LEKSIKOS TYRINĖJIMAI

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

THE RELATION OF LITHUANIAN COMPARATIVE PHRASEOLOGISMS TO THEIR CONTEXT

K. VOSYLYTĖ

We regard comparative phraseologisms as comparisons with a fixed lexical composition, grammatical structure, and semantics, which are not created in the process of communication but are used from memory as formulas of collective creativity.

Of all phraseological units, comparative phraseologisms have been studied the least. Although they are quite productive in language, for a long time this type of phraseological combination was not discussed at all. They attracted little interest not only among Soviet linguists, but also among linguists abroad. They were also included in dictionaries very inconsistently. To this day, the question of the composition of comparative phraseologisms remains actively debated. Is a comparative phraseologism a binary or a unitary structure—that is, does the object of comparison form part of the phraseologism, or should only the comparison itself be regarded as the phraseologism? For example, should juodas kaip aulas, lekia kaip akis išdegęs, or kaip aulas, kaip akis išdegęs be regarded as phraseologisms? There are differing opinions on this question. Some linguists consider comparative phraseologisms to consist of two elements and to have a binary structure¹; others think that most often only the comparison constitutes a phraseological unit, and more rarely the object of comparison together with the comparison². Dictionaries, too, are inconsistent on this question. For example, D. Ushakov’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” (vols. I–IV, Moscow, 1935–1940) treats the following as phraseologisms: сидеть как на иголках; как зеницу ока; как две капли воды (похож); как рыба в воде; the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” (vols. I–IV, Moscow, 1957–1961): быть (сидеть) как на иголках; беречь (хранить) как зеницу ока; как две капли воды; как рыба в воде; the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” (vols. I–XVII, Moscow–Leningrad, 1948–1965): как на иголках; как зеницу ока беречь, хранить и т. п.; быть, чувствовать, вести себя и т. п. как рыба в воде; and the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” (Moscow, 1967): как на иголках; как зеницу ока; как две капли воды; как рыба в воде. As can be seen, there is no uniformity—

¹ See: А. Тихонов, Р. Кунгуров. Об устойчивых сравнительных оборотах (в русском языке). — Труды Самаркандского ун-та, Новая серия, № 139, Краткие сообщения, Самарканд, 1964, p. 41—42. Н. Сидорова. Анализ первых и вторых компонентов устойчивых сравнений типа as + прилагательное + as + существительное в современном английском языке. — Ученые записки Вологодского гос. пед. ин-та, т. 28, Вологда, 1964, p. 194—221 ir kt.

² See: З. Шугурова, Л. Ройзенгон. Основные вопросы изучения сравнительных устойчивых оборотов русского языка. — Материалы конференции „Актуальные вопросы современного языкознания и лингвистическое наследие Ф. Д. Поливанова“. Т. I, Самарканд, 1964, p. 104—107. М. Сидоренко. К вопросу о границах лексического состава фразеологических единиц. — Проблемы фразеологии (исследования и материалы), Москва—Ленинград, 1964, p. 126—130. В. Жуков. Фразеологизм и фразеологическое окружение. — Уч. зап. Московск. областн. педаг. инст. имени Н. К. Крупской, т. 160, Москва, 1966, p. 225—244 ir kt.

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ity both among separate dictionaries and within a single dictionary. Of the dictionaries mentioned, only the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” consistently follows one principle. For a long time, in the large “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” comparative phraseologisms were placed outside the main text together with sayings, riddles, and proverbs; in other words, they were not regarded as phraseologisms at all. Only in the most recent volumes of the Dictionary have comparative phraseologisms been presented together with other phraseological combinations.

This article does not aim to examine Lithuanian comparative phraseologisms comprehensively. Our aim is to try to establish the criteria by which the boundary between comparative phraseologisms and their context can be determined, and to describe the structure of comparative phraseologisms in relation to that context.

Like other phraseological units, comparative phraseologisms are used only in the context of certain words. Their connection and degree of cohesion with the words in that context vary and depend on the phraseologism’s structure and semantic and grammatical features. Some phraseologisms have independent lexical meaning and usage (e.g., lėgų maišas; tinginių maišas); others have independent lexical meaning but are linked to other words by government or adjunction (e.g., nulėkti ausis kur, nuo ko); still others have no independent lexical meaning and are always linked to words belonging to a particular semantic group³. Comparative phraseologisms also belong to this last type.

