ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

Research areas: lexicography, semantics, lexicology.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.35321/all82-05

THE CONCEPT OF THE WORD AUGALAS (BASED ON A STUDENT SURVEY)

Concept of the Word augalas (Based on Student Survey)

A B S T R A C T

Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries (Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian, Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language) usually define the word augalas as a botanical term by mentioning its essential features—‘organism’ that feeds on ‘inorganic substances’ and requires ‘the energy of light’. However, augalas is not only a term but also a daily, usual word, which explanatory dictionaries could define in a more mundane manner as well, recording its typical features, typical members of the category, and so on, so that this word would be easier for dictionary readers to understand. In order to examine more thoroughly how the word augalas is understood, which of its features are more important and easily recognizable and which are less important, a student survey was conducted. Its results could help supplement the traditional (more scientific) definition of augalas with more typical features.

K E Y W O R D S: survey, meaning, most typical feature, definition, term, plant.

A N N O T A T I O N

Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries (Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian, Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language) usually define the word augalas (plant) as a botanical term by mentioning its essential features: ‘organism’, which feeds on ‘inorganic nutrients’ and requires ‘the energy of light’. However, augalas is not only a term but also a daily, usual word, which explanatory dictionaries could also define in a more mundane manner by recording its typical features, typical members of the category, etc. to make it easier for dictionary readers

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to understand it. To find out how the word augalas is understood, which features are more important and easily recognizable and which are less important, a student survey was conducted the findings of which could be of help in supplementing the traditional (more scientific) definition of the term augalas with more typical features.

KEYWORDS: survey, meaning, most typical feature, definition, term, plant.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

This article is part of a series of articles by the authors devoted to investigating the concept of a plant and of some specific plants. The first article in the series, “Peculiarities of Defining Meanings in Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: Plants and Animals,” was published in the scholarly journal “Bendrinė kalba” (Vol. 90, 2017). The aim of that article was to discuss the peculiarities of defining the meanings of selected words naming plants and animals in Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne (hereinafter BŽ) and to offer proposals for formulating the definitions of these and other names in the same field. One of the article’s tasks was to establish which type of definition of a word’s meaning—traditional or cognitive—is most often followed in BŽ when defining the general category names plant and animal and the words belonging to these categories (domestic animals, trees, fruits, etc.), and to compare them with definitions in other explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian, English, and Russian. Another important task of the article was to investigate which features are most often selected in BŽ when defining the words augalas^¹ and gyvūnas. With regard to augalą, it became clear that the authors of BŽ chose a traditional (more scientific) definition of the meanings of these words (as did DŽ_₇ᵢ, LKŽ_ₑ and most of the analyzed English and Russian dictionaries). BŽ records the following features of a plant: ‘organism’, feeds on ‘inorganic substances’, and requires ‘the energy of light’. It was concluded that a great many plant species are known in nature; therefore, it would apparently be difficult to define this word through, for example, the features of its most prominent typical members.

Botany has a highly developed terminological system, so Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries may often rely, when defining words belonging to this field, on elements of scientific categorization (scientific nomenclature), mentioning an entity’s affiliation with various kingdoms, families, genera, and so on, although “[o]ne of the principal tasks of a lexicographic definition is to help the dictionary reader recognize in reality the representatives of the categories denoted by words” (Mikulskas 2009: 72). The practice of defining words from the field of botany as terms in explanatory dictionaries dates back a long way.

^¹ Based on the as-yet unpublished BŽ manuscript.

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In Lithuanian-language encyclopedias, a plant is defined in highly scientific terms, with various terms from the field of botany being mentioned; cf.: “plants are living organisms whose cell wall is formed of cellulose² and whose highest forms have a shoot, a root, and produce organic matter from inorganic matter, i.e. feed autotrophically” (LE 1953: 392). Sometimes the definition of a plant is restricted by mentioning its affiliation with a particular kingdom (emphasizing the difference between a plant and an animal); cf.: “plants, organisms constituting one of the two kingdoms of the living world (regnum vegetabile; the other kingdom is animals)” (LTE 1976: 445); “plants, organisms constituting one of the two principal kingdoms of the living world” (ŽŪE 1998: 121). VLE_e likewise defines a plant by mentioning its affiliation with a particular kingdom; cf.: “organisms constituting the plant kingdom (Regnum plantae, Regnum vegetabile”³.

Lithuanian dictionaries of terms (and various laws) record the following features when defining a plant: ‘feeding on inorganic substances’ (unlike animals, which usually feed on organic substances) and ‘the ability to carry out photosynthesis’; cf.: “An organism of one of the forms of living matter existing on Earth, feeding on inorganic substances and usually using light energy for growth” (Sliesaravičius, Lazauskas, Stanys, Keinys, Klimovienė 2010); cf. also: “1. A multicellular organism carrying out photosynthesis or parts thereof <...>, including seeds intended for sowing. 2. A multicellular organism carrying out photosynthesis or parts thereof, including fresh fruit and seeds” (Draft Law Amending the Phytosanitary Law of the Republic of Lithuania; Draft Law Amending the Plant Protection Law of the Republic of Lithuania).

Comparing the definitions of a plant given in Lithuanian-language encyclopedias and dictionaries of terms, it may be stated that Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries (DŽ¹¹, LKŽ_e) define the word augalas as a term by mentioning its essential features: ‘organism’ that feeds on ‘inorganic substances’ and requires ‘the energy of light’. It should be emphasized that augalas is not only a term but also a daily, usual word, which explanatory dictionaries could define in a more mundane manner as well, recording its typical features, typical members of the category, and so on, so that this word would be easier for dictionary readers to understand.

As Aloyzas Gudavičius (2009: 78) states, “[a]ssociative dictionaries provide abundant material for definitions of meanings <...>. Informants’ syntagmatic reactions to given words confirm a strong semantic relationship between sememes and, consequently, the presence of common semes.” Thus, in order to examine more thoroughly how augalas is understood, which of its features are more important and easily recognizable and which are less important,

² Written as in the original.

³ For more information, see VLE_e plants: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/augalai-66752.

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it was decided to conduct a student⁴ survey, whose results are expected to help supplement the traditional (more scientific) definition of a plant with more typical features.

The aim of this article is to investigate the understanding of the word augalas based on a student survey. The article sets the following tasks: 1) to identify, classify, and discuss the features of a plant recorded in the students’ answers; 2) based on the survey data, to offer proposals concerning the definition of the meaning of this word in the explanatory Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne.

