Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica
2026, ol. 94, pp. 1–15
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Recei ed: / Gau a: 2026-05-18. Accep ed: / P iim a: 2026-06-03. 1
RETHINKING BEZDÓNĖ, DARÌNĖ, AND ÌLMA:
CHALLENGING CURRENT ETYMOLOGIES,
UNCOVERING COGNITIVE MOTIVATIONS
Naujas ž ilgsnis į ie o a džius Bezdónė, Da nė i Ìlma: esamų e imologijų
k es iona imas, kogni y inių mo y ų a skleidimas
PAVEL SKORUPA
Ins i u e o Li huanian Language
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-3903-7006
Fields o esea ch: oponymy, cogni i e onomas ics, cogni i e seman ics.
h ps://doi.o g/10.35321/all94-08
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ABSTRACT
The a icle aces he his o ical de elopmen o Li huanian onomas ic s udies, highligh ing he
impo ance o balancing adi ion and inno a ion in he ield. In Li huania, onomas ic s udies adi ionally
adhe ed o he app oach emphasising he e ymological and de i a ional analysis o p ope names, which was
la e expanded wi h undamen al wo ks on he s uc u al-g amma ical and seman ic classi ica ion o
hyd onyms. Cu en ly, a new wa e o onomas icians seeks o depa om adi ional me hods, explo ing
oponyms wi hin he amewo k o Cogni i e Seman ics. Taking one po amonym, oikonym, and limnonym
cu en ly o icially unc ioning wi hin he bo de s o Vilnius Coun y, his pape , using a mul idisciplina y
app oach in eg a ing linguis ic analysis, his o ical esea ch, and cul u al s udies, aims o illus a e how blending
adi ional and inno a i e app oaches cla i ies es ablished e ymologies and explains he o igins, mo i a ions,
and meanings behind oponyms.
KEYWORDS: Li huanian onomas ics, Cogni i e onomas ics, Vilnius Coun y oponymy, oponym seman ics,
oikonym, po amonym, limnonym, Bezdónė, Da nė, Ìlma.
ANOTACIJA
S aipsnyje ap a iama is o inė lie u ių onomas ikos aida, pab ėžian adicijos i ino acijos
pusiaus y os s a bą šioje s i yje. Lie u oje onomas ika adiciškai laikėsi požiū io, pab ėžiančio ik inių žodžių
e imologinę i da ybinę analizę, ku i ėliau bu o plė ojama undamen iniuose hid onimijai ski uose da buose
ku ian jų s uk ū inę-g ama inę i seman inę klasi ikacijas. Daba inė onomas ų ka a ols a nuo adicinių
me odų y inėdama oponimus kogni y inės seman ikos ėmuose. Šiame s aipsnyje, emian is Vilniaus
apsk i yje šiuo me u o icialiai unkcionuojančiais po amonimo, oikonimo i limnonimo pa yzdžiais, aikan
a ps i inį požiū į, in eg uojan į ling is inę analizę, is o inius y imus i kul ū inius, siekiama pa ody i, kaip
adicinių i no a o iškų me odų de inimas paaiškina žinomas e imologijas i ie o a džių kilmę, mo y aciją i
eikšmes.
ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: lie u ių onomas ika, kogni y inė onomas ika, Vilniaus apsk i ies oponimika,
oponimų seman ika, oikonimas, po amonimas, limnonimas, Bezdónė, Da nė, Ìlma.
2
In oduc ion
The e ymologies o o icially used oponyms in Vilnius Coun y, as examined in
schola ly li e a u e and lexicog aphic sou ces, o en include in e p e a ions ha me i
scep icism, pa icula ly in oday’s digi al age, when access o di e se da a sou ces, maps, and
a chi es has signi ican ly expanded. The cu en esea ch aims o ques ion, e ise, and
cla i y p e iously accep ed e ymologies by combining ex alinguis ic e idence (geog aphical
and his o ical con ex ) wi h in-dep h linguis ic analysis. The s udy highligh s he e ol ing
na u e o oponomas ics and emphasises he need o con inuous eassessmen . By linking
adi ional and mode n app oaches, his mul idisciplina y in es iga ion e eals deepe
insigh s in o he mo i a ion and seman ics o h ee selec ed oponyms (a po amonym,
a limnonym, and an oikonym), he o igins o which appea p oblema ic in ligh o newly
a ailable da a.
Resea ch Me hodology and Sou ces. The in es iga ion elies on he ac ual da a
ga he ed om mul iple sou ces (see Toponym Sou ces, Lexicog aphic Sou ces, and
Re e ences). These ma e ials o m he ounda ion o he esea ch, complemen ing one
ano he and aiding he de elopmen o obus e ymological and mo i a ional in e p e a ions
o oponyms. The e ymological, de i a ional, mo i a ional, and seman ic analyses o
oponyms a e g ounded in he in eg a ion o bo h adi ional and Cogni i e Onomas ics
heo e ical p inciples and me hodologies es ablished by schola s om Li huania and ab oad
(see Sec ion 1). The e ymological analysis is based on he wo ks o Kazimie as Būga (1961),
Aleksand as Vanagas (1970; 1981), and o he s; he Dic iona y o Li huanian Place Names
(LVŽ); and Li huanian, Bela usian, Russian, and Polish (e-)dic iona ies. The composi ion
analysis o oponyms is based on, bu no limi ed o, he hyd onyms’ s uc u al-g amma ical
classi ica ion p oposed by A. Vanagas (1970). As he esea ch adhe es o he p inciples o
Cogni i e Onomas ics, we main ain ha all onyms ha e meaning. We will u he explo e
he idea ha oponyms esul ed om linguis ic ac i i ies, o iginally held clea meanings, and
we e eadily associa ed wi h hei oo lexical elemen s. In his pape , he selec ed oponyms
a e analysed bo h synch onically and diach onically
1
.
