanč (see svilksnė). The enemy rained bullets at us with a machine gun rs (see žerti). The enemy began firing (shooting) with rifles rs (see pliekti). For two days and two nights, the hell kindled by the enemy blazed in the set ablazeland hell E. Miež (see pragaras);

e) retreats, loses, e.g.: The enemy has already begun to falter, retreat, perish⁸... How many of them were captured, how many bound, how many cut down! J. Jan (s.v. mišti). Because of the unfavorable situation, the enemies were defeated rs (s.v. palankumas);

f) perishes, e.g.: In the black abyss of the waves, more than one enemy perished rs (s.v. pragarmė). At last the enemy choked on its own blood, having lost hundreds of soldiers and a great deal of equipment rs (s.v. springti).

g) conquers (or invades) a country (state) and settles there, e.g., Enemiesconquered our country rs (see valdyti [rule]). In the very middle of its state, at its very heart, one might say, the enemy is making itself a nest rs (see sukti [turn]). In a foreign land, the enemy behaves brutally—rampages, ravages and burns homes, kills people, and takes their bread, e.g.: Enemies rampaged across our country went wild rs (see dūkti [rage]). The enemies rampaged in our country DŽ (see siaučioti [rage]). The enemies ravage our homes, plunder⁹ people, takes away

⁷ The spelling of this word has changed—žūtbūt.

⁸ “to fall apart, decay” LKŽe.

⁹ “to kill” LKŽe.

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bread, rš (see žurdoti). The enemy orders its agents to burn and destroy homesteads, to undermine our strength, so that support for our defenders would be weakened, rš (see krikdyti).

In some LKŽ_e illustrative sentences, the enemies’ courage is mentioned—they fight bravely and tenaciously, e.g., Surrounded, the enemy will fight bravely and tenaciously, trying to break back through, V. Myk-Put (see praveržti). The enemies grow bolder Š (see drąsus), and are also cunning—they plan a siege and try to take advantage of the situation, e.g.: The enemies tried to ingratiate themselves with the people rš (see gerinti). The enemy begins a proper siege rš (see apgulimas). The enemy tries to take advantage of every slip rš (see slystelėjimas).

Sometimes the enemy’s shortcomings are also emphasized, for example, inaccuracy: The enemy’s bombs fell inaccurately, rš (see taiklus).

Illustrative sentences were found that speak of the enemy’s greater numbers and superior weaponry, such as Many brave fighters and commanders died in an unequal battle against an enemy more numerous and armed to the teeth, rš (see dantis), or of a carefully devised strategy, for example: The enemy’s reconnaissance snooped in all directions, rš (see šniukštinėti).

Some illustrative sentences reveal the enemy’s aims and intentions, for example: The enemy hoped that after the very first blow our army would be scattered, and our country would be brought to its knees, rš (see klupdyti).

2.3. Actions in warfare by the country defending itself against the enemy

LKŽ_e records illustrative sentences in which the country defending itself against the enemy is not specifically named, as well as sentences in which the defending country is identified as Lithuania (or the Lithuanians), and examples naming a specific person defending against the enemy—a historical figure, usually Lithuanian dukes or other figures important to Lithuanian history.

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2.3.1. The country defending itself against the enemy is unnamed

A substantial proportion of the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e consists of sentences in which the country defending itself against the enemy is unnamed. The actions of the unnamed country in defending itself against enemies (fighting them for its territory) are fairly predictable and stereotypical:

a) first, preparations are made for battle, for example: The commanders familiarize themselves with the enemy’s deployment, rš (see dėstymas);

b) later, the enemy may be attacked (surrounded, pressed, shot at, and so on), for example:

Surround the enemies Rtr (see apsiausti). The enemy by the river was hemmed in¹⁰ NdŽ (see supti). Suddenly three of our fighter planes appeared and attacked the enemies, rš (see nirti). From the machine gun, we riddled¹¹ the enemy, DŽ1 (see spirginti). We met the enemy with fire, DŽ1 (see tikti). The partisans used armor-piercing bullets to set the enemy train ablaze, sp (see šarvamušis). Many of our batteries, firing directly, destroyed the enemy machine-gun nests, rš (see lizdas);

c) enemy forces may be weakened and held back in various ways, for example: Our army, having exhausted the enemy’s forces, itself went on the offensive, sp (see sekinti). The enemies were subdued by hunger and gunfire, KŽ (see tramdyti). The enemy’s advance deep into the country was halted, rš (see brovimas);

d) the enemy may be defeated, vanquished, for example: They’ll provide horses. Soldiers. With them we will blast¹² the enemy’s might, B. Sruog (see pyškinti). The enemies were quickly dealt with, rš (see doroti). The enemy was defeated, rš (see galėti). We wiped out [the enemies] (crushed, defeated them), Strn (see pilti). We laid all the enemies low, sp (see guldyti). Bullets cut down the enemies, DŽ (see skinti). Already many a grave

¹⁰ “to press something against an object by surrounding it and going around it” LKŽ_e

¹¹ “to fire shots intensively” LKŽ_e

¹²“to smash, destroy” LKŽ_e

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the enemy found, bent on trampling our land E. Mież (saying, graves). Struck down by a bullet the enemy officer waved his arms and fell dead rš (s.v. pakirsti);

e) less often, one may surrender to the enemy, e.g.: You agreed to sell us out to the enemy rš (see duoti);

f) a defender may die at the hands of the enemy, e.g.: Remember, my beloved brother, you who survived the storm of war: here, attacking the enemy in an assault, the brave children of the homeland fell E. Mież (s.v. išlikti).

High castles help defend against enemies, e.g., Our castles are cramped and uncomfortable, built solely for defending against enemies V. Krėv (s.v. pritaikinti). Every enemy who desires to break into that castle will break his neck M. Valanč (s.v. įgrauti); hiding places were hillforts, e.g.: Hillfort was probably a place of refuge where people would run to hide from enemies sp (s.v. slėptuvinis).

Some sentences emphasize the defenders’ courage, e.g.: We will go in the front rank, and before the bullet may reach us first V. Myk-Put (see siekti). We were not daunted by marshes and forests we were not afraid of enemy fire sp (see marsh).

No war can be waged without the help of scouts, who provide information about the enemy’s combat readiness and so on, e.g.: Scouts infiltrate the enemy rear, reconnoiter all the firing positions, the enemy’s entire combat readiness E. Mież (s.v. žvalgyti). Reconnaissance and tracking the enemy were intensified rš (s.v. sekimas). Accurate information about the enemy and the terrain is usually provided by reconnaissance (s.v. žvalgymas). The commander sends out advance parties—scouts—to determine the disposition of the enemy troops A. Mac (s.v. žvalgas).

2.3.2. The country defending itself against the enemy is identified as Lithuania (or the Lithuanians)

As we know, Lithuania has had to defend its territory from external enemies on numerous occasions; these enemies sought to seize Lithuanian territory and restrict the freedom of the Lithuanians. However, few examples were found in the illustrative sentences of LKŽe in which the warring country is identified as Lithuania (or

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Lithuanians), cf.: A terrible battle with the mortal Lithuanian people enemies (see mirtingas). That Lithuanians would shoot their arrows at the unassailable enemies, whose multitudes here are countless, like pebbles on the seashore I. Simon (see žizdrai). Lithuanians on foot and riding their little horses charged here, fled there, then returned again, continually luring the enemy deeper into the forest A. Vien (see vilioti). O Nemunas, dear Nemunėlis, father of rivers, bright little river, how many enemies have you drowned, who Lithuania were destroying LTR(Brž) (see skaidrūnėlis). Lithuanian partisans were active behind enemy lines (see partizanas). The report notes the combat activity of partisan groups sp (see kovinis).