METODOLOGIJA IR TEORINĖS PRIELAIDOS

A total of 111⁵ students from different levels and faculties at three Lithuanian universities—Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Mykolas Romeris University, and Šiauliai University—participated in the survey. Representatives of the exact sciences accounted for 30 percent of all respondents, representatives of the social sciences for 61 percent, and representatives of the humanities for 9 percent (for more information, see Table 1). Women accounted for 59 percent (85 percent of the social-science representatives, 15 percent of the humanities representatives, and 0 percent of the exact-science representatives), while men accounted for 41 percent of all respondents (72 percent of the exact-science representatives, 28 percent of the social-science representatives, and 0 percent of the humanities representatives). Women who spent their childhood and early youth in the countryside accounted for 23 percent of all women surveyed, and men for 41 percent of all men surveyed. Women who spent their childhood and early youth in the city accounted for 77 percent of all women surveyed, and men for 59 percent of all men surveyed.

⁴ Students were selected because of the diversity of their composition, as they may represent society as a whole (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 32).

⁵ The survey was conducted from February to May 2019. The authors sincerely thank docent Dr. Rasuolė Vladarskienė of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, lecturer Dr. Ilona Čiužauskaitė of Mykolas Romeris University, and docent Dr. Jolanta Vaskelienė of Šiauliai University, who assisted in conducting the student survey.

⁶ As Kristina Rutkovska, Marius Smetona, and Irena Smetonienė state, “[s]tudent groups of at least 100 people must be studied” (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 32). More than one hundred students were surveyed in the study because the authors’ experience shows that some data are usually spoiled: students fail to answer any questions at all, answer “I don’t know” to all questions, and so on. It was decided to retain all questionnaires whose data had not been spoiled, i.e. 111.

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Table 1. Distribution of respondents by sex and field of study, no.

Field | Sex | Women | Men | Total | | from the countryside | from the city | from the countryside | from the city | Exact sciences | 0 | 0 | 11 | 22 | 33 Social sciences | 11 | 44 | 8 | 5 | 68 Humanities | 4 | 6 | – | – | 10 | Total 65 | | Total 46 | | 111

In terms of age, the women are mostly approximately 19 to 25 years old, and the men 18 to 25 years old. There are older respondents among both the women and the men (see Table 2).

Table 2. Distribution of respondents by age

Field | Sex | Women | Men Exact sciences | – | 21–23, 25, 41 Social sciences | 19–23, 27–28 | 18–20 Humanities | 22–25, 45 | – Total of 111 respondents

The survey included open-ended questions (13 in total), in which respondents had to write an answer formulated in their own words:

1. Describe in your own words what a plant is to you. 2. What, in your opinion, is the principal feature of a plant? 3. List other features of a plant. 4. What part (organ), in your opinion, must a plant have for it to be called a plant? 5. In your opinion, how does a plant differ from an animal? 6. In what environment, in your opinion, can a plant grow? 7. In your opinion, can a plant grow in water? 8. In your opinion, are all plants green? 9. In your opinion, is light necessary for a plant? 10. What, in your opinion, does a plant feed on? 11. Are you familiar with the term photosynthesis? If so, describe it in your own words. 12. In your opinion, is a fungus a plant? 13. What is the most typical plant for you?

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As can be seen, the questions ranged from the most general, when respondents had to describe what a plant is to them, to more specific ones, for example, in what environment a plant can grow; whether a plant can grow in water; whether all plants are green, and so on. To ensure that respondents answered as fully as possible, the same questions were presented several times, but formulated somewhat differently. For example, the second (What, in your opinion, is the principal feature of a plant?) and fourth (What part (organ), in your opinion, must a plant have for it to be called a plant?) survey questions are related, since similar answers were expected, but the results show that this is not the case. The fifth question (In your opinion, how does a plant differ from an animal?) was asked to determine which principal distinguishing features respondents would identify, since these features would probably be not only distinctive but also the most characteristic of a plant and an animal. The sixth and seventh questions are related: in the first case, respondents were asked in what kind of environment a plant can grow in general, while in the second they were asked specifically whether a plant can grow in water. The eighth question concerned the plant’s color, that is, whether all plants are green. The ninth and tenth survey questions concerned plant nutrition—whether light is necessary for a plant and what a plant feeds on. The eleventh question was scientific in nature: the aim was to check whether respondents knew the term photosynthesis, since Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries define the word augalas by mentioning this scientific term. The twelfth question was asked to determine which kingdom or group respondents assign fungi to—plants or another. In presenting the thirteenth question (What is the most typical plant for you?), the aim was to find out which plants presumably growing in Lithuania are most typical for respondents.

When analyzing and describing the questionnaire data, respondents’ answers were initially classified by field of study, sex, and place of origin; however, it was established that there were no significant differences among the answers provided. It was decided to describe the data without classification according to these criteria. In cases where the answers of respondents belonging to different fields of study do not coincide, this is recorded in the analysis of the question.

The data collected in the survey were processed manually. The answers are presented numerically and as percentages. Answers to the same question were classified according to features; for example, the answer a plant—a living thing with a root contains the features ‘root’ and ‘life’. The features were grouped into larger groups (discussed below), and their numerical and percentage representations were provided. The number in parentheses after each feature indicates how many times the feature was used in answering the same question (e.g. 54 out of 81). Features are presented in descending order. Answers to the first through fourth questions were counted in this way. Answers to the fifth through sixth, tenth through eleventh, and thirteenth questions were also classified according to features but not grouped, because in these cases it is important to establish which features predominate, while the groups to which they belong are not relevant. Answers to the seventh through ninth and

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twelfth questions were not classified according to features (respondents most often answered yes or no), so the total number of people answering the same question was counted.

According to Ryszard Tokarsky (1993: 340–341), plant properties that are important to humans can be divided into three groups: 1) environmental properties (including their flowering period, which is most important for plant development), 2) physical properties, and 3) purpose. Przemysław Dębowiak and Jadwiga Waniakowa (2019: 176), investigating the semantic motivation of plant names⁷, present the following classification: 1) the appearance (external form) of plants, 2) plant properties, 3) the place where plants grow, and 4) the purpose of plants.

Having identified the plant features recorded in the students’ answers, the following groups of features can be distinguished: 1) plant in the general sense, 2) internal features of a plant, and 3) external features of a plant. The group plant in the general sense includes concepts of scientific classification (hyperonymic concepts), such as organism, part of nature, kingdom, and so on. Internal features of a plant are features unrelated to the visible form of plants but revealing their internal properties associated with the process of growth, habitat, nutrition, cell structure⁸, and so on, e.g. ‘reproduction’, ‘growth’, ‘photosynthesis’, and so on (see Table 3 for more information). In this article, these features are classified as scientific because they reflect scientific knowledge about a plant. External features of a plant are features perceived or sensed visually, by touch, smell, or other means, e.g. ‘color’, ‘smell’, ‘organs’ (‘roots’, ‘stem (stalk)’), and so on (see Table 3 for more information). Unlike internal features, these features are based more on everyday, personal knowledge of and experience with plants.