In line wi h p io Li huanian egional oponymic s udies, his pape p esen s
oponyms ha adhe e o he es ablished c i e ia o p esen ing oponymic ma e ial in
Li huanian onomas ics. Each oponym is p o ided wi h a e e ence o i s geog aphical
loca ion, an explana ion o i s o igin, a p oposed hypo he ical e ymon, and i s meaning.
Only he cu en ly o icially unc ioning o ms o he examined oponyms a e highligh ed
isually in i alics and bold ace.
1. Li huanian Onomas ics om T adi ion o Mode ni y: A B ie O e iew
Place names play a signi ican and dis inc i e ole in language, con eying
in o ma ion abou landscapes, e ain ea u es, lo a, auna, people, and mo e in a gi en a ea.
They also p o ide insigh s in o his o ical and cul u al aspec s, including social phenomena.
The s udy o he g amma ical unc ion and seman ic p ope ies o p ope names has been
a opic o scien i ic esea ch since ancien imes, wi h a ious onomas ic schools wo ldwide
pu suing di e en esea ch di ec ions. Despi e his, he e is no uni ied heo y o p ope
names. His o ically, adi ional onomas ic esea ch has concen a ed on he e ymology,
linguis ic elemen s, and his o ical con ex o p ope names, occasionally ex ending i s scope
o he analysis o hei seman ic aspec s: “<…> onomas ics adi ionally has la gely ocused
on he e ymology and ypology o names” (Ainiala, Ös man, eds., 2017: 3). I was no un il
1990 ha subs an ial e o s we e made o in es iga e p ope names wi hin he
mul idisciplina y amewo k o Cogni i e Linguis ics. E ns Hansack (1990) was he i s o
apply he esul s o cogni i e science o p ope names in his book Bedeu ung, Beg i , Name
(En: Meaning, Concep , Name). Thomas Hobbes’ ea ise O Names (2002 [1655]), in which
1
Fo a de ailed desc ip ion o ou esea ch me hodology, see Pa el Sko upa (2021a: 259–260; 2023: 35–47).
3
he posi s ha names, as linguis ic signs, e oke hough s in bo h he speake and he
add essee, is conside ed he o e unne o he mode n cogni i e app oach o p ope name
s udies. Since E. Hansack’s pionee ing wo k in he ield o Cogni i e Onomas ics,
signi ican a en ion has been de o ed o he meaning and concep ualiza ion o p ope
names (see Coa es 2006; 2012; 2015; 2016; Langendonck 2007; Ka penko, Golubenko
2015; Ainiala e al. 2016; e c.); he issues o name ca ego iza ion and p o o yping (see
Sjöblom 2006; Bölcskei 2014; e c.); he p oblem o he o igin, iden i y, and cul u al-social
mo i a ion o names (see B endle 2012; B endle , ed., 2016; Slíz 2017; e c.); he issue o
concep ual me apho s and me onymy in Onomas ics (see Dob ić 2010; Reszegi 2012a;
2022b; 2022c; 2023; Aunga 2018; e c.).
In Li huania, onomas ic s udies adi ionally ollowed he app oach o p ope names
es ablished by K. Būga, speci ically he “Compa a i e po amology” me hod, which he
in oduced in 1923 (Būga 1961: 510) and he oponymy compa a i e me hod e e ed o as
“Compa a i e s udies o land names”, in oduced in 1924 (ibid.: 736). Bo h me hods
in ol e compa ing hyd onyms wi h names o o he i e s and lakes, o o he oponyms wi h
simila ones, whe he wi hin o ou side Li huanian bo de s. These s udies p ima ily ocused
on he e ymological and de i a ional analysis o p ope names.
A mo e ecen shi owa d explo ing he seman ics and mo i a ion o p ope names
eme ged wi h A. Vanagas’ S uc u al-G amma ical Classi ica ion o Hyd onyms (1970) and
he Seman ic Classi ica ion o Hyd onyms (1981). Dalia S ide skienė (2006; 2016; 2017;
2019; 2022; 2024) applied hese classi ica ions in s udies o Li huanian egional oponymy
and de eloped a anspa en and obscu e mo i a ion classi ica ion model o local oponymy.
A mode n pe spec i e on Li huanian onomas ic s udies was in oduced by D. S ide snienė’s
wo ks, which del e in o he e ymology and mo i a ion o mic o- oponyms. Addi ionally,
he es ablishmen o P o . G asilda Blažienė’s onomas ic school and he s uden s’ e o s
ma k a depa u e om adi ional app oaches. They explo e oponyms wi hin he amewo k
o Cogni i e Seman ics, combining i wi h a adi ional pe spec i e on he e ymology,
mo i a ion, and meaning o p ope names
2
.