Words closely connected with a comparative phraseologism generally retain their lexical and grammatical independence and do not form part of the phraseologism. The comparative phraseologism, in turn, also has a certain grammatical structure and content, but its meaning and grammatical function become apparent only in the context of words belonging to a particular semantic group. We shall call a firmly established set of freely used lexical and grammatical elements, which is constantly associated with a phraseologism and without which it could not be used, its obligatory phraseological context. The context together with the comparative phraseologism forms a stable comparative construction and is a unit of the language system.

Because a comparative phraseologism is closely connected with its context both in meaning and in grammatical structure, it is sometimes difficult to determine the lexical composition of the phraseologism itself. It is not always clear, for example, whether the object of comparison belongs to the context of the comparative phraseologism or forms part of the phraseologism. In such cases, the components of the comparative construction must be examined functionally and semantically—that is, their grammatical function and lexical meaning must be determined. For example, in the comparative constructions plepa kaip buza nedavirus, tauškia kaip drignių apsėdęs, the verbs plepa, tauškia are closely connected with the comparisons, but retain their independent lexical meaning and verbal function; consequently, they are not part of the phraseologism, but are merely associated with it. The comparisons kaip buza nedavirus and kaip drignių apsėdęs, in turn, have the lexical meaning “a lot, pointlessly (chatters, babbles)” here and function as adverbs. In the constructions girtas kaip maišas, pasileidęs (išdykęs, išlepęs) kaip ubago paršas, the phraseologisms should be taken to be kaip maišas, kaip ubago paršas, since the adjectives or participles with adjectival meaning girtas, pasileidęs, išdykęs, išlepęs have independent lexical meanings and function as adjectives, while the comparisons function as adverbs and mean “very (drunk; unruly, mischievous, spoiled).” Thus, the verbs and adjectives, or participles with adjectival meaning, are not part of the lexical composition of the comparative phraseologism here, but form its context.

³ See В. Жуков, ibid.

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Now let us examine the following comparative constructions:

like beating drums “everyone talks a lot”: The whole parish is talking like beating drums Slnt⁴.

like tossing it behind one’s ear (tossed, threw) “eats, devours, drinks quickly; drank, ate something up”: Just give it to him—he tosses it down like it’s nothing Kp. He tosses away a pot of groats in the evening as if it were nothing KzR. My pig eats very quickly, tossing it down as if it were nothing Upt. In the evening Father ate up that porridge as if it were nothing BsV 264. What’s that to a man like him—he tossed it down as if it were nothing, and that was that Skdt.

In these comparative constructions, the verbs beats, tosses (tossed, threw) are the objects of comparison, but here they have neither an independent lexical meaning nor a grammatical function. These verbs acquire their actual meaning only together with the comparison, the meaning they have in the comparative construction. Thus, here the verb is part of the lexical composition of the comparative phraseologism. The comparative phraseologism as a whole functions as a verb. There are few such comparative phraseologisms in Lithuanian.

Thus, the principal criterion for determining the lexical composition of a comparative phraseologism is this: words that are regularly associated with a phraseologism are not part of its lexical composition if they have an independent lexical meaning and grammatical function.

Words belonging both to the phraseologism itself and to its environment may form synonymic series. However, the criterion just mentioned also makes it possible to distinguish them clearly in this case. Let us compare the following examples:

a) like [as] lightning “very quickly, forcefully (flies, runs, dashes, etc.; ran off, sped away, etc.)”: He came thundering from Valkininkai like lightning Vlk. He flies like lightning Krtn, Ms. He flew off like lightning Ps. He shot off like lightning Krs. He rode off as fast as lightning Brt. The horse broke loose and dashed across the fields like lightning Inš. He dashed off like lightning Dr. As soon as he set off (got it into his head to run), he was off like lightning! Knv.

like a dying man “very slowly, at a slow pace, with difficulty (walks, crawls, moves, etc.)”: You crawl along like a dying man Vdk. He crawls along like a dying man Vkš. He drags himself along like a dying man Plt. Stop dawdling like a dying man—can’t you walk faster? Vvr.

like a beggar’s piglet “very (wild, naughty, spoiled, etc.)”: Wild as a beggar’s piglet Plng. Naughty as a beggar’s piglet Užv, Vvr. Rascal-like as a beggar’s piglet Lkv. All ruffled up like a beggar’s pig Šd. Spoiled as a beggar’s piglet LTR (Yl). Pampered (spoiled) like a beggar’s pig PPr357.