Table 3. Plant features frequently recorded in respondents’ answers

^⁷ The word plant has not received much attention in the works of Lithuanian linguists. Various articles have been published on individual plant names; for example, Aurelija Gritėnienė studied representations of the violet (2014) and rowan (2016), Rūta Kazlauskaitė examined representations of the flowering poppy (2010) and flowering sunflower (2014), and Silvija Papaurėlytė studied the associative field of the word medis (2011), among others.

^⁸ One might ask why the cellular structure of a plant is classified as an internal rather than an external feature. This distinction was made because the structure of plant cells cannot be seen with the naked eye; it was established through scientific investigation.

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GROUPS OF FEATURES

PLANT FEATURES

Internal features of a plant

‘life cycle’

‘reproduction’ ‘growth’ ‘death’ ‘renewal’

‘nutrition’

‘sun’ ‘water (moisture)’ ‘inorganic substances’ ‘nutritional value’

‘photosynthesis’

‘air’

‘production’ ‘respiration’

‘habitat’

‘cell structure’

External features of a plant

‘organs’

‘roots’ ‘stem (stalk)’ ‘leaves / needles’ ‘flower, flowering’ ‘trunk’ ‘fruit’

‘color’

‘smell’

‘beauty, decoration’

Research methods: semantic analysis, comparative, quantitative, and survey methods.

ANALYSIS OF THE STUDENT SURVEY RESULTS

In answering the first survey question—DESCRIBE IN YOUR OWN WORDS WHAT A PLANT IS TO YOU—respondents first indicated what a plant is in the general sense (81, i.e. 36% of all features). To respondents, a plant most often^⁹

^⁹ Explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian (DŽ₇, LKŽₑ), English (MERRIAM-WEBSTER, OXFORD, MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE), and Russian (СЕМ, МАКС, ТСОШ) likewise first indicate, when defining the word augalas, that it is ‘living’ (for more information, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–14).

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is an ‘organism’ (54 out of 81), that is, living¹⁰; cf. the answers: a living organism; a living, feeling organism; a growing organism; a group of organisms; a semi-living creature; an organism encountered in nature; alive; life; a form of life; life of plant origin; a symbol of life. Other respondents answered that a plant is a ‘part of nature’ (11 out of 81), e.g.: nature; part of nature; everyone/everything found in nature. It may be assumed that living (organic) nature was meant¹¹. Less frequently (16 out of 81), a plant was described as a ‘thing’, ‘object’, ‘element’, ‘matter’, and so on.

In answering the first question, respondents also devoted considerable attention to the internal features of a plant (102, i.e. 45% of all features), emphasizing its ‘life cycle’, like that of any other living being (23 out of 102): a) ‘reproduction’ (reproducing; developed from a seed; reproduces in ways characteristic only of plants; can reproduce); b) ‘growth’ (growing; grows; which grows; able to grow; constantly growing); c) ‘death’ (dies after some time), and d) ‘renewal’ (renewing itself; being reborn). Respondents also mention plant ‘nutrition’ (21 out of 102)—to sustain life, a plant requires: a) ‘light energy’ (life depends on light; reacts to light; sunlight is necessary for it), b) ‘water (moisture)’, and c) the absorption of ‘inorganic substances’ through its roots. Several respondents answered that a plant sustains its life by using organic and inorganic substances and that a plant feeds on substances. The latter answers are not entirely accurate, because substances may be organic or inorganic, whereas plants are primarily producers of organic substances (they synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds). Plant nutrition with organic substances is not typical, but such plants do exist in nature, for example insectivorous plants, which feed on small animals (insects, spiders, and so on)¹². There were also answers related to the ‘nutritional value of plants’, e.g.: nutritious for insects; food.

Respondents also mention ‘photosynthesis’¹³ (19 out of 102) (for more information about photosynthesis, see the discussion of the eleventh question) and ‘habitat’ (18 out of 102). It is often indicated that a plant can grow in various environments—in the ground, soil, or water; in some cases, a specific plant habitat is given—in a niche, in a meadow, and so on.

¹⁰ Organism—“a living being capable of existing independently—an animal or a plant” (BŽ).

¹¹ Cf. nature is “everything that exists, except society. A distinction is made between inanimate, or inorganic, nature and animate, or organic, nature” (for more information, see VLE: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/gamta-102872).

¹² For more information, see VLE insectivorous plants: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/vabzdziaedziai-augalai-98590.

¹³ Photosynthesis—“the process in which organisms (chlorophyll-containing plants, green and purple bacteria) use energy from the visible part of the solar spectrum to synthesize compounds of high energy value” (for more information, see VLE: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/fotosinteze-41233).

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Less frequently, in answering the first question, respondents mention ‘air’¹⁴ (11 out of 102), that is, its ‘production’ (a plant produces oxygen; a source of oxygen; purifying the air; producing oxygen), and plant ‘respiration’ itself. The ‘cell structure’ of plants is mentioned very rarely (5 out of 102), e.g.: composed of plant cells containing chloroplasts.

Interestingly, some respondents (5 out of 102) describe a plant by contrasting it with a human being and an animal (a cognitive approach); cf.: something that grows, but is neither a human nor an animal; immobile; incapable of thought. Some Lithuanian, English, and Russian explanatory dictionaries likewise record in the definition of a plant the feature ‘growing in an immobile position’; cf.: ‘usually growing in an immobile position’ (LKŽₑ), ‘does not move from one place to another’ (MERRIAM-WEBSTER), ‘attached to one place or another’ (CEM), and so on (for more information, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–14). Indeed, most plants cannot move actively, but when necessary they can bend toward light, roots bend toward a moist substrate, some climbing plants wind themselves around a support they touch, and so on (VLEₑ).

Less frequently (44, i.e. 19% of all features), respondents mention external features of a plant when answering the first survey question. The most frequent external (visible) plant features identified are ‘color’ (11 out of 44) (usually green) and ‘leaves / needles’ (10 out of 44). Explanatory dictionaries (and only some English-language ones) rarely record these features when defining the meaning of a plant; cf.: ‘has leaves’ (COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE), ‘in the leaves, through photosynthesis, the green pigment (emphasis by the authors) chlorophyll synthesizes nutrients’ (OX­FORD) (for more information, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–12).

Respondents rarely mention the following external plant features: ‘root’ (6 out of 44), ‘beauty, decoration’¹⁵ (4 out of 44), ‘flower, flowering’ (4 out of 44), ‘stem (stalk)’ (4 out of 44), ‘smell’ (3 out of 44), ‘fruit(s)’ (1 out of 44), and ‘form’ (1 out of 44).