In LKŽ_e there are sentences in which the warring side is identified as the Lithuanian ethnic group, the Samogitians. The illustrative sentences recorded in the dictionary reflect the Samogitians’ way of fighting, courage, and refusal to surrender; cf.: J. Dlugōšas indicates the Samogitians’ way of fighting: having lured the enemies into the forest, they then hid behind fallen trees and attacked them (see vilioti). The Samogitiansdecided it was better to burn to death than to surrender alive into the hands of their vengeful enemies A. Vien (see priešas). Of the Samogitians, the defenders of Pilėnai, barely half remained alive, and a third were unharmed; yet the enemies were still numerous as ants M. Valanč (see žeisti).

In LKŽ_e only a few examples are found in which a specific enemy of Lithuania (or the Lithuanians)—the Crusaders and the German invader—is named in the same sentence as the word enemy; cf.: The Teutonic Knights besieged the walls of Punia day and night, but the Lithuanians repelled the enemy everywhere BM106 (see pitlyti). The sword of the Soviet army severed the backbone of the enemy of the Lithuanian people—the German invader (Sov.) sp (see nugarkaulis).

2.3.3. The named defending (combatant) person

In the illustrative sentences of LKŽ_e, several historical figures are named who fought and defended Lithuania (or the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) against its enemies in different periods. The following figures important to Lithuanian history are mentioned: the Lithuanian duke Margiris (Margis),

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The Lithuanian grand dukes Kęstutis and Vytautas, and Zigmantas Sierakauskas, one of the leaders of the 1863–1864 uprising. Reading the examples recorded in LKŽe, we can once again see that these figures bravely defended their country, fought mercilessly, lured enemies farther away from Lithuania, and so on; cf.: Margiswith the strength of a lionslaughtered the enemies DŽ1 (s.v. skersti). Margiris, standing at Pilėnai,saw the fires, but could not drive out the enemies J. Balč (s.v. ištremti). Kęstutisonlylured the enemyfarther away from Lithuania rš (s.v. vilioti). But thenVytautastakes the reins of power, and yesterday’senemies now fear the ruler! Mair (s.v. vengti). LedVytautasthere great armies andbroke the pride of the enemies Mair (s.v. didžiauryis, priešas). HereVytautas the Greatruled gloriously, at Žalgirishaving defeated the wicked enemies Mair (s.v. viešpatauti). Sierakauskasdid not dare attack the retreating enemy, becausehe was waiting for Mackevičius, who had not yet managed to V. Myk-Put (s.v. traukti).

2.4. The enemy – a person or animal with hostile intentions

2.4.1. A person’s enemy

There are not many illustrative sentences in LKŽe in which an enemy—a specific entity, not necessarily Lithuanian—is explicitly identified, as mentioned. Several sentences were found with specifically named enemies, including a particular person (that man, the minister), a nation, employers¹³, temperance advocates, or even a gander, for example: That man was mortal my enemy rš (s.v. mirtinas). This minister was always my secret enemy, although he seemed good to me J. Balč (s.v. rodytı). The sole thought prevailing in the minds of the Belgians was that the Germans were their deadly enemies Vd (s.v. žudingas). The workers’ immediate enemy here is individual employers or their groups rš (s.v. įmonininkas). His greatest enemies were “temperance enforcers” rš (s.v. vykintojas¹⁴).

¹³ Employer “owner of an enterprise” in LKŽe.

¹⁴ “one who carries out, executor” in LKŽe.

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The little children, frightened by their greatest enemy, the gander, ran inside, while the older ones splashed the street. Žem (see taškyti).

Examples are found of sentences in which the enemy—a person—is not specifically named but is implied, e.g.: Great enemies of nature are very rare, but few among us are not its minor violators sp (see žeidėjas). Soviet patriotism is the source from which our working people draw strength in the struggle against internal and external enemies (Sov.) sp (see išorė). Let no one think that the enemies of the Soviet state will catch us unprepared (Sov.) sp (see klupti). After the argument, they became enemies DŽ (see priešas). Death stopped both implacable enemies V. Myk-Put (see priešas).