b) as if struck [hit hard, dealt a blow, beaten, split] in the head “quickly, hastily (flies, runs; flew off, ran off, etc.)”: He runs as if struck in the head Ds. He ran off as if split in the head Užv. The girls from Grigas’s house … dash back home as if split in the head Vaižg. He runs as if struck in the head J. Jabl. He bolted off (ran out quickly and quietly) as if hit in the head Vaižg. He ran as if his head had been smashed J. Jabl. He flies as if his head had been smashed Krtn.

as if chewing with one’s back [wrong-side] teeth “reluctantly (eats, chews)”: You eat as if chewing with your wrong-side teeth Gs. He chews as if with his back teeth Gs.

In the examples from the first group, synonymic series are formed by lexically and grammatically independent words; consequently, they are components of the comparative phraseologism’s environment. The synonymous words in the second group are neither lexically nor grammatically independent and should therefore be regarded as components of the phraseologism itself.

⁴Abbreviations as in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”.

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Fixed expressions of identical structure can perform various functions. The function of a fixed expression depends greatly on its grammatical environment. It is therefore important to determine which words and categories constitute the environment of comparative fixed expressions.

Most comparative fixed expressions in Lithuanian function as adverbs, and only a small proportion as verbs. The words in the environment of comparative fixed expressions functioning adverbially are: 1) a verb (occasionally replaced by an ideophone or a phrase), 2) a positive-degree adjective or a neuter form, or a participle functioning as an adjective, 3) a noun in the genitive case.

I. Comparative fixed expressions functioning adverbially

1. The environment of most comparative fixed expressions functioning adverbially consists of a verb; more rarely, a phrase or ideophone replaces the verb, for example: Giti, gūti į trobą kaip užprašyta (about a goat) Vd. The verbs in the environment are most often intransitive and denote movement (e.g., Bėga kap pamazgytas Pls. Parkūrė kaip dūmas namo An.), a physical or mental state (e.g., Sėdi lygiai kumelės pamergys Klt. Stovi kap kuolą prarijęs Vlkv.), a transition from one state to another (e.g., Užkaito kaip žarija rs.), a change from one property to another, and so on; transitive verbs occur less often. Intransitive verbs are closely connected with the comparative fixed expression, so other words rarely intervene between them. The accusative governed by a transitive verb generally intervenes between the verb and the comparative fixed expression, for example: Žiūrėk vištas kaip savo akį kakt oj, kad neitų į kviečius Sk. Šėmoji kaip už ausų tris viedrus iškukšėjo (drank) Ds. Sometimes the accusative governed by the verb is also placed before the verb, for example: Matai, čiela riekė suraitė kaip už ausies Ut.

In Lithuanian, adverbs usually precede the verb (e.g., greitai bėga, garsiai šaukia), whereas comparative fixed expressions are usually postposed and only occasionally preposed.

The environment of comparative fixed expressions most often consists of finite forms of the verb. We consider the following to be their principal forms: for the imperfective aspect, the third-person present; for the perfective aspect, the third-person past. For example: kaip [lyg] bestrėnis prie varškės “slowly, lazily (goes, drifts, shuffles, etc.)”: Ko taip slūkini, kap bestrėnis prie varškės? LTR(Brt). Slenka lyg bestrėnis prie varškės Vrb.

kaip kamparas be pipirų “suddenly, completely (disappeared, vanished)”: Išnyko kaip kamparas be pipirų Brs, Vdžg. Pranyko kaip kamparas be pipirų LTR(Jrb).

There are fixed expressions whose environment usually consists of only one particular finite form of the verb. In such cases, that form is considered the principal form: kaip savo ausis (ausį) ironic, “completely (will not see, having not drunk, having not received, etc.)”: Pamatysi kaip savo ausis PP₃₉₉. Tuos pinigus matys kaip savo ausis Alz. Išvysi kap savo ausį Lz. Mato užmokestį matys kaip savo ausį Žem. Galiu jiems tik ačiū pasakyti už jų paslaugas ir triūsą, o dvarą jie matys kaip savo ausis A. Vien.

The environment of comparative fixed expressions with the same meaning consists of verbs belonging to one semantic group. If the environment of one and the same comparative fixed expression consists of verbs from two or more semantic groups, then the comparative fixed expression has as many meanings as there are semantic verb groups associated with it.