In answering the first question, some respondents mentioned what they considered the most typical plants, e.g.: tree(s), flower(s), grass, and bush(es). It is likely that the plants mentioned are the most typical representatives of the plant category. It should be emphasized that the established practice of mentioning the most typical members of a particular category when explaining the meaning of the category name itself is not widespread in lexicographic practice. For example, in its definition of the word plant, the OXFORD dictionary gives types encompassed by the plant category: trees, shrubs, grasses, ferns, and mosses (for more information, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 12). Apparently, in the view of the compilers of the OXFORD dictionary, these plants are the most typical for English speakers. The study conducted shows,

¹⁴ Indeed, the features that plants perform ‘photosynthesis’ and ‘produce air’ are related, because oxygen is released during the process of photosynthesis; however, plants not only release oxygen but also respire, so these features are presented separately.

¹⁵ This feature is assigned to the external (visible) features of a plant, but it could also be regarded as the plant’s purpose—to beautify and decorate the surroundings, homes, etc.

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that the most typical plants (for Lithuanians) would be a tree, flower, grass, and shrub (see the discussion of the thirteenth question in greater detail). In this case, the definition of the word plant could be supplemented with these most typical members, making the definition even clearer and more informative for dictionary readers.

Several philosophical answers were also given to the first survey question, e.g.: plants are God’s creation; a source of inspiration, proof of God’s existence; a sign of peace and authenticity; they evoke only pleasant and warm emotions.

Summarizing the answers to the first question—describe in your own words what a plant is to you—it can be stated that, for respondents, a plant is most often an ‘organism’ that ‘performs photosynthesis’, ‘grows’, and has a ‘growing site’. Thus, more scientific plant features are recorded.

Respondents were asked: WHAT, IN YOUR OPINION, IS THE MAIN FEATURE OF A PLANT? A larger group consists of answers related to the internal features of a plant (76, i.e. 55% of all features). Among the internal features of plants, respondents most often mention ‘photosynthesis’ (22 of 76) (for more on photosynthesis, see the discussion of the eleventh question). The plant’s ‘life cycle’ is regarded as another important plant feature (18 of 76), more precisely, its ‘growth’. Other internal plant features are identified as follows: ‘air production’ (10 of 76), ‘nutrition’ (8 of 76), and ‘growing site’ (8 of 76). Less frequently mentioned plant features include ‘cell structure’ (6 of 76) and the contrast with humans and animals, more specifically, ‘growing while stationary’ (4 of 76).

Regarding the external features of a plant (56, i.e. 41% of all features), respondents most often mention the plant’s ‘colour’ (23 of 56), which is usually green, cf.: plants are usually green in colour; they are green in colour, etc. (for more on plant colour, see the discussion of the eighth question). Other external plant features identified by respondents are mentioned rarely or very rarely, cf.: ‘roots’ (12 of 56), ‘flower, flowering’ (7 of 56), ‘leaves’ (5 of 56), ‘stem (stalk)’ (5 of 56), ‘form’ (2 of 56), ‘beauty’ (1 of 56), and ‘fruit’ (1 of 56).

A very small proportion of the answers related to what a plant is in the general sense consists of answers that a plant is a ‘living organism’ or ‘living’ (6, i.e. 4% of all features).

In summary, it can be stated that, in response to the second survey question—what, in your opinion, is the main feature of a plant?—respondents first answer ‘colour’ (an external feature), while ‘photosynthesis’ ranks second in frequency. Interestingly, respondents mention ‘photosynthesis’ in their answers to both the first and second survey questions. It may be assumed that ‘photosynthesis’ is one of the most important plant features.

The third survey question was formulated as follows: NAME OTHER FEATURES OF A PLANT. An analysis of the answers shows that, in responding to this question, respondents most often mention the external features of a plant (151, i.e. 67% of all features). The most frequent answers include: ‘flower, flowering’

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(33 of 151) and ‘leaves / needles’ (32 of 151). The following external features are mentioned less frequently: ‘roots’ (21 of 151), ‘stem (stalk)’ (18 of 151), and ‘colour’ (17 of 151). The plant’s ‘fruit’ (13 of 151), ‘smell’ (7 of 151), ‘trunk’ (4 of 151), ‘seeds’ (3 of 151), ‘beauty, decoration’ (2 of 151), and ‘bud’ (1 of 151) are mentioned rarely or very rarely.

Internal plant features are recorded less frequently (73, i.e. 32% of all features) than external ones. The plant’s ‘life cycle’ is mentioned (23 of 73): a) ‘reproduction’ (reproduces; sexual and asexual reproduction; reproduces by seeds, fruit, or roots; reproduces by seeds and pollen¹⁶); b) ‘growth’ (growth; grows; grows upward; grows from bottom to top; grows continuously); c) ‘death’ and d) ‘renewal’ (can live for a long time; awakening; existence). The most frequent of the internal plant features discussed is ‘growth’. As can be seen, some answers specifically indicated the direction of plant growth, e.g.: grows upward; grows from bottom to top. In fact, plants do not always grow upward; cf. climbing plants, which do not have a vertical stem and can twine around certain objects in various directions.

Respondents also identify plant ‘nutrition’ (14 of 73), ‘photosynthesis’ (11 of 73), and the fact that a plant ‘produces air’ (9 of 73), e.g.: a plant produces oxygen; purifies the air; cleans the air; breaks down CO₂. There were also answers such as: plants reduce air pollution and sustain life on our planet; they clean the planet of dust. These answers are more abstract in nature, illustrating the benefits and purpose of plants in the ecosystem.

Among the external plant features, ‘structure / form’ (6 of 73) and ‘growing site’ (4 of 73) are mentioned rarely, as is the contrast with humans and animals (6 of 73)—‘growth while (not) stationary’ and ‘absence of intellect’.

Very rarely (2, i.e. 1% of all features), respondents indicated what a plant is in the general sense, cf.: a plant is an ‘organism’; a plant is ‘nature’.

Thus, summarizing the third survey question, it can be stated that the other, non-primary, plant features that respondents mention first are ‘flower, flowering’ and ‘leaves / needles’. As can be seen, the features identified are related to external plant features and differ from the most frequent features given in response to the first and second survey questions, cf.: in response to the question of what a plant is to you, respondents most often answered ‘an organism’, ‘performing photosynthesis’, ‘growing’, and having a ‘growing site’ (scientific features), whereas in response to the question about the main feature of a plant the most frequent answer is ‘colour’ (an external plant feature is emphasized).

Respondents were asked: WHAT PART (ORGAN), IN YOUR OPINION, MUST A PLANT HAVE IN ORDER TO BE CALLED A PLANT?

¹⁶ The respondent’s answer that plants reproduce by seeds and pollen is not entirely accurate. For more information, see VLE pollen: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/ziiedadulke-111048.