Schola ly in es iga ions in o he Li huanian onomas icon equen ly demons a e
dispa i ies be ween s udies g ounded in adi ional me hodologies and hose conduc ed
wi hin he amewo k o mode n heo ies o Cogni i e Onomas ics. As a esul , he
applica ion o new esea ch p inciples o he analysis o ea lie wo ks makes i possible o
no ice inhe en inaccu acies in he p e iously ca ied ou e ymologies o oponyms.
2. Ques ioning he C edibili y o Lexicog aphical Sou ces: In es iga ing
he O igins o he Po amonym Bezdónė
When esea ching Li huanian oponymy, pa icula ly sc u inising he e ymology and
mo i a ion o place names, he analysis o en elies no only on con empo a y eco ds ound
in o icial documen s and maps bu also on a chi al ma e ials such as he VK – he
Ca alogue o Li huanian Place Names W i en om he Spoken Language. Addi ionally, he
esea che s d aw on schola ly wo ks and lexicog aphic sou ces, such as he LVŽ. Those
amilia wi h he dic iona y will ind i unsu p ising ha VK is i s sole sou ce o oponyms.
Bu no all oponyms om he VK ind hei way in o he LVŽ. The a ionale behind his
exclusion emains somewha opaque. Among such oponyms is he po amonym Bezdónė
3
,
2
Fo a mo e comp ehensi e o e iew o he de elopmen o Li huanian onomas ics, om i s incep ion o he
cu en s a e o he a , see P. Sko upa (2025).
3
Each analysed po amonym is accompanied by in o ma ion on i s geog aphical loca ion, p oposed e ymology,
and an explana ion o i s o igin and mo i a ion. Fo ease o e e ence, analysed po amonyms a e p esen ed in
i alics and ma ked wi h s ess whene e possible. A hei i s men ion, hey a e addi ionally highligh ed in
bold. His o ical o ms and o he oponyms ci ed o compa a i e o explana o y pu poses a e gi en in i alics
only and e ain s ess ma ks whe e hese a e p o ided in he o iginal sou ces. In subsequen e e ences, analy-
4
which names an 8.6 km long ibu a y o he Vilnia (Bezdonys eld, V D). O igina ing in he
ma shy meadows be ween Paskynai and Rokan iškės o es s, he s eam meande s in o he
swampy Bezdonys ishing pond and h ough Bezdonys o es s. I e ains i s p imae al alley,
which is ull o sloughs, di ches, allen ees, and na u al dams along i s cou se.
Se e al his o ical o ms o his po amonym a e known, c . he VK eco ds
(he eina e , ou ansla ion and explana ions o en ies in o he languages will be gi en in
b acke s): Bezdánka up. į Ne į [Bezdánka s eam in o he Ne is]; 1965 Bezdanaliésia žečka į
Bezdanką [ he Bezdanaliésia s eam in o he Bezdanka]. Bezdónė is also men ioned in o he
his o ical ma e ials, c .: 1604, 1609, 1730, 1782 <...> село над р. Безданкою [<…> illage
upon he i e Bezdanka: над р. Безданкою – he loca i e case ← he nomina i e case
Безданка] (GU 15); 1811 <...> nad zeczką Bezdanką [<…> upon he Bezdanka s eam]
(NKPRS 34). I is ob ious om hese eco ds ha he o ms o he po amonym a e Sla ic.
Acco ding o Vykin as Vai ke ičius, he s eam was ea lie called he Juodupis: “z Bezdan –
Jodupis, 1784 m., TVD 382” [ om Bezdany [Pol o m] – he Juodupis <…>] (Vai ke ičius
2012: 111). Whe eas Jonas Ju kš as (1985: 19) claims ha bo h he po amonym Bezdónė and
he oikonym Bezdonys a e no au hen ic, he genuine o m o Bezdonys could ha e been
*Bedugniai, de i ed om a simila hyd onym. J. Ju kš as posi s ha in he 1516 sou ce, he
po amonym is w i en as Besdenay a, Besdanay a, and Besdonay a (ibid.), bu gi es no
e e ence o he men ioned documen in his wo k. The documen , mo e p ecisely, a copy o
he p i ilege p epa ed in 1775 based on he o iginal da ing back o 1516, is a chi ed in he
unds o he W oblewski Lib a y o he Li huanian Academy o Sciences. The p i ilege was
g an ed by King Sigismund I he Old (Pol K ól Zygmun I S a y) in 1516, ollowing he
eas o All Sain s and delinea es he bounda ies o he Bezdonys (Pol Bezdany) es a e (c .
VKF). In his documen , he po amonym Bezdanay a is men ioned se e al imes. A his
poin , i is necessa y o co ec J. Ju kš as’ eading o his po amonym, as i consis en ly
appea s as Bezdanay a h oughou he ex , a he han a ia ions such as Besdenay a,
Besdanay a, o Besdonay a ci ed in J. Ju kš as (ibid.). This is e iden when compa ing he
ins ances in he documen , c . (ou ansla ion om Polish is gi en in b acke s):
G anica Dob p ze zeczonych Wsi Bezdan począ ek swói miec ma od g anicc i Rol
cz e ech poddanych naszych Łuczniki nazwanych ozciągaiąć p awdziwą g anicę
Rzeką Bezdanay a nazwaną, i yj Rzeki obadwa b zegi g anicom wsi Bezdan p zy
ącziąć In ko po uiąć. [The bo de s o he es a e g an ed o he Village o
Bezdany shall ha e hei beginning om he bo de s and Ploughlands o ou
ou subjec s named Łuczniki, ex ending he ue bo de wi h he i e called
Bezdanay a, and bo h banks o ha Ri e shall be inco po a ed wi hin he
bo de s o Bezdany illage.]