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In this way, context makes it possible to identify the meanings of comparative phraseologisms on a motivated basis.

For example:

like a sheep without a liver 1. “very (rampages, goes wild)”: Go wild like a sheep without a liver Db. 2. “without sense, aimlessly (wanders, roams about)”: You roam about like a sheep without a liver Dr. 3. “with difficulty, slowly (came trudging, dragged along, etc.)”: Dragged along like a sheep without a liver Brs.

Here the context of the comparative phraseologism consists of verbs from three semantic groups, and thus the phraseologism has three meanings.

Comparative phraseologisms in verbal contexts usually describe the manner or intensity of an action:

like [as if] on pins and needles “very restlessly (sits, stands, lies)”: All the time she is restless, sitting as if on pins and needles Jnš. She fusses about as if lying on pins and needles Kt. We all stand as if on pins and needles; they are waiting for the carriage, and not a sound Žem.

like a stone into water (in water) 1. “suddenly, completely (disappeared, perished)”: Perished like a stone into water LTR. Disappeared like a stone in water Lš. Vanished like a stone in water Svn. 2. “very soundly (fell asleep)”: Fell asleep like a stone in water Švnč. That Saturday, Severija, as usual, was tired from the day’s work and fell asleep like a stone into water... Vaižg.

like a black horse “a lot, hard (works)”: Works like a black horse Krž.

like behind the ears (behind the ear) “very quickly, greedily (ate, gobbled up, drank, etc.)”: I served a bowlful; he gobbled up the beet greens as if they were behind his ears Sug. The glutton wolfed down three buckets’ worth as if behind the ears Ds. Look, he polished off a whole slice as if behind the ear Ut. We gobbled up the bacon as if behind the ear Mlt.

like without salt “nonsense, idly (talks, chatters, etc.)”: Talks as if without salt Lkš. He’s such a chatterbox, talking as if without salt Sml.

like [as if] from the heavens “very heavily (rains, pours)”: It’s pouring—as if from the heavens Grl. Rain is pouring down as if from the heavens Drsk. The rain came down in a sudden burst, as if from the heavens Rtn.

like from smoke 1. “in unison, in agreement (does, did something)”: They sing as if from smoke Mlt. Everyone rose and left as if from smoke Srv. 2. “well, beautifully (grows, flourishes)”: Everything bloomed and flourished as if from smoke Šlč. 3. “very well (succeeds, goes)”: It goes as if from smoke Dv.

like [as if] a hedgehog [is] tormenting “very (wearies, afflicts, torments someone)”: It wears you out like a hedgehog tormenting you Ggr. It pesters [you] like a hedgehog tormenting you Plt. It wears you out like a hedgehog tormenting you Krtn.

like [as if] tormented by a tooth (tooth, teeth) 1. “very (tosses about, is restless)”: It aches (is restless) as if tormented by a tooth J.Jabl. He tosses about as if tormented by a tooth M. Valanč. It aches and aches (is restless) as if tormented by a tooth—there’s nowhere to grab hold NžR. He tosses about as if tormented by teeth S. Dauk. 2. “very (grimaces)”: Grimaces as if tormented by a tooth J. Jabl, PPr411. 3. “very (groans, moans)”: Groans as if tormented by a tooth Mc.

like a kitten away from dry potato mash 1. “very (resists, rejects, shakes off something)”: Why are you shaking it off like a kitten away from dry potato mash (stewed potatoes, mash)? LTR(VIkv). Don’t resist like a kitten away from dry potato mash rš. 2. “very, intensely (sneezes)”: Sneezes like a kitten away from dry potato mash Gs.

like [as if] a cat whose tail is being twisted “a lot, angrily (grumbles, mutters, etc.)”: Grumbles like a cat whose tail is being twisted Krtn. And meows like a cat whose tail is being twisted Pln. Why are you grumbling like a cat whose tail is being twisted LTR (Ms).

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like a bear on smoke (on the smoke) “suddenly, angrily (attacks, leaps, shouts at someone)”: Šoka kap meška an dūmo Gs. Pasakyk jam ką, tai šoks kap meška ant dūmo Vlkv. Ko tu žarnoji (shout) kap meška in dūmų Arm.