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The largest group consists of answers related to the external features of a plant (119, i.e. 96% of all features). According to respondents, we can most often call something a plant if it has ‘roots’ (59 of 119), ‘leaves / needles’ (25 of 119), and a ‘stem (stalk)’ (20 of 119). Such typical plant features, related to their visible form, are also recorded in some English dictionaries (MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE), cf.: plants have ‘roots’, ‘leaves’, a ‘stem’ (‘trunk’), and ‘flower’ (for more detail, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–12). Such plant features are not recorded in Lithuanian dictionaries (DŽ⁷ⁱ, LKŽ^e).

It should be emphasized that a typical plant has roots, but there are plants without roots, for example mosses, cf. “have no roots at all; they attach themselves by rhizoids consisting of a single cell or a single row of cells¹⁷” (VLE^e). Likewise, a typical plant usually has leaves (or needles¹⁸) and a stem, but there are plants—microscopic unicellular and filamentous algae (thalloid plants)—whose body is “not differentiated into true tissues and organs (root, stem, leaves)¹⁹.”

Respondents rarely indicated the following plant organs: ‘flower’ (4 of 119), ‘trunk’ (4 of 119), ‘water-conducting / water-storage vessels’ (2 of 119), ‘seed’ (2 of 119), ‘fruit’ (1 of 119), ‘branches’ (1 of 119), and ‘reproductive organ (e.g. stamen)’ (1 of 119).

Internal plant features make up a very small proportion—5, i.e. 4% of all features.

The external features identified by respondents are related to ‘cell structure’, cf.: ‘chloroplasts’ (3 of 5), ‘must have cells’, and ‘the plant has a specific cell structure distinguishing it from other organisms’ (2 of 5).

It should be mentioned that there are certain contradictions in the respondents’ answers. When answering the question about other (non-primary) plant features, respondents most often mention ‘flower, flowering’ and ‘leaves / needles’ (for more detail, see the discussion of the third question), whereas, when answering the question about the main part (organ) of a plant, they most often indicate ‘roots’ and ‘leaves / needles’. On the one hand, according to respondents, ‘leaves / needles’ are a non-primary feature of a plant; on the other hand, they are one of the main plant organs, without which it would not be possible to call something a plant.

Respondents were asked: IN YOUR OPINION, HOW DOES A PLANT DIFFER FROM AN ANIMAL? The prevailing view is that a) plants and animals differ in their ability to move (39, i.e. 30%), cf.: plants cannot move; plants cannot change their location; a plant has no ability to walk or move in any other way; a plant has no muscles that

17 Rhizoids—“thread-like unicellular or multicellular structures of the gametophytes of mosses, liverworts, ferns, clubmosses, and horsetails, by which a plant attaches itself to the substrate” (VLE^e).

18 “The leaves of coniferous trees are called needles” (VLE^e).

19 For more detail, see VLE^e thallus: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/gniuzulas-44749.

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helped them move; a plant is immobile compared with an animal; almost all plants are immobile; plants do not move on 2–4 legs; an animal can move, whereas a plant cannot; an animal can move freely and is mobile; an animal can travel independently, whereas a plant is attached to the ground in which it is planted, etc.

Indeed, as already mentioned, most plants cannot move actively, but they can perform certain movements that depend on environmental stimuli; for example, plants can bend toward light, some climbing plants twine around a support they touch, and so on. Animals, as is known, can move freely.

Some respondents answered that b) plants and animals differ in mental abilities (26, i.e. 19%), for example, that animals can think and communicate, whereas plants cannot, cf.: animals think, whereas plants do not; plants are not conscious; a plant does not think; a plant is not thinking (unlike an animal); a plant cannot communicate, etc.

The third most frequent answer is that c) plants and animals differ in nutrition (19, i.e. 14%), e.g.: a plant has no digestive system; a plant does not eat; a plant feeds on microelements from the soil; plants feed on inorganic substances; a plant feeds on mineral substances, whereas animals feed on plants; animals feed on plants or other animals, whereas a plant obtains all the necessary substances from the soil; a plant can produce the nutrients it needs itself, whereas animals have to hunt or obtain food in other ways, etc. The answers provided are correct because, as already mentioned, “using the energy of the Sun’s rays, they [plants—added by the authors] synthesize organic substances from water, carbon dioxide, and the simplest inorganic compounds” (VLEₑ), in other words, they perform photosynthesis. Animals do not produce food; they usually have to seek it and, once found, swallow and later digest it. Thus, the nutrition processes of plants and animals are completely different.

Respondents sometimes emphasize that d) plants and animals differ in their organs (16, i.e. 12%), e.g.: a plant has a root and stem, lacks limbs, a brain, a heart, and eyes, whereas an animal has no roots; a plant has no nervous system or muscles; an animal has a heart, whereas a plant does not, etc. Less frequently, e) differences in plant and animal cell structure are emphasized (8, i.e. 6%): animal and plant cells differ; animals do not have chloroplasts, etc. Indeed, plant and animal cells differ; for example, animal cells “do not have a rigid wall and differ in this respect from plant cells” (VLEₑ). It is also true that animals do not have chloroplasts²⁰; plants and algae do.

Respondents also indicated a unique plant feature—f) they perform photosynthesis (12, i.e. 9%), e.g.: plants perform photosynthesis; animals do not perform photosynthesis to sustain their lives, etc.

Very rarely, respondents mention g) the plant’s connection with the ground (3, i.e. 2%), e.g.: a plant is connected with the ground; a plant is usually connected with the ground (having grown from it);

²⁰ For more detail, see VLEₑ chloroplasts: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/chloroplastai-60470.

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a plant grows from the ground; h) air production (2, i.e. 2%), e.g.: a plant produces oxygen; a plant releases oxygen and takes in CO_₂ from the environment, while animals inhale O_₂ and release CO_₂; a plant can absorb pollutants and clean the environment.

There were also more general answers (9, i.e. 6%), e.g.: an animal’s organism, system, and organs are more complex than those of a plant; in everything; in functions; in the method of reproduction.

Respondents were asked: in your opinion, in what medium can a plant grow? The answers provided can be divided into several most frequent groups. Thus, according to respondents, plants can grow:

• in a medium containing moisture (25, i.e. 14%) / in water (30, i.e. 17%); • in a medium containing mineral substances—in the ground (27, i.e. 15%), in soil (11, i.e. 7%), in sand (9, i.e. 5%); • in a medium with sufficient sunlight—in a bright place (15, i.e. 9%), in a sunny place (9, i.e. 5%);

Less frequently, it was indicated that plants can grow in a medium containing heat—in a warm place (9, i.e. 5%); containing oxygen (6, i.e. 3%); lacking (or containing little) water—in a dry place (5, i.e. 3%); lacking (or containing little) sunlight—in darkness (2, i.e. 1%); on other plants (2, i.e. 1%); in a stationary medium (1, i.e. 1%).