P zy ącząć akże do ey wsi ziemię i olę, k ó a g aniczy z g un ami wsi Punżam
za ąż Rzeką Bezdanay ą i między ąż wielką Rzeką Wilią leżącą do wsi Bezdan z
dawna p zynależącą. [We should also annex o his illage he land and
ploughland ha bo de s wi h he lands o he illage o Punżam ac oss ha
Ri e Bezdanay a and be ween ha g ea Ri e Wilia, which lies owa ds illage
Bezdany and has long belonged o i .]
Pos ępująć wyżey aż Rzeką Bezdanay ą aż do ego mieysca wnią d uga Rzeka
T ynkuciʃzka nazwana wpada <...> [Mo ing up along ha Ri e Bezdanay a up
o his place, whe e he second Ri e called T ynkuciʃzka lows in o <…>]
sed po amonyms con inue o be p esen ed in i alics and ma ked wi h s ess, bu a e no longe highligh ed in
bold.
5
Daley kon ynuiąć g anicę eż Rzeką Bezdanay ą aż do D ogi. K ó a z mias a
Użlan[?] p zez wies Bezdany ku wsi Pundziany idzie <...> [Con inuing he bo de
u he along he i e Bezdanay a up o he Road. Which goes om he own o
Użlan[?] h ough he illage o Bezdany o he illage o Pundziany <...>]
The po amonym o ms ound in his documen exhibi a Su -ay a, esembling he
Li h Su -ai ė. D awing on his simila i y, J. Ju kš as (1985: 19) concludes ha he
po amonym is o Li huanian o igin and econs uc s i s au hen ic o m o *Bedugnai ė,
de i ed om he hyd onym (be i lake o swamp) *Bedugnis o *Bedugnė. This e ymology is
po en ially linked o Li h bedùgnė ‘g ea dep h’ (LKŽe). This e sion o he hyd onym’s
o igin also seems o be app o ed in he LVŽ, in which he o igins o he ela ed oikonym
Bezdonys, which names he own on he Bezdónė, a e in e p e ed as an allusion o he
his o ical oponymy (c . LVŽ I 466).
Such in e p e a ions ega ding he o igin o bo h he po amonym and he associa ed
oikonym a e highly ques ionable o se e al easons. Fi s ly, he a ailable his o ical sou ces
indica e he Sla ic o m o Bezdónė, eco ded in Polish and Russian as Bezdanka and
Безданка, espec i ely (see abo e), and he oldes a ailable o m is Bezdanay a wi h
appa en ly a Sla ic oo Bezdan- and p obably Li h Su -ay a (→ -ai ė). The e o e, i emains
highly dubious o es o e he au hen ic o m o he po amonym o *Bedugnai ė solely on he
basis o he su ix. We belie e his su ix me ely indica es signi ican language con ac ,
esul ing in a hyb idised o m o he oponym ha in eg a es a Sla ic oo wi h a Li huanian
su ix ( o mo e cases o hyb id oponyms in Vilnius Coun y, see Sko upa 2021c). Secondly,
and mos impo an ly, he e a e no eco ds o a lake o swamp named *Bedugnis o
*Bedugnė in he icini y o Bezdonys, nei he his o ically no con empo a ily. Such names
ha e no been documen ed in any o he a ailable sou ces accessible o us. The only eco d
o a ma shy a ea in he icini y comes om he VK: 1965 Bezdański ois ais as, miškas,
Bezdonys [Bezdański ois [Pol] ma sh, o es , Bezdonys]. Howe e , he exac loca ion o his
ma shy o es is no known. Thi dly, he his o ical da a conce ning he own o Bezdonys
(Bezdonys eld, V D) and his oikonym’s his o ical o ms sugges i s o igins o be i no
Li huanian, hen Sla icized, i.e., likely adop ed by he Sla s (Poles, Bela ussians, o
Russians) esiding in he se lemen and i s en i ons, c .: 1744 Bezdany (SDV 40); 1775 we
wsi Bezdanach [in Bezdany illage] (VVDL 35); R1872 Безданы; 1784 Bezdany (VS95 44);
1795 Bezdany (VAPRS 27 ); 1804 Безданы (SŽ 43 ); 1811 Bezdany (VAPRS 246); 1873
Безданы (SVg 35); 1874 Безданы (ibid.: 48); 1880 Bezdany (SGKP I 162); 1887 Bezdany
(SGKP VIII 410); 1895 Безданы (KKg); Безданцы ст. [s a ion], Безданцы, д. [ illage] (VG
1905: 58); 1917–1918 Bezdany (AO 14); 1932 Bezdany (SAV 476), 1974 Bezdonys (SV 728).