There are also entirely unspecified enemies, e.g.: Whoever is too powerful has many enemies A. Vien (see per daug). The more notable our achievements, the more cunning the enemy becomes sp (see klastingas).

2.4.2. Animal enemies

In the LKŽ_e, sentences mentioning the enemies of various animals were found.

A bird’s enemy may be another bird, e.g., Now and then, high in the sky, the mottled Icelandic eagle appears, a great enemy of wild ducks A. Vencl (see šmėkšterėti). The fiercest enemy of domestic fowl is the goshawk, or the hen harrier J. Jabl (see 2 vištinis); another animal, e.g., A sparrow has no more dreadful enemy than our kitten J. Jabl (see katė); an abstract entity, e.g., Civilization is also in many cases an enemy of the good, since migration and wintering sites are destroyed T. Ivan (see žiemojimas).

Fish enemies are other aquatic creatures, e.g.: The carp’s enemies are the following: the water shrew, the water shrew rš (see kirstukas).

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The enemies of monkeys, mice, and voles are other animals, e.g.: Among monkeys, the best at long-distance vision are baboons: in open country they spot their greatest enemy, the leopard, from nearly a kilometre away rš (see toliaregis). It has been observed that mice and voles settle permanently in gardens and breed extraordinarily rapidly because their greatest enemy—the owls sp (see retėti).

A wild animal’s enemy is a human, e.g.: The wild animal comes face to face with its most hated enemy—the human sp (see neapkenťiamas).

2.5. The enemy is that which causes harm

In some LKŽ_e illustrative sentences, a person’s (or people’s) enemy is an abstract phenomenon or a specific (inanimate) thing that is highly adverse, causes harm, or is detrimental—for example, fate, time and distance, knowledge of reality, arrogance, lies, tsarism, pleasure, and vodka. Cf.: Fate, my eternal enemy, did not wish to grant me that happiness J. Balč (see teikti). Time and distance are the enemy of human relationships (see santykiai). Weak knowledge of reality is writers’ most bitter enemy rš (see pažinimas). The enemy of creativity is arrogance rš (see kūrybiškumas). Lack of truthfulness¹⁵ is the greatest enemy and hindrance to the untruthful person himself rš (see tiesakalbingumas). Tsarism was the people’s deadly enemy (Soviet) rš (see mirtinis). My weapons are aimed at the principal enemy—the bestial, consumerist and, alas, powerful principle: life is pleasure J. Marcin (see vartotojiškas). His greatest enemy is vodka DŽ (see priešas).

LKŽ_e contains sentences mentioning as the enemy of an abstract phenomenon (e.g., science, progress, etc.) or a specific (inanimate) thing (e.g., orchards, an airplane) such traits or things as superficiality, nationalism, bureaucratism, cold, and icing, for example:

¹⁵ Truthfulness “speaking the truth” LKŽ_e.

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Superficiality is the enemy of science sp (see paviršutiniškumas). Nationalism is the enemy of Marxism (Soviet) sp (see priešas). One of the most ruthless enemies of our progress is bureaucratism rš (see priešas). Cold is the chief enemy of orchards rš (see priešas). In northern regions, flying aircraft formerly encountered a dangerous enemy—icing sp (see ledėjimas).

2.6. The enemy is a person or people with opposing beliefs

LKŽ_e contains several sentences using the term enemy of the people. It should be recalled that an enemy of the people was “in Soviet terminology, a person who opposed Soviet rule or at least openly disagreed with it, often accused of this for that reason alone” VLE¹⁶. According to the examples recorded in LKŽ_e, enemies of the people sought to ridicule and discredit, while the party¹⁷ crushed them (the enemies of the people), and so on. For example: Enemies of the people sought to ridicule and discredit the finest representatives of that nation’s classical heritage (Soviet) rš (see juodinti). The party crushed deadly enemies of the people (Soviet) sp (see mirtinas). Remove from the cooperative ranks all the greedy dregs of society and enemies of the people (Soviet) sp (see gobšus).