Some respondents also answered quite abstractly (15, i.e. 9%), e.g.: plants can grow in various media, everywhere, in all places, almost everywhere, while others did not answer this question at all (9, i.e. 5%).

As can be seen, the respondents’ answers merely confirm that the medium in which plants grow is directly related to their nutrition; cf. plants need a) water, b) mineral substances, and c) solar energy in order to perform photosynthesis, so plants usually grow in a medium containing water, moisture, or water itself; in a medium containing mineral substances and sunlight.

It should be noted that some English dictionaries (MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE) record in their definitions plant features related to their place of growth, e.g.: ‘grows in soil’ (‘in the ground’), ‘in water’ (for more detail, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–12). Russian dictionaries (СЕМ, МАКС^²¹, ТСОИЦ) record the place where plants grow (‘soil’), but emphasize it more as a medium of nutrition (for more detail, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 13); Lithuanian dictionaries (DŽ_₇₁, LKŽ_ₑ) do not record these features.

The seventh survey question is related to the sixth, but here the question is specific: CAN A PLANT, IN YOUR OPINION, GROW IN WATER? Respondents most often

²¹ МАКС – Dictionary of the Russian Language (edited by A. P. Evgenyeva). This seemingly incomprehensible abbreviation was adopted from a Russian dictionary website; for more detail, see http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

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answered that a plant can grow in water (104, i.e. 94%), cf.: yes, e.g. algae; yes, e.g. sea algae; yes, such plants are called algae. There were also respondents who answered that a plant cannot grow in water (5, i.e. 4%). Other answer variants: both yes and no (1, i.e. 1%); I think some can (1, i.e. 1%).

As is known, plants can grow in water, cf. aquatic plants (water lilies²², lotuses²³). In answering the question yes, plants can grow in water, respondents often mention algae. However, it should be emphasized that, according to the new classification of plants, not all algae²⁴ are classified as plants.

When asked—ARE ALL PLANTS, IN YOUR OPINION, GREEN IN COLOUR?—respondents most often answered no (89, i.e. 80%), adding, for example, no, but the green colour will nevertheless be present because of certain parts in the plant membrane—chlorophylls; no, although most of them are green, which may be why people associate plants only with green. Other answer variants were: yes (8, i.e. 8%), not necessarily (7, i.e. 6%), most (5, i.e. 4%), almost all (1, i.e. 1%), not all (1, i.e. 1%).

The most frequent response, that not all plants are green in colour, is contradictory and somewhat confusing, because, when answering the question about the main plant feature, respondents first mention the plant’s ‘colour’ (for more detail, see the discussion of the second question). Indeed, plants are usually green (because of the pigment chlorophyll), but plants of other colours also exist. About thirty species of parasitic²⁵ plants lacking chlorophyll are found in Lithuania, for example, broomrape²⁶.

To the ninth survey question—IS LIGHT NECESSARY FOR A PLANT, IN YOUR OPINION?—respondents most often answered yes (87, i.e. 78%): yes, although there are exceptions (e.g. plants on the ocean floor); for some, sunlight, for others, artificial light (e.g. lamps), but it is necessary. It is the main source of a plant’s existence; otherwise, photosynthesis would not occur. Less frequently, respondents answered no (11, i.e. 10%); not for all (10, i.e. 9%); necessary for most plants (2, i.e. 2%); partly yes (1, i.e. 1%).

It is true that plants need light, because the green plant pigment—chlorophyll—absorbs the energy of sunlight and uses it for photosynthesis (VLE_e). As already mentioned, not all plants have the green pigment chlorophyll, and not all perform photosynthesis,

²² Water lily—“<...> a perennial genus of aquatic plants” (for more detail, see VLEₑ: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/vandens-lelija-99595).

²³ Lotus—“<...> a perennial genus of aquatic plants” (for more detail, see VLEₑ: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/lotosas-17658).

²⁴ “It was thought that algae belonged to the lower plants, lacking leaves, stems, and reproductive organs. In the current classification system, algal divisions belong to different kingdoms—plants, bacteria, protists <...>” (VLEₑ).

²⁵ For more detail, see VLEₑ parasitic plants: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/parazitiniai-augalai-2116.

²⁶ Broomrape—“a perennial, chlorophyll-free parasitic plant with a reddish or violet colour and an unbranched or sparsely branched stem” (VLEₑ).

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thus, there are also plants (usually parasitic) for which light is not necessary; however, this is not typical and is rather an exception, since one of the most important functions of plants in the ecosystem is precisely performing photosynthesis.

The answers provided to the tenth survey question—what, in your opinion, does a plant feed on?—can be grouped as follows:

• water (60, i.e. 31%): water, moisture, precipitation; • inorganic substances (55, i.e. 29%): inorganic substances; various minerals, mineral substances; substances found in the soil; mineral fertilizers; • solar energy (45, i.e. 23%): the sun; sunlight; the sun’s rays.

Less frequently, respondents answered that a plant feeds on carbon dioxide (17, i.e. 8%) or organic substances (15, i.e. 8%), e.g.: organic compounds (substances); some plants feed on living organisms—insects, flies; fertilizers²⁷. There were also respondents who did not provide an answer (3, i.e. 1%).

As can be seen, plant nutrition is directly related to photosynthesis. To produce organic substances, plants absorb water from the soil, take in carbon dioxide from the environment, and subsequently release oxygen into the atmosphere. Plants also feed on inorganic substances found in the soil. As already mentioned, nutrition through organic substances is not typical for plants.

Some English and Russian dictionaries, when defining the meaning of plant, record its nutrition, cf.: ‘absorbs water and inorganic substances through its roots’ (OXFORD), ‘water and sunlight are necessary to sustain life’ (MACMILLAN); ‘feeds through photosynthesis and from the soil’ (less often, from another nutrient medium) (CEM), ‘feeds on inorganic substances from the air and soil’ (MAKC), ‘feeds (unlike animals) through photosynthesis and from the soil’ (ТСОІІ) (for more detail, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–14). Lithuanian dictionaries do not record plant nutrition in the definition.

The eleventh question was as follows: DO YOU KNOW THE TERM PHOTOSYNTHESIS? IF SO, DESCRIBE IT IN YOUR OWN WORDS. Most respondents (93, i.e. 84%) answered that they knew the term photosynthesis and explained in their own words how they understood it, e.g.: Photosynthesis is a process during which a plant, taking in solar energy, produces oxygen. Photosynthesis is a reaction performed by a plant, when, using sunlight (a certain part of the spectrum) and CO₂, the plant releases oxygen. It is a process in which plants produce organic nutrients in their leaves and release oxygen. It is the conversion of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen in chloroplasts.