Sometimes in a sentence, a comparative idiom is not directly associated with a verb, but complements or intensifies the meaning of an adverb, e.g.: Gyvena spakainiai, kaip meškos ausyje KrvP(Rod). Išlipė (iškilo) aukštai, kaip iš mielių Ps. A comparative idiom may also be associated with a correlative word occurring in the sentence, which indicates the idiom’s syntactic function, e.g.: Ma tep jų reikia, kap druskos į puodą Kbr. Truputį nikstelėjo ranką, tai paleido teip gerklę, lyg karti vedamas Jrb. However, even in such cases, the idiom is syntactically dependent on the verb. If the adverb is eliminated, the idiom’s function and the sentence structure essentially remain unchanged. Thus, the environment of these comparative idioms is also considered to be the verb. From the sentences cited, we derive the following comparative constructions: gyvena kaip meškos ausyje; išlipė kaip iš mielių; reikia kaip druskos į puodą; paleido gerklę lyg karti vedamas.

Occasionally, the verb environment is elided. This usually happens when the main component in the structure of the comparative idiom is a verb, as a result of which the entire comparative idiom becomes fairly independent in the sentence, e.g.: Ruskai — kap ledą kremtu Azl. Žemaitiškai — kaip ledą griaužiu Krtn. Such idioms are very close to those that function as verbs in a sentence. Nevertheless, these comparative idioms are also most often used in speech with an environmental verb, and therefore are inseparable from idioms functioning adverbially: Skaito — kaip ledą kremta LTR(Grk). Jis kalbėjo, kaip ledą graužė… J. Balč.

There are cases in which the environment of the same comparative idiom can consist of either a verb or a noun of similar meaning—a deverbal abstract noun, or the name of an action. We regard such idioms as variants of the corresponding idioms associated with verbs, and the nouns themselves as variant environments of comparative idioms:

like [as if] at a fire (into a fire) “quickly, intensely (runs, dashes; ran up, rushed over, etc.)”: Lekia tartum in gaisro Kvr. Vamptelėjo kas žodį, ir lekia [to conduct a search] kaip ant gaisro… Žem. Petronėlė, visa pergedusi, kvapo neatgaudama, atbėgo kaip į gaisrą Vaižg. || “intense, extraordinary (running, gait)”: O tų žmonių bėgsena — kaip ant gaisro! Skd.

2. The second fairly productive group consists of comparative idioms associated with a positive-degree qualitative adjective, a participle that functions as one, or the neuter form of an adjective. In constructions of this type, too, the comparative idiom has as many meanings as there are semantic groups in its environment. A comparative idiom usually complements or intensifies the meaning of the adjective, indicates a greater or lesser degree of a thing’s quality, and most often means “very.”

a) Examples with a positive-degree adjective or a participle functioning as one:

like a cucumber 1. “very (fat, well-fed, said of a person or animal)”: Būsi tu pilnas kap agurkas Lp. Arklys priedės kap agurkas Lp. 2. “very (large, swollen, said of a nose)”: Išbur­bus nosė kaip agurkas nuo slanksto Ssk.

like an eye “very (full, brimming with something, said of a vessel or a room)”: Bliūdas pilnas kaip akis, kliustelėsi kiek — ir išliesi! Pn. Pripylė stiklą pilną kap akis Alk. Kūdra kaip akis sklidina vėsaus vandens J. Avyž. Viedras pieno liustinas kaip akis Slnt. Pil-

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a sack full like an eye, you can hardly lift it Ds. Nako (such is the surname) the barn is full [of hay] like an eye Slm.

like a fishbone 1. “very (thin, emaciated, of a person or animal)”: The pigs are as skinny as fishbones Šlu. Dried up like a fishbone Vlk. They were as thin as little fishbones, and as pale as potato sprouts, stretched out in the dark woodland Vaižg. 2. “very (pallid, white, pale, of a person)”: That girl is pale as a fishbone Vklv.

like a scraper “very (thin, of a person or animal)”: A slender girl like a scraper Ds. The cows are as skinny as scrapers Ds.

like a sheep’s spirit “very, completely (stupid)”: Stupid as a sheep’s spirit Lnkl.

b) Examples with the neuter form of the adjective:

like on the palm of one’s hand “very, completely (clear)”: Clear as on the palm of one’s hand Ds. From beginning to end, it was as clear as on the palm of his hand—that the relationship was impossible; Paukštaitė would not marry him Vaižg.

like daylight “very, completely (clear)”: Clear as daylight Plv. Whatever was said, everything is as clear as daylight Jnš.

like in a wolf’s jaws “very, completely (dark)”: Dark as in a wolf’s jaws SkrT.

like a devout woman’s nose “very (beautiful)”: Oh, beautiful—as a devout woman’s nose (mišparas) Dl.