LKŽ_e records examples mentioning a common enemy, for example: In the years before the revolution, the Bolshevik Party was already uniting working people of all Russian nationalities for a joint struggle against the common enemy sp (see ikirevoliucinis). Long years of underground press work united our peoples into an iron cohort of fighters against the common enemy cohort rš (see kohorta).

Examples of this kind are also found: Enemies of the Church prophesied the end of the papacy Gmž (see nešdineti). The Order’s agents, backed by the pope and the emperor, proclaimed in Western Europe that Lithuania was still pagan, that the Lithuanians were supposedly true Saracens and enemies of Christianity and so on. rš (see

¹⁶ For further details, see https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/liaudies-priesas/.

¹⁷ This refers to the Communist Party.

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Saracens). In those days, when sending articles to “Varpas,” we used all kinds of pseudonyms so that the enemy would think that the group of writers was the largest Pt (see slapyvardė). The examples presented reflect the (self-)censorship of LKŽₑ: during the Soviet era, it was dangerous (or forbidden) to speak about certain enemies who did not conform to official ideological beliefs. The examples presented (especially the first two) reflect the ideological beliefs “imposed” at the time.

2.7. Enemy—someone who condemns something or considers it harmful, bad

Several illustrative sentences were found in the dictionary text that refer to things condemned or considered harmful or bad, such as gambling and smoking. Cf.: I am an enemy of all kinds of gambling rš (see piniginis). An enemy of smoking DŽ (see priešas).

2.8. The opposition between enemy and friend

As a separate subgroup in this article, the sentences recorded in LKŽV that clearly express the opposition between enemy and friend have been distinguished. There are quite a few such sentences in the dictionary.

Thinking in oppositions, and their abundance, are rooted in the very origins of the creation of the world, when the world was viewed as a unity of two opposing poles, opposing principles (Vėlius 1983: 10). Many examples of oppositions can be given, cf.: earth and sky, life and death, love and hatred, friend and enemy, etc. (for more, see Erm arnytė 2003, 2015). These opposing poles might seem far apart, but, as life shows, this is not so.

Regarding the opposition between enemy and friend, it may be said that the relationship between an enemy and a friend can change in an instant, depending on various circumstances (both internal and external), or that the assessment of one’s attitude toward friendship can change. This is also illustrated by a sentence found in LKŽₑ, which records that only time can show what the subjects are to one another—enemies or

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friends, cf.: Whether we are friends, or enemies, the future has yet to show, German, V. Krėv (see parodyti).

When it is desired to emphasize a subject’s indeterminacy, otherness, or indifference toward them, the opposition between enemy and friend is invoked as a pair of completely opposite concepts:

Indeed, Grėtė is not an enemy, but neither is she a friend to the Queen; she is a stranger to her, as much a stranger as on the first day after Vil iaus’s wedding I. Simon (see svetimas).

LKŽₑ also contains sentences in which a subject who was once a friend can easily turn into an enemy, or their treatment as a (non-)friend can simply change: People make their best friend into their fiercest enemy J, Jabl (see 1 rasti). If he did not wish to listen to me willingly, as a friend, I will force him by force, as an enemy! V. Krėv (see varu).

In defending their opinion, family, and rights, struggling for survival, and so on, a subject may contend not only with enemies but also with friends: Having struggled all my life with enemies and friends, I grew tired myself and wore others out V. Krėv (see varginti). What is in my hand is mine, even if it is not an enemy’s, but a friend’s sword V. Krėv (see ranka).

The opposition between enemy and friend is also reflected in Lithuanian folk sayings presented in LKŽₑ:

To a friend – pure love, to an enemy – you must carry a hard anger in your heart rš (s.v. kietas).

Eat breakfast yourself, share lunch with a friend, but give dinner to an enemy rš (see valgyti).

Skolindamas – draugas, atiduodamas – priešas TŽIII375 (ž. skolinti). Kvailas draugas už priešą pavojingesnis TŽV600 (ž. kvailas).

CONCLUSIONS

Having analyzed approximately 450 illustrative sentences in LKŽₑ in which the lexeme priešas (‘enemy’) is used, the following fragment of the ENEMY concept emerges.

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In LKŽ_e, an enemy is primarily the unfriendly army of another (often unnamed) country that has invaded, and its actions toward the country under attack (or attacked) are stereotypical: first preparations are made for battle, then an offensive is organized and launched, and the outcome of the offensive is defeat, death, or victory (the seizure of a territory or country). Sometimes the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e emphasize that the enemy is brave and persistent, has greater forces, and is better armed. The actions in war of a country defending itself against an enemy are also fairly predictable and stereotypical: preparations are made for battle, an offensive is launched, and its outcome is victory, death, or surrender. The country defending itself against an enemy is rarely identified as Lithuania (or the Lithuanians) in the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e. A specific enemy of Lithuania (or the Lithuanians) is also identified very rarely.

An enemy may also be a person or animal with hostile intentions (e.g., another person, a nation); something that causes harm or is detrimental to a person (e.g., time, distance, arrogance) or to an abstract phenomenon or a specific object (e.g., superficiality—the enemy of science; cold—the enemy of gardens). An enemy may also be a person or people with opposing beliefs (e.g., an enemy of the people, an enemy of the church). An enemy is also someone who condemns something and considers it harmful or bad (e.g., he is an enemy of gambling and smoking).

The opposition between enemy and friend is evident in the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e, and the relationship between them may change in an instant (depending on internal and external factors), or the understanding of friendship may change.

As can be seen, the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e do not identify a specific enemy (particularly when referring to the army of another country). This may be due to LKŽ_e’s (self-)censorship or political correctness, which prevents the enemy from being clearly defined. Moreover, the word priešas (‘enemy’) is strong both semantically and emotionally, so perhaps there is reluctance to name the enemy aloud and specifically; speaking of an unnamed but universally known enemy is safer. Of course, it should be borne in mind that the illustrative sentences in LKŽ_e are presented without context, and that in the original source (or in a living person’s

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account) the enemy may have been named, but is not mentioned in the particular illustrative sentence included in LKŽe. To substantiate these reflections more specifically, more sources need to be examined, for example, the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language, questionnaire data, and so on.

ŠALTINIAI

BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (rengiamas), vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt.

DŽ₇i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas (internetinis), vyr. red. S. Keinys, 7-as patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt.

LKŽė – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, t. 1–20, 1941–2002 (elektroninis variantas), vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005. Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt.

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Daujotytė-Pakerienė Viktorija 2002: Pamatinis kultūros tekstas. – Dvidešimt „Lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ tomų, sud. J. Zabarskaitė, Z. Šimėnaitė, Vilnius: InterSe, 34–38.

Donskis Leonidas 1997: Masinė kultūra ir jos priešai. – Tarp Karlailio ir Klaipėdos: visuomenės ir kultūros kritikos etiudai, Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, 128–141.

Eco Umberto 2011: Sukurti priešą ir kiti proginiai rašiniai, Vilnius: Tyto alba.

Ermanytė Irena 2003: Antonimų žodynas 23 (elektroninis variantas), Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/antonimu.

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Gaidienė Anželika 2016: Lietuvių kalbos gėrimo ir valgymo veiksmažodžių semantinių ryšių ypatybės: daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

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Rutkovska Kristina, Smetona Marius, Smetonienė Irena 2017: Vertybės lietuvio pasaulėvaizdyje, Vilnius: Akademinė leidyba.

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Smetonienė Irena, Smetona Marius, Rutkovska Kristina 2019: Kalba. Tauta. Valstybė, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

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THE ENEMY IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

Summary

The goal of this study is to dissect, using illustrative sentences, the fragment of the concept of ENEMY (Lith. PRIEŠAS) recorded in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe). The article has the following objectives: (1) discussing the definitions of enemy in the modern Lithuanian thesauri, (2) identifying and discussing potential enemies, their attributes, actions recorded in the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe. The study employed these methods: semantic analysis, interpretation, and description.

Thesauri (the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽe), the Dictionary of the Modern Lithuanian Language (DŽ7i), and the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (BŽ)) define enemy as an unfriendly, ill-meaning person (e.g., ‘They became enemies after the dispute’ (Lith. Po ginčo jie pasidarė priešai, LKŽe)); an enemy is someone with opposing beliefs (e.g., ‘enemy of the people’ (Lith. Liaudies priešas, LKŽe), ‘ideological enemy’ (Lith. Idėjinis priešas, BŽ)); an enemy is the opposing country and army at war (e.g., ‘repel [overcome] the enemy’ (Lith. Priešą atmūšti [nugalėti], BŽ)); an enemy is someone who dislikes something, considers it harmful (e.g., ‘enemy of smoking’ (Lith. Rūkymo priešas, LKŽe)); an enemy is something that causes damage or harm as well (e.g., ‘cold is the garden’s enemy No 1 (Lith. Šaltis – svarbiausias sodų priešas, LKŽe)).

Analysis of nearly 450 illustrative sentences from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language with the lexeme enemy (Lith. priešas) has pieced together the fragment of the concept of ENEMY as described below.

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First and foremost, enemy in the LKŽe is defined as an unfriendly, assailing army of another (often unidentified in the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe) country; its actions with regard to the country that is being (or has been) assaulted are stereotypical: first it prepares for combat, then organises and launches an attack, which culminates in defeat, death, or victory (the occupation of the land or country). Sometimes the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe accentuate that the enemy is brave, persistent, its forces are larger, weapons better. The actions of the country defending itself against the enemy in war are also rather predictable and stereotypical: preparation for combat, the launching of an attack, which culminates in victory, death, or surrender. On rare occasions, the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe refer to Lithuania (or Lithuanians) as a country defending itself against an enemy. The illustrative sentences presented in the LKŽe contain very few mentions of the specific enemy of Lithuania (or Lithuanians) as well.

In the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe, enemy can also be an unfriendly person or animal (e.g., another human being or nation), that what causes damage or harm to a human being (e.g. time, distance, arrogance) or an abstract phenomenon, a specific object (e.g., superficiality is an enemy of science; cold is an enemy of the garden). Enemy can also be a person or persons of opposing beliefs (e.g., an enemy of the people; an enemy of the church). Furthermore, enemy is he who condemns something, considers it harmful or evil (e.g., he is an enemy of gambling for money; an enemy of smoking).

The illustrative sentences of the LKŽe carry a clear-cut opposition between enemy and friend; their relationship can change in an instant (depending on internal and external factors), and so can the approach to friendship.

It is evident that the illustrative sentences recorded in the LKŽe do not mention the specific enemy (especially when it comes to the army of another country). This can be the product of the LKŽe’s (self-)censorship, political correctness that prevents any clear

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definition of the enemy; plus, the word enemy carries a strong semantic and emotional charge, potentially causing any open reference to a specific enemy to be avoided – after all, talking about an enemy that is undefined yet ‘known’ to everyone is a safer thing to do. Of course, one should keep it in mind that the illustrative sentences of the LKŽe are void of any context: omitted from the specific illustrative sentence present in the LKŽe, the enemy could have been clearly mentioned in the source (or the story of a live person) as such. Any stronger validation of the above musings would require an analysis of a larger quantity of sources, such as the data of the Corpus of the Modern Lithuanian Language, questionnaire findings, and so on.

KEYWORDS: an enemy, concept, illustrative sentence, semantic, the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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