²⁷ Fertilizers can be both inorganic and organic, cf. fertilizers—“mineral and organic substances containing nutrients essential for plants” (VLE₂).

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Essentially, the answers provided are correct. Photosynthesis is “a process in which organisms (chlorophyll-containing plants, green and purple bacteria) use energy from the visible part of the solar spectrum to synthesize compounds with high energy value. <...> Carbohydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide CO₂ and water H₂O, while oxygen O² is released into the atmosphere” (VLE_e). Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts²⁸, which contain “pigments (chlorophylls, carotenoids) that absorb light energy and use it to produce sugar molecules” (VLE_e).

Less frequently, respondents answered that they knew the term photosynthesis but could not explain it (11, i.e. 10%), e.g.: Yes, I know it. I cannot explain it. Very rarely (7, i.e. 6%), respondents answered that the term was unknown to them or provided no answer at all.

As already mentioned, respondents identify the plant feature ‘photosynthesis’ as one of the most frequent features both in response to the first question (describe in your own words what a plant is to you), and to the second question (what, in your opinion, is the main feature of a plant). They also identify ‘photosynthesis’ as one of the distinguishing features of plants and animals.

When defining the word plant, Lithuanian dictionaries mention that ‘light energy’ is necessary for it, but do not directly indicate photosynthesis (cf. DŽ₇ᵢ, LKŽₑ—‘air substances’). Some English and Russian dictionaries mention photosynthesis when defining a plant, cf.: ‘performs photosynthesis’ (MERRIAM-WEBSTER), ‘uses the green pigment chlorophyll in the leaves to synthesize nutrients through photosynthesis’ (OXFORD), ‘feeds through photosynthesis’ (CEM), ‘feeds (unlike animals) through photosynthesis’ (ТСОШ) (for more detail, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 11–14).

The twelfth survey question was formulated as follows: IS A MUSHROOM A PLANT, IN YOUR OPINION? The opinions of the respondents surveyed diverged:

a) respondents from the social sciences and exact sciences most often answered that a mushroom is a plant (51, i.e. 50%), somewhat fewer respondents answered that a mushroom is not a plant (48, i.e. 48%), and two (2%) respondents did not answer the question;

b) the majority of respondents from the humanities believe that a mushroom is not a plant (9, i.e. 90%), and also added that mushrooms belong to the kingdom of fungi; a mushroom belongs to the category of fungi. Only one respondent believes that a mushroom is a plant.

The results show that respondents from the social sciences and exact sciences were divided almost equally—50% believe that a mushroom is a plant, while 48% believe that it is not a plant. The majority (90%) of respondents from the humanities believe that

^{28 For more information, see VLE}_e chloroplasts: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/chloroplastai-60470.

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A mushroom is not a plant. In fact, fungi belong to the kingdom of organisms, not plants (VLE_e).

Respondents were asked to answer the question—WHAT IS THE MOST TYPICAL PLANT FOR YOU? The answers were distributed as follows:

• tree (birch, oak, apple tree) (40, i.e. 34%);

• flower(s) (all flowering flowers, tulip, rose, cornflower, dandelion, potted flowers) (37, i.e. 31%);

• grass (meadow grass) (33, i.e. 27%).

Mentioned less frequently were shrub (1, i.e. 1%), algae (1, i.e. 1%), and cactus (1, i.e. 1%). Some respondents answered more abstractly, cf.: a small plant with round leaves (1, i.e. 1%)—perhaps some kind of potted flower was meant; green in color and growing (1, i.e. 1%)—the majority of plants; conifers (1, i.e. 1%)—spruces, pines, etc.; did not answer the question (3, i.e. 2%).

LEXICOGRAPHICAL ARTICLE ON THE PLANT

It should be recalled that plant is defined in Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries as follows: “an organism that feeds on inorganic substances and usually uses light energy for growth” (DŽ⁷ⁱ); “an organism that feeds on inorganic substances from the soil and air, usually growing in a stationary position” (LKŽ_e).

As can be seen, the definitions of plant provided in DŽ⁷ⁱ and LKŽ_e are rather concise; they mention the following features: ‘organism’, ‘feeds on inorganic substances’, and requires ‘light energy’ (DŽ⁷ⁱ; LKŽ_e—‘substances from the air’). LKŽ_e also records another feature of a plant—‘grows in a stationary position’.

When the definitions of plant in DŽ⁷ⁱ and LKŽ_e are compared with the definitions of this word provided in Lithuanian encyclopedias²⁹ and terminology dictionaries³⁰, it can be seen that in almost all sources plant is defined as a term; scientific features (rather than everyday and easily understood ones) are mentioned, cf.: ‘organism’, ‘feeds on inorganic substances’, ‘performs photosynthesis’. In other words, the meaning of plant is explained in these dictionaries with an educated dictionary reader in mind. According to Gudavičius (2009: 75), “from a scientific point of view, the essential features of objects and phenomena should be reflected in a meaning definition only to the extent that they are universally understood by speakers.”

²⁹ For the encyclopedias consulted, see “Introductory remarks” for more information.

³⁰ For the terminology dictionaries consulted, see “Introductory remarks” for more information.

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Analysis of the data from the survey conducted showed that respondents often mention scientific features of a plant, e.g.: ‘photosynthesis’, ‘oxygen production’, ‘chloroplasts’, but they also frequently emphasize nonscientific features, e.g. that a plant does not move, i.e. is ‘attached to one place’ (in contrast to an animal), and that it often has ‘roots’, a ‘stem’, ‘leaves’, and ‘blooms’. At first glance, it might seem that the features of a plant identified by respondents are already known to everyone, but in this case it is important which features of a plant are mentioned most frequently, cf.: ‘branches’, ‘fruit’, and ‘buds’ might be among the most frequently mentioned features, but, as the study shows, this is not so.

The study also helped reveal which plants are most typical for Lithuanians—these are trees³¹, flowers, and grass. These data had not previously been empirically confirmed.

It is clear that the terminological definition of plant in BŽ should be combined with a more cognitive definition. It is proposed that the definition of plant be formulated by including its most typical features mentioned above—‘roots’, ‘stem’, ‘leaves’, and ‘blooming’. For interest, it may be mentioned that the feature of a plant recorded in LKŽ as ‘usually growing in a stationary position’ is also very frequently mentioned by respondents, although this feature was omitted from DŽ³¹. Respondents frequently mention this feature, so it is worth including it in the BŽ definition of plant.

Thus, the BŽ definition of plant could be as follows:

plant—an organism that feeds on inorganic substances and usually uses light energy for growth, usually attached to one place, often having roots, a stem, and leaves, and blooming (e.g.: tree, flower, grass).