In language, comparison alone is quite often used to describe the quality of an object. In such cases, the comparative phraseologism is fairly independent and functions like an adjective:

like thunder’s groats “very sparse, usually of grain crops”: Your crops are like thunder’s groats Ds.

like a haystack “very large, bulky, usually of a woman”: Oh, there she comes, my woman, like a haystack! Slm. She is like a haystack, but her legs are like spoons Sml.

like a beggar’s staff “very long, of a runny nose”: A runny nose like a beggar’s staff PnmR.

like ice “very good, excellent, of the weather”: The weather today is like ice Šv.

like a drunkard’s prayer “very poor, no good, of someone’s work, etc.”: Your work is like a drunkard’s prayer VP46.

Nevertheless, most comparative phraseologisms are used with an adjectival environment, and sometimes both with and without an adjectival environment. Let us compare:

You’ll be as full as a cucumber Lp. || The husband is like a cucumber, the wife like a pumpkin LTR(Dkk).

His nose will stick out like a cucumber from a slankstas Ssk. || His nose is like a cucumber Ėr.

The pigs are lean as splinters Šlu. || They have neither fences nor gates, horses like hoes, cows like splinters, and pigs—just heaps of feed… I. Simon.

It should be noted that the adjectival environment in comparative constructions is more often variable than the verbal one. The variable environment of comparative phraseologisms of this type is understood to include adjectival abstract nouns and verbs that share a root or belong to the same semantic group, e.g.: white as a sheet, turned white as a sheet; one could also have whiteness—as of a sheet. A few examples in sentences:

like [as] a sheet “very (white, pale, pallid, said of a person or their face)”: Pale as a sheet Sln, Sug. He came home white as a sheet Prng. Completely white as a sheet Jnšk. Pale and pallid as a sheet, he lay in his fine bed J. Balč. || “very (turned pale, grew pallid)”: Turned pale as a sheet Jnš. Look at you, you say!.. And why have you gone as pale as a sheet?.. V. Krėv.

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like a cat’s mūka “very (emaciated, thin, exhausted, said of a person)”: Emaciated as a cat’s mūka Erž. Dried up, gone pale—just like a cat’s mūka Erž. Grinning and shriveled up like a cat’s mūka Gs. || “very (withered)”: You’ve withered like a cat’s mūka Erž.

like a little bun “very beautiful, said of a person or animal”: The girl is like a little bun Slm. || “extraordinary (beauty)”: The girl’s beauty is like a little bun Kp.

3. The environment of comparative phraseologisms functioning adverbially may include a noun in the genitive. Constructions of this type are not very productive. In them, the comparative phraseologism usually has a quantitative adverbial meaning:

like an ant “very many/much, said of living beings and inanimate things”: I hatched a hundred chicks, lots like ants, but few hens—all cockerels Plv. The house filled up with children like ants Lš. The treetops are full of crows like ants; it must be going to rain Plv. Berries like ants—the whole ground is covered as if with a blanket V.Krev.

like from a puddle “very many, usually said of living beings”: People gathered as if from a puddle Kp. Flies like from a puddle Slm.

like a dog’s fleas “very many/much, said of living beings and inanimate things”: The rich landlord has relatives like a dog has fleas Jnš. He has money like a dog has fleas LTR (J. Jabl.). There are currently vacant rooms like a dog has fleas rš.

like hail “very many/much, said of living beings and inanimate things”: Children, children—like hail! Even the branches are bending: apples like hail! Trgn.

like sour milk “very much, usually said of laughter and talk”: There was laughter like sour milk Kp. Laughter like sour milk Al. The young men had laughter like sour milk Vaižg. Talk soon started up like sour milk Vaižg.

like ice “very many/much, usually said of inanimate things”: There’ll be money like ice, brother! rš. I harvested peas like ice! Lzd.

The environment of many such comparative phraseologisms may include genitives of nouns with a wide range of meanings. Comparative phraseologisms of this kind that combine only with nouns of a particular, restricted range of meanings are rare, e.g.: laughter, talk like sour milk.

II. Comparative Phraseological Units with Verbal Function

There are few comparative phraseological units with a verbal function in Lithuanian. They are more loosely connected to the words in their environment than comparative phraseological units with an adverbial function, and they have an independent meaning; however, as we shall see, the meanings of the words in their environment—which in most cases denote the performer of the action—are defined. The verbal component of a comparative phraseological unit is most often a finite form of the verb.

Comparative phraseological units with a verbal function can have the meaning of personal or impersonal verbs. The environment of comparative phraseological units with the meaning of personal verbs generally consists of an expressed or implied performer of the action—a person expressed in the nominative case:

fell in like a kidney into fat Sim “unexpectedly got a good position, landed in a good place”: Lucky you, Marel! You fell in like a kidney into fat... Žem. Ana fell into fortune like a kidney into fat J.

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threw [someone] into a fire “made someone very angry, irritated someone”: I threw him into a fire when I said that Lnk. — When I said that the gentleman wanted to give us a contract, — Baltaragis continued, — I threw him right into a fire… he berated and abused me… Žem.

burst in as if into a rue garden “overstepped the mark, did or said something out of place”: With that behavior of hers, she burst in as if into a rue garden Skr.

butted in like an owl among hemp Ds “intervened in a conversation in a foreign language”.

burst in as if [like] through a door “unexpectedly, suddenly said something, began speaking, interjected”: Well, he burst in as if through a door with such an unexpected question I. Simon. Uostė burst in like a door with the news I. Simon. Hey, Viliuk, why did you start talking so irreverently without even greeting us? You burst in as if through a door I. Simon.

put it away like on a nail “ate, devoured something very quickly and greedily”: Look, there, he polished off a plate of porridge like on a nail Plt. He put away a bowl like on a nail Žeml. That old woman put away half a bowl of potato soup like on a nail Vvr. With the greatest appetite, she put away her bun like on a nail I. Simon.

The examples show that comparative phraseological units function as transitive verbs (e.g., put it away like on a nail) or intransitive verbs (e.g., burst in as if into a rue garden).

The environment of comparative phraseological units with the meaning of impersonal verbs may include the dative of the action’s subject, expressed or unexpressed, or the accusative of the action’s object:

as if hands were released “someone felt greatly relieved”: Everyone felt as if their hands had been released when the Germans were driven out Šts.

as if [like] a hand took something away “completely went away, ceased, said of an illness, pain, fatigue, etc.”: Anicetas’s fatigue vanished as if by a hand J. Avyž. When I stopped smoking cigarettes, the pain went away as if by a hand V. Kud ir. When he saw this medicine, the pain went away as if by a hand [the pain] Skdt.

Sometimes the environment of a comparative phraseological unit consists of words belonging to different grammatical categories, most often a verb and an adjective. In that case, the phraseological unit generally has as many meanings as there are grammatical categories in its environment (excluding variant environments) and as there are semantic groups represented by the words in those grammatical categories. Here are some examples:

like a harrow 1. “very big and ungainly, usually said of a woman”: The woman is like a harrow, her shoulders like ladders KrvP(Ds). 2. “walking awkwardly, unsteadily”: She walks as if harrowing Plš. She walks awkwardly, like a harrow Lp.

as if [as though] without eyes 1. “slowly, by groping, feeling one’s way (doing something)”: Why are you fumbling around here as if you had no eyes Blnk. The old wreck fumbles around as if without eyes Erz. That one’s blind now—she gropes and rummages as if without eyes Jrb. 2. “forcefully, recklessly (rushes, goes somewhere)”: You rush in as if without eyes LTR (Šmk). He went as if without eyes—and knocked a pot of fresh milk onto the ground Srv. 3. “it is difficult to do without something important”: Without learning, it is like being without eyes LTR.

like a beehive 1. “very, loudly (roars, makes a noise, causes a commotion)”: The whole city roared like a beehive A. Vencl. The whole theater rang and roared like a beehive rš. 2. “very (swollen, puffed up, said of a person or a body part)”: My legs are swollen

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like boots Sts. A person is swollen like a boot Užv. || “very, severely (swelled, became puffy)”: The nose swelled like a boot Žr. 3. “completely (empty)”: Empty as a boot LTR (Pp).

like [as, as if] smoke 1. Plv, Užv “very good, lush, said of crops and sown fields”: The wheat is like smoke Gs, Kt. The rye is just rye, but the spring crops are all like smoke! Žem. 2. “very (drunk)”: Drunk as smoke Švnč. He staggers along drunk as smoke Ktk. || “very drunk”: He’s already like a little puff of smoke Gs. 3. “quickly, swiftly (flies, runs; ran off, sped away, and the like)”: He hurried home like smoke An. The horse sped like smoke Dbk. As soon as he got on the horse, it shot off like smoke Arm. He galloped across the fields like smoke Šil. And [the devil] sped off like smoke back to hell S131. 4. “quickly (something disappeared, passed, vanished)”: That forest disappeared like smoke P. Cvir. Behold, like smoke, the pampered ones of this world will perish M. Valanč. All my days passed like smoke SGII55.

like a pea worm (pea caterpillar) 1. “very (curled up, stiff, rigid, frail, usually said of a person)”: Curled up like a pea caterpillar LTR (Plng). Frail as a pea worm Prk. Curled up like a pea worm Krž. Stiff as a pea caterpillar S. Dauk. In the morning you can’t get up to the herd; you’re stiff as pea caterpillars Žem. || “very (stiffened, became rigid)”: I stiffened up like a pea caterpillar J. 2. “barely, with difficulty, slowly (walks, drags oneself along)”: Why are you crawling along like a pea worm? Brs. And he crawls along like a pea worm Krkl. Why are you shuffling along like a pea worm? Brs. He staggers along, barely alive—as weak as a pea worm Užv.

It is worth noting the structural parallelism between some comparative phraseologisms and their context. In such comparative constructions, the phraseologism and its context have the same or a very similar structure:

like beer without hops “useless; something or someone is no good without something important”: A person without decency is like beer without hops—no good at all Sim.

like a garden without a fence “something or someone is no good without something; it is difficult to manage without something important”: Life without a wife is like a garden without a fence PPr149.

like being without salt “uninteresting, cheerless without someone or something; something is uninteresting or cheerless without something important”: Without him, it’s like being without salt Plv. A party without Domas and Zosė is like being without salt Žem.

like being without nails “it is difficult without someone or something; someone or something is no good without something important”: Without a knife, it’s like being without nails LTR (Rk). A housekeeper without fire tongs is like being without nails Užp. I saw people and the world, and understood that without learning it’s like being without nails A. Vencl.

like behind a wall “it is good to live, and easy to manage once married to someone”: With a good husband, it’s like being behind a wall Dkš. With such a husband, you’ll be as if behind a wall Klov.

like a dog running “very easy; (speaking) comes easily”: Speaking comes as easily to him as running to a dog Vrb.

like a dog barking “very easy; (speaking) comes easily”: Speaking comes as easily to him as barking to a dog Vjkv.

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THE RELATION OF LITHUANIAN COMPARATIVE IDIOMS TO THEIR LINGUISTIC ENVIRONMENT

K. VOSILYTĖ

Abstract

The aim of the paper is to identify the criterion by which the boundary between comparative idioms and their phraseological environment can be established. The structure of comparative idioms is then characterized according to their environment.

Obligatory phraseological environment is defined as a firmly established set of lexical and grammatical elements used freely, which constantly accompanies an idiom and without which it is not used. The environment together with the comparative idiom forms a fixed comparative construction and constitutes a unit of the language system.

The following is the main criterion for determining the composition of a comparative idiom: words that constantly accompany an idiom are not part of its lexical composition if they have an independent lexical meaning and grammatical function.

Idioms of the same structure can perform different functions. The function of an idiom depends on its grammatical environment. Most comparative idioms in Lithuanian function as adverbs, while only a small proportion function as verbs. The words in the environment of comparative idioms functioning as adverbs may be: 1) a verb (sometimes replaced by an onomatopoeic interjection or a group of words), e.g., stovi kaip kuolą prarijęs; 2) the positive degree of an adjective, its neuter form, or a part of speech replacing an adjective—a participle, e.g., sudžiūvęs kaip kačių mėta, aišku kaip ant delno; 3) the genitive case of a noun, e.g., juoko kaip krekeno. Since comparative idioms functioning as adverbs are closely connected with their environment, their meaning emerges only in the environment of a particular semantic group of words. Comparative idioms functioning as verbs have an independent meaning and are more loosely connected with the words in their environment.

Comparative idioms usually have as many meanings as there are grammatical categories making up their environment (excluding variable environments), and as there are semantic groups represented by the words belonging to those grammatical categories.

The parallelism between the structure of some comparative idioms and their environment is noted, e.g., gyvenimas be žmonos — lyg daržas be tvoros; be peilio kaip be nagų; jam kalbėt — kaip šuniui bėgt.

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