The indica ion ha he popula ion o he icini y has no always been p edominan ly
Li huanian is u he suppo ed by a ema k ound in one o he VK en ies, which sugges s
ha Li huanians se led in he a ea ela i ely ecen ly, c .: 1965 Bezdány ms l ~ Bezdónys,
Bezdonių, į Bezdonis (kaip a ia a sikėlę čia gy en i lie u iai) [Bezdány own ~ Bezdonys,
Bezdonių, į Bezdonis [ he nomina i e, geni i e, and accusa i e o ms, espec i ely] (as he
Li huanians who mo ed he e say)]. Fou hly, he po amonym’s o m w i en in he his o ical
sou ces can be compa ed wi h he name eco ded in he VK: 1982 Bezdankà, akis miške (gili
ie a) – Aly aus aj., Obelnykėlių k. [Bezdankà, pool in he o es (deep place) – Aly us
Dis ic , Obelnykėliai illage]. The Su -ka is p obably Sla ic, al hough he po amonym is
accen ed in he Li huanian manne , a he end. This s ess pa e n is ypical in his egion
when he accen is placed on he inal syllable, making he po amonym sound Li huanian.
In he LVŽ (I 466), his name is ela ed o Bel бяздонне ‘dep h, pi , mo assʼ, Pol bezdenny
‘bo omlessʼ, e c.
Conside ing he abo e, he po amonym Bezdónė is mos p obably a Li h in lexion -ė
de i a i e om Rus бездонный ‘bo omless; ex emely deep’ (c . Rus бездна ‘abyss’)
(SRYAe) o Pol bezdenny ‘bo omless’, bezdeń ‘whi lpool: a apidly o a ing mass o wa e in

6
a i e in o which objec s may be d awn’ (PSPR 34). Bu ega ding i s his o ical o ms
Bezdanka and Безданка, i is mos likely a de i a i e om Bel бездань, бяздонне ‘abyss,
deep place’ (SBG I 180; Ska nik.by). Hence, i is plausible o sugges ha he po amonym
Bezdónė exempli ies he me onymic naming model DEPTH FOR RIVER, whe e a dis inc
cha ac e is ic o he i e bed (i s dep h o pe cei ed bo omlessness) is used o name he
en i e wa e cou se. In his case, he concep o an “abyss” o “deep place” se es as he
de ining ea u e ha mo i a es he hyd onym: Bel бяздонне (dep h, pi , mo ass) → a deep
s eam → Bezdónė. This name may ha e been mo i a ed by associa ions wi h dep hs o
abysses, as e idenced by Pol bezdenny and Bel бяздонне. The olde o ms o he name
di ec ly e lec his e ymological lineage, sugges ing con inui y in he associa ion o he
s eam wi h a no able ea u e o i s i e bed. The s eam’s name may ha e been ein o ced
by local lo e, whe e he s eam is desc ibed as “bo omless” in ce ain places. This belie
could s em om i s deep, ma shy s e ches o i s da k and seemingly impene able wa e s in
swampy a eas, as he s eam’s cou se is cha ac e ised by sloughs, di ches, and na u al dams,
all o which con ibu e o he pe cep ion o dep h.
The absence o his po amonym om he LVŽ, despi e i s p esence in he VK, may
e lec edi o ial decisions o selec ion c i e ia ha we e no made explici . Possible ac o s
include he o m in which he name was eco ded o he absence o he cu en o icial
e sion in he VK. Simila disc epancies be ween he VK and LVŽ indica e ha no all
documen ed place names we e included in he dic iona y.
3. Explo ing he Unde explo ed: Towa ds he O igins o he Oikonym
Da nė
One o many oponyms ha , in ou assessmen , has no ecei ed adequa e a en ion,
has no been ho oughly esea ched, and has no been p ope ly e ymologised is he oikonym
Da nė. This oikonym designa es wo o me se lemen s wi hin Š enčionys Dis ic : Da nė
(s eading, Š enčionys eld) and Da nė (s eading, Pab adė eld). Despi e his, in he LVŽ,
hese names a e p esen ed wi hou di e en ia ion, al hough he e a e se e al en ies o bo h
se lemen s in he VK. In addi ion, in he LVŽ, hese wo oikonyms a e p esen ed alongside
o he oponyms sha ing a common oo da -, c . (ou explana ions a e gi en in b acke s;
bold ace and i alics a e om he sou ce):
Da nė o . [o icial name] ‖ Da ỹnė k., s. [ illage, s eading] Š nč; Da niai
pl . [ olwa k] Pb d; Dã iškė k m., p ., sod. [bushes, meadow, coun y sea ]
Jd ; Dã iškės gn. [pas u e] Jd ; sod. [coun y sea ] K ; Da -ò-polis d ., s.
[es a e, s eading] Ldk (LVŽ II 136).
All o hese place names, as indica ed in he LVŽ en y, a e o obscu e o igin and
may be de i ed om PN Da as, Dã ius; Bel дар o Pol da ‘gi ; dona ion’; o he e is e en
a possibili y o u he associa e hese oponyms wi h he oponym Dã ai ha is de i ed
om Li h da ý i ‘ o p oduce, o wo k (on/wi h a speci ic objec )ʼ (LVŽ II 128, 136). In ou
iew, none o he e sions ega ding he o igin o Da nė p esen ed in he LVŽ can be
deemed eliable. Thus, d awing on his o ical, cu en linguis ic, and ex alinguis ic da a, we
e u e he e ymology o he oikonym Da nė p oposed in he LVŽ and ad ance ou
in e p e a ion o i s o igin.
Be o e del ing in o he e ymology o his oikonym, i would be help ul o p o ide
backg ound on he se lemen s i designa ed. Da nė (Š enčionys eld) was si ua ed nea
D a ikščiai o es . App oxima ely 0.4 km no heas o he o me se lemen lie swampy
a eas, while jus 0.5 km o he no h a e lakes Be žinis and Me geže is. Be ween hese lakes,
he e is Jau os illage, de i ing i s name om he plu al o m o Li h jáu a ‘swampy place;
we land’, indica ing he se lemen ’s p oximi y o a ma shy, we en i onmen . On he o he
hand, Da nė (Pab adė eld) was loca ed amids now melio a ed ields in he alley o he
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Ske dyksna s eam. Nea his se lemen , one inds he Naujašilis o es , beyond which lies
Bal asamanė (Skeimis) pelkė (swamp) jus 1.9 km o he eas . To he sou hwes ,
app oxima ely 2 km away, is Ei ūniškės pelkė on he edge o Baluoša o es , while o he
no hwes , on he edge o Kulniškės o es , lies ano he unnamed swamp (see he maps a
GP; UETK). The cu en maps (GP; UETK) i idly depic he ex ensi e ne wo k o
melio a ion channels su ounding his o me se lemen . By con as , he his o ical R1872
map indica es ha he p esen -day melio a ed ields in he Ske dyksna alley we e ma shy
o es s in he second hal o he 19 h cen u y.
Bo h se lemen s we e ela i ely old. Va ious his o ical o ms o hese oikonyms ha e
been documen ed (ou explana ions a e p o ided in squa e b acke s). Da nė (Š enčionys
eld) is eco ded as R1872 Дарибы; 1932 Da ynia (SAV 506); 1968 Da inė s. [s eading] –
lenk. [Pol] Da ynie zaśc. [s eading] and Da inė k. [ illage] – lenk. Da ynie II zaśc. (VK).
A ela ed en y da es back o 1669 sianozęc [Pol, mowed ield] Da ymes, Da ymey (CVIA.
SA. 4228b. 3660l., 366l.). Da nė (Pab adė eld) is eco ded as 1795 Da ym (ŠPRS 82);
R1872 Подарины; 1880 Da ynie (2.) [ wo se lemen s] (SGKP I 907); Дариня (VG 1905:
273); 1932 Da ynia (SAV 510); 1968 Da ỹnė (lenk. [Pol] Da ynia) (VK). The oldes o m
o Da nė (Š enčionys eld) is Rus Дарибы, which is a ansli e a ion om Li h *Da ybos,
ela ed o Li h plu al o m da ybos ← da ýba, u he ela ed o Li h dã ymas ‘swamp,
puddle’ (LKŽe), which is also e lec ed in he o m 1669 Da ymes ( he au hen ic o m
p obably was *Da ymas). The same e ymon could se e as he basis o he oikonym Da nė
(Pab adė eld), conside ing i s oldes o m, 1795 Da ym ( he au hen ic o m was p obably
*Da ymas). The examina ion o bo h his o ical and con empo a y linguis ic and
ex alinguis ic da a (including eco ded oikonym o ms, he en i onmen al cha ac e is ics o
he named se lemen s, and he ypes and names o nea by ea u es) e eals ha he
oikonym Da nė, wi h a high deg ee o likelihood, is a de i a i e o Li h dã ymas ‘swamp,
puddle’ and deno es wo o me se lemen s in o nea ma shy a eas. Thus, i can be a gued
ha his oikonym is likely mo i a ed by a p ominen landscape ea u e in i s icini y,
namely, a swamp o ma shland, which se ed as he salien cha ac e is ic in he naming
p ocess. This co esponds o he me onymic naming model LANDSCAPE FEATURE (OBJECT)
FOR SETTLEMENT. The de i a ion may be econs uc ed as Li h dã ymas (swamp, puddle) +
Su -inė → a se lemen in he icini y o a swamp, ma shland → Da nė.
4. Challenging T adi ional In e p e a ions o he E ymology o Ìlma
Th ough a Cogni i e Lens
Ano he case ha , in ou iew, needs cla i ica ion ega ding i s o igins and
e ymology is he oponymic opposi ion o med by Ìlma Didžióji (Pab adė eld, Š čn D) and
Ìlma Mažóji (0.06 km eas o Ìlma Didžióji). These composi e limnonyms may be conside ed
o ha e unclea o igins, esul ing in ague seman ics and mo i a ion. Acco ding o
A. Vanagas (1981: 129), he componen Ìlma migh be linked o he Li huanian po amonym
Elmė o limnonym Elmis, bo h o which a e associa ed wi h he po amonym Almė, de i ing
om Li h alm i, elmė i ‘ o slowly leak, d ip, seep; o slowly low’ (LKŽe). The schola also
sugges s ha he componen Ìlma may be ela ed o he Li huanian limnonym Ilm das and
u he compa es i wi h La ian po amonyms Ilmade, Ilmāde, Ilmede, Ilma u-s au s,
oikonyms Ilma and Ilme e, and he ag onym Ilmā es, which, jus as he Li huanian Ilm das,
may be o Finno-Ug ic o igin (ibid.). I is no ewo hy ha LVŽ (IV 34) does no ques ion
his e sion o he limnonym’s o igin, including he Finno-Ug ic one p oposed by
A. Vanagas. Ne e heless, he p oposed o igins o he componen Ìlma aise ques ions.
The de i a ion o his limnonym om Es ilm ‘wea he ; (poe ic) wo lds’ o Finn ilma
‘ai ; wea he ’, bo h con inuing P o o-Finnic *ilma (← P o o-U alic *ilma) ha ini ially
con eyed he addi ional meaning o God (c . WSD), is open o doub . Such an
in e p e a ion aises ques ions conce ning he eme gence o his name in Li huanian
e i o y, i s seman ic mo i a ion, and he meanings associa ed wi h i . Fu he mo e, he
8
ch onology o he limnonym emains unce ain, making i di icul o de e mine whe he i
can genuinely be conside ed e idence o a Finno-Ug ic linguis ic ads a um in he
Li huanian onomas icon.
Fo a limnonym o be o Finno-Ug ic o igin, he componen Ìlma mus no only
con ey he meaning bu also be mo i a ed by he lake’s ela i ely ele a ed posi ion in he
a ea in compa ison o o he nea by objec s. Such obse a ion was made by Maks Vasme
(1986: 128) in he e ymology o he limnonym Ильмень (Lake Ilmen, No go od Oblas ,
Russia) and o he cogna e lake names ound in he no he n egions o Eu ope and Russia.
M. Vasme de i es hese names om Finn Ilma-jä i, ansla ing o ‘lake o (bad) wea he ’
o ‘hea enly (uppe ) lake’. I ma I. Mullonen (2018: 16–17) suppo s a simila iewpoin ,
sugges ing ha he limnonym Ильмень o igina es om he widesp ead Bal ic-Finnish s em
*ylä- ‘uppe ’ in he egion. The schola claims ha his name, as well as simila o ms, may
e lec a ian s such as Ylä/jä i, Ylämä/jä i (‘Uppe Lake’) and Ylimäine, Ylimmäinen
(‘Uppe ’) ha coexis ed in ancien imes. The uppe posi ion in space conce ning o he
objec s is no a cha ac e is ic ea u e o lakes Ìlma Didžióji and Ìlma Mažóji o any o he
objec in he icini y. Bo h lakes a e loca ed wi hin a ange o 1–2 km om a ious
landma ks, including Baliulių pelkė (swamp) o he no hwes , Bal asamanė (Skeimis) pelkė o
he sou h, Mė ionių pelkė o he no h, and lake Skeimis o he sou heas . All hese objec s
sha e an ele a ion o 152–154 me e s abo e sea le el, as de e mined by measu emen s aken
using ools a ailable on he GP websi e. Howe e , his ma ginal di e ence in e ical
ele a ion is p ac ically impe cep ible. Hence, i is unlikely ha he componen ’s Ìlma
seman ics a e o Finno-Ug ic o igin. Addi ionally, a chaeological e idence sugges s ha
language con ac wi h he Finno-Ug ic people is his o ically imp obable, as hey did no
inhabi he e i o y o Li huania. This asse ion is suppo ed by a chaeological indings (c .
Jo aiša 2012; 2014; 2016; 2020a; 2020b). Consequen ly, i is imp obable ha he Bal s
named hei wa e bodies using a o eign language. The oldes eco ds o his name a ailable
a e 1784 Ilma, ež. [lake] (c . VS95 52), o R1872 Rus Ильмъ большой (Ìlma Didžióji ) and
Ильмъ малой (Ìlma Mažóji). The VK ea u es his eco d: Didžióji Ìlma, Didžiõsios Ìlmos,
Ddžiąją Ìlmą, ež.
4
(p ie pa Pio kų k.) [Didžióji Ìlma, Didžiõsios Ìlmos, Ddžiąją Ìlmą [ he
geni i e and accusa i e case in lexions, espec i ely], small lake (nea Pio kos illage)].
This Bal ic e sion o he limnonyms Ìlma Didžióji and Ìlma Mažóji o igin aises an
impo an ques ion: Wha mo i a ed he naming o bodies o s anding wa e wi h a wo d
ha con eys he idea o wa e mo emen o low? A e all, a name de i ed om Li h alm i,
elmė i ‘ o slowly leak, d ip, seep; o slowly low’ would seem mo e i ing o a la ge i e o
s eam. Gi en he en i onmen al condi ions, he named lakes nei he ecei e in lows om
s eams no discha ge o o he wa e bodies. The e a e no connec ing channels ha could
allow wa e o low in o ou o hese lakes. Addi ionally, in e ms o linguis ic
conside a ions ega ding he naming o hese objec s, he ini ial owel changes a e sca cely
explained o unde s ood, c . a, e → i: Li h alm i, elmė i → Ìlma. These aspec s lead us o
doub he e sions o he limnonym’s componen Ìlma o igins p oposed by A. Vanagas.
Conside ing he limnonym o m w i en in R1782 Rus Ильмъ большой, Ильмъ
малой, ou heo y is ha he componen Ìlma may be ela ed o and de i ed om Rus ильм
(илим, илем), old ильма o Bel ільма, iльмaк ‘la ge deciduous ee wi h aluable, du able
wood, common in Eu ope – elm, wych elm (Ulmus)’ (DRLKŽ I 791; SBG II 342; SRYAe;
TSRJ I 1191). In a ious egions o Li huania, pa icula ly in cen al dis ic s such as P ienai,
Kaunas, Raseiniai, Kėdainiai, Ši in os, and Kaišiado ys, a leas h ee ee species in he
amily Ulmaceae h i e. These ees a e commonly ound in la ge i e alleys, on he
slopes su ounding ce ain lakes, and in shaded a eas (TLE II 16). The a ea su ounding
hese wo lakes is wooded, ea u ing a e ees om he Ulmaceae amily. Ano he indica ion,
albei indi ec , o he Sla ic o igin o hese limnonyms is he p esence o Sla ic-o igin
4
In he VK, his e e s o Li h eže lis ‘small lake‘.
9
oikonyms in he icini y, such as Pio kos and Vispa ( o he o igin o hese oikonyms, c .
Sko upa 2021c). Addi ionally, his o ical eco ds men ion now non-exis en oikonyms o
Sla ic o igin, such as Rus Московка, Дольники, and Сорокполь (c . R1872). Mo eo e ,
Li huanians had con inuous cul u al and linguis ic con ac s wi h Sla ic peoples, pa icula ly
Bela usians, Poles, and Russians (c . Būga 1961: 493–550; Ga š a 2019; 2020a; 2020b;
Sko upa 2021b; 2021c). These in e ac ions could ha e played a ole in he eme gence o he
name in ques ion.
The di e en ia ing ma ke Didžióji indica es he size o he lake in compa ison o i s
coun e pa : c . Ìlma Didžióji is 0,061 km2 whe eas Ìlma Mažóji is 0,021 km2. The i s
componen o Ìlma Mažóji is a ansposi ion om Ìlma Didžióji. The second componen o
he limnonym is mo i a ed by he lake’s size, se ing as an an onymic e e ence o he
la ge lake: Ìlma Mažóji deno es he smalle lake in he icini y o Ìlma Didžióji.
Based on he in o ma ion p o ided, he mos p obable o igin o he componen Ìlma
in he limnonym is Sla ic, likely mo i a ed by he local p esence o Ulmaceae ees. I
appea s o be a ansposi ion o he ee species name: Rus ильм, ильма, Bel ільма → he
lake in he woodland whe e ees om he Ulmaceae amily g ow → Ìlma Didžióji. This
e lec s he me onymic ansposi ion o he ee species o he limnonym unde he
me onymic naming model TREE SPECIES FOR LAKE. The less likely o igin o he limnonym
is Li huanian, p ima ily due o he lack o clea mo i a ion behind he name. The e sion
sugges ing a Finno-Ug ic o igin is ejec ed because he seman ic componen o he
limnonym does no align wi h Finno-Ug ic language pa e ns.
Conclusions
The jou ney o Li huanian Onomas ics om adi ion o mode ni y emphasises he
impo ance o oponyms in con eying cul u al and his o ical in o ma ion. While adi ional
app oaches ocused on he e ymology o oponyms, ecen ends in Cogni i e Seman ics
ha e b oadened he scope o onomas ic s udies o include seman ics and mo i a ion,
challenging es ablished e ymologies and in eg a ing ecen da a. Th ough his
mul idisciplina y app oach, inaccu acies in pas oponym e ymologies may be ec i ied,
e lec ing he dynamic na u e o onomas ic s udies. The ollowing conclusions can be d awn
om he analysis o he empi ical da a:
1. Some unce ain ies in lexicog aphical sou ces and he in e p e a ion o oponyms
exis , as e idenced in he analysis o he po amonym Bezdónė. Despi e i s his o ical o ms
sugges ing a Sla ic o igin, a emp s o econs uc his name as Li huanian emain dispu ed.
This highligh s he need o c i ical e alua ion o sou ces in onomas ic esea ch.
2. The s udy o he oikonym Da nė e eals o e looked oponyms and challenges
p oposed e ymologies. Despi e his o ical o ms indica ing dis inc objec s, oponyms a e
o en g ouped wi hou di e en ia ion. Th ough analysis o his o ical eco ds and
en i onmen al cha ac e is ics, an al e na i e in e p e a ion o his oikonym’s mo i a ion and
seman ics was ad anced. This case highligh s he impo ance o ho ough esea ch and
c i ical e alua ion in unde s anding unde explo ed oponyms.
3. The in es iga ion in o limnonyms Ìlma Didžióji and Ìlma Mažóji challenges
adi ional e ymologies, o e ing new insigh s ha emphasise he impo ance o ho ough
analysis and c i ical e alua ion in unde s anding he o igins o oponyms. While p e ious
heo ies sugges a Finno-Ug ic o igin, he p esen ed e idence poin s owa ds a Sla ic o igin.
ABBREVIATIONS
Bel – Bela usian; c . – compa e; D – dis ic ; eld – elde ship; En – English; Es –
Es onian; – eminine; Finn – Finnish; ibid. – in he same sou ce; Jd – Jud ėnai (Klaipėda
D); km – kilome e; K – K ėda na (Šilalė D); Ldk – Lyduokiai (Ukme gė D); Li h –