CONCLUSIONS

1. The study aimed to investigate the contemporary understanding of the word plant, to determine which of its features are more important and easily recognizable and which are less important. It also aimed to offer proposals concerning the definition of the word plant in the explanatory Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, since this word is most often defined even in explanatory dictionaries solely as a scientific term in the field of botany, without mentioning its features associated with everyday, personal knowledge. In fact, a plant can be defined not only in scientific terms but also in more easily understood, ordinary words.

³¹ The associative field of the word tree was studied by Silvija Papaurėlytė (2011: 405–416). She found that the most prototypical Lithuanian tree is the oak.

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2. Analysis of the survey data showed that a plant is most often (see questions 1–4) recognized by external (visual) features (370, i.e. 52%), usually associated with visible plant organs.

3. The following external features of a plant are mentioned most frequently: ‘roots’ (98, i.e. 27%), ‘leaves / needles’ (72, i.e. 19%), ‘color’ (51, i.e. 14%), ‘flower, blooming’ (48, i.e. 13%), and ‘stem (stalk)’ (47, i.e. 13%).

4. A plant is also recognized by internal features (256, i.e. 36%), which are associated with its vital cycles.

5. Among the internal features of a plant, respondents most often emphasize the plant’s ‘life cycle’ (64, i.e. 25%), ‘photosynthesis’ (52, i.e. 20%), and ‘habitat’ (30, i.e. 12%).

6. Less often, a plant is recognized according to what a plant is in the general sense (89, i.e. 12%). This group of features is more closely related to elements of the scientific classification of a plant.

7. When speaking of a plant in the general sense, the scientific feature most frequently recorded is that a plant is an ‘organism’ (61, i.e. 69%).

8. In answering the survey questions, respondents often contrasted a plant with an animal, thereby seeking to emphasize their essential differences. Differences in movement are emphasized most often—most plants cannot move actively, i.e. they grow in a stationary position, whereas animals can usually move. The mental differences between plants and animals are also emphasized—plants cannot think.

9. The most typical plants identified by respondents are a tree, a flower, and grass.

10. After analyzing the survey data and also drawing on the authors’ earlier article on the understanding of a plant in Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries, the terminological definition of plant in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian should be combined with a more cognitive definition, cf. plant—an organism that feeds on inorganic substances and usually uses light energy for growth, usually attached to one place, often having roots, a stem, and leaves, and blooming (e.g.: tree, flower, grass).

ŠALTINIAI

BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, red. kolegija D. Liutkevičienė, G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosyly­tė, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, rengiamas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt.

CAMBRIDGE – Cambridge Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/.

COLLINS – Collins English Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/.

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DŽ₇i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, vyr. red. St. Keinys, 7-asis patais. ir papild. leid., Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2012, e. variantas, 2015 (atnaujinta versija, 2017). Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis.

LE 1953 – Lietuvių enciklopedija (t. I: A), vyr. red. V. Biržiška, Boston Mass.: Lietuvių enciklopedijos leidykla (J. Kapočius). Prieiga internete: http://lituapedija.net/Puslapis:LE01.djvu/392.

Lietuvos Respublikos augalų apsaugos įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymo projektas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt.

Lietuvos Respublikos fitosanitarijos įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymo projektas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt.

LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (t. I–XX, 1941–2002), red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, 2-asis leidimas, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2008). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt.

LTE 1976 – Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija (t. 1: A–bangis), Vilnius: Mokslas.

MACMILLAN – Macmillan Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/.

MERRIAM-WEBSTER – Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus. Prieiga internete: https://www.merriam-webster.com/.

OXFORD – Oxford Dictionaries. Prieiga internete: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/.

Sliesaravičius Algirdas, Lazauskas Juozas, Stanys Vidmantas, Keinys Stasys, Klimovienė Giedrė 2010: Žemės ūkio augalų selekcijos ir sėklininkystės terminų žodynas, Vilnius: Infrostras. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt.

VLEₑ 2019 – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija: e. variantas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. Prieiga internete: https://www.vle.lt.

ŽŪE 1998 – Žemės ūkio enciklopedija (t. 1: aberdynai–Juškienė), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

МАКС – Словарь русского языка, под ред. А. П. Евгеньевой. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

СЕМ – Русский семантический словарь, отв. ред. Н. Ю. Шведова. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

ТСОШ – Толковый словарь русского языка, С. И. Ожегова и Н. Ю. Шведовой. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

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LITERATŪRA

Dębowiak Przemysław, Waniakowa Jadwiga 2019: Semantic Motivation of Plant Names as a Part of their Etymology. – Villalva, A., Williams, G. (eds.). The Landscape of Lexikography. Prieiga internete: https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02309857/document.

Gaidienė Anželika, Liutkevičienė Danutė 2017: Reiškinių apibrėžimo ypatumai Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai. – Bendrinė kalba 90, 1–47. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/?90.

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Straipsniai / Articles

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ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Concept of the Word augalas (Based on Student Survey)

SUMMARY

The aim of the research was to investigate the contemporary understanding of the word augalas (plant) and to determine which features are more important and easily recognizable and which are less important. The study also sought to provide some proposals regarding the definition of the word augalas in the explanatory Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian, because even explanatory dictionaries usually define this word solely as a botanical term by not mentioning the features, which are concerned with daily and personal knowledge. In fact, this word may also be defined by more easily comprehensible and usual words rather than scientific terms only.

The analysis of the survey data revealed that the plant is usually recognizable by external (visible) features (370, i.e. 52%), which are usually associated with the visible parts of the plant. Concerning the external features of the plant, the following are usually mentioned: ‘roots’, ‘leaves/needles’, ‘colour’, ‘blossom’ and ‘stalk (stem)’. The plant is also recognizable by its internal features (256, i.e. 36%), which are concerned with its vital cycles. As regards the internal features of the plant, the respondents usually underline the plant’s ‘life cycle’, ‘photosynthesis’ and ‘habitat’. The plant is less commonly recognizable by what it is in the general sense (89, i.e. 12%). The most common feature pinpointed by this group: the plant is an ‘organism’.

When answering the questions of the survey, the respondents often oppose the plant to the animal, thus trying to highlight their essential differences. The differences of movement are usually underlined: most plants cannot move actively, i.e. they grow in a motionless position, whereas animals have the faculty to move. Mental differences between plants and animals are emphasized as well: plants do not have minds; they cannot think.

The analysis of the survey data and the earlier article of the authors addressing the perception of the plant in Lithuanian, English and Russian dictionaries entail that the definition of the term augalas in Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian should be made more consistent with its cognitive definition, cf. augalas, an organism, which feeds on inorganic nutrients and usually uses the energy of light for its growth; it is usually attached to a single place, often has roots, a stem, leaves and the capacity to bloom (e.g. tree, flower, grass).

Įteikta 2019 m. lapkričio 19 d.

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, Vilnius LT–10308, Lietuva [email protected] [email protected]

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Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXII