Robertas GEDRIMAS

Šiauliai University

TERMINOLOGY IN J. A. PABRĖŽA’S GEOGRAPHY TEXTBOOK

Jurgis (the monk Ambraziejus) Pabrėža was a prominent Lithuanian naturalist, physician, priest, and monk of the first half of the nineteenth century; today he is chiefly valued as a pioneer of Lithuanian scientific terminology. He was the first Lithuanian to begin writing scholarly works in Lithuanian. Pabrėža, who came from the village of Večiai (Lenkimai parish, Skuodas district), deliberately wrote only in his native northern Samogitian Kretinga dialect. He did not try to adapt the language of his writings to other dialects, nor did he strive to make his works understandable to all the people of Lithuania, as Simonas Daukantas, who later came from the same parish, and other writers of the period did. As G. Subačius states, Pabrėža was already considering the creation of a standard written Samogitian language and took his native northern Samogitian subdialect as its basis (Subačius 1996: 43). Thus, the terms used in his scholarly works were also intended to become an important part of the lexicon of standard written Samogitian. For this reason, Pabrėža coined terms with particular care, striving to ensure that they accorded with the spirit of the dialect, were acceptable to its speakers—in other words, that they could take root in the standard language. Pabrėža hardly ever left the Samogitian region, except for a few years of study at Vilnius University, then called the Supreme School of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania¹, so his language was not influenced by other Lithuanian dialects. It may be said that the language of Pabrėža’s works is an authentic Samogitian dialect of that period. Pabrėža’s greatest contributions were undoubtedly to botanical terminology. Even today, when Lithuanian botanists lack a word for naming a plant, they sometimes turn to Pabrėža’s centuries-old manuscripts². Besides botany, Pabrėža was also very interested in geography. This

¹ Almost all authors who have studied Pabrėža’s biography in some detail believe that he studied at Vilnius University in 1792–1794, while Vaclovas Biržiška states that Pabrėža entered Vilnius University only in 1793 and studied until 1794 (for more detail, see Gidžiūnas 1994: 13).

² Naujausio Botanikos vardų žodyno (1998) įvade nurodoma, kad vienas iš augalų pavadinimų šaltinių buvo Pabrėžos rankraščiai (BVŽ 1998: 7).

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This is evidenced by the two largest world atlases³ that have survived from his personal library. In one of them, Pabrėža wrote out by hand in Polish the names of countries, regions, and their largest cities; at the back of the atlas, many countries are described in greater detail. One geography work⁴ from Pabrėža’s personal collection is also preserved in the Kaunas Public Library (see Pribušauskaitė 1982: 35).

Nevertheless, the most important and compelling evidence of Pabrėža’s interest in geography is his small-format (166-page) manuscript book, written in Samogitian, on the political and physical geography of the five parts of the world⁵. All researchers agree that this book should be considered a textbook, since it sets out the fundamentals of physical and political geography and was probably intended for use in a school. It is true that it contains no exercises or questions for pupils. J. Tarvydas, who studied it in greater detail, argues that it is the first Lithuanian geography textbook⁶ (Tarvydas 1972: 55). This work allows Pabrėža’s biographers to state that, after entering the Kretinga Franciscan monastery in 1816, at the monastery school, in addition to religion-

³ One atlas consists of fifty maps (Atlas von 50 Karten); the other has eight: a map of the whole world (Mappa Totius Mundi...), maps of Europe, the Kingdom of Poland, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Regni Poloniae Magnique Ducat Lithuaniae...), and others. They are now held in the Pabrėža collection in the Manuscripts Department of the Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania (F 124–8; F 124–9).

⁴ [L.] Echard. Dyckonyar geograficzny, czyli Opisanie Królestw... volumes one and three, published in Warsaw in 1783.

⁵ This Pabrėža manuscript has no title page, so its title is unknown; in bibliographies it is referred to by its opening words: Įžegis. // Geograpyje (Žemiuraszts) ira aprazims žemys [...]. The manuscript is held in the Manuscripts Department of the Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences (F 9–3361).

⁶ Not all geographers consider this book the first Lithuanian geography textbook. S. Vaitekūnas’s Encyclopedic Dictionary of Geography states that “in 1898 P. Vilčišis wrote the first Lithuanian geography textbook” (Vaitekūnas 1994: 215). This needs clarification: P. Vilčišis’s A Brief Geography, or Description of the Earth (Chicago, 1898) is the first printed original Lithuanian geography textbook. In the opinion of geographer I. Švarcaitė, Simonas Daukantas’s Būdas may also be called the first Lithuanian geography textbook, since it contains many geographical terms (Švarcaitė 1981: 213). Other geographers acknowledge that Pabrėža is the author of the oldest Lithuanian geography textbook (Kudaba, Bielukas 1976: 207).

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Besides Lithuanian, Latin, and natural science, Pabrėža also taught geography⁷ (Gidžiūnas 1994: 70).

The structure of Pabrėža’s geography textbook is simple. The book begins with an introduction (Įžegis, p. 1–13), which describes the science of geography, indicates its branches (geografyje matematycznyzny, fizycznyny, palytycznyji), and defines the main terms. The textbook is then divided into five parts (atskirios) according to the continents. Most space is devoted to Europe (Europa, p. 13–113); the other continents—Asia (Azya, p. 113–139), Africa (Afrykai, p. 139–146), South and North America (Ameryka, p. 146–162), and Australia (Australije arba Oceanje, p. 162–166)—are given half as much space. General information about each continent is presented at the beginning of the section, followed by separate descriptions of that continent’s countries (for more on the book’s structure, see Tarvydas 1972: 55–56).

The book does not state when it was written. J. Tarvydas believes the textbook was written after 1825, since it mentions Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, who had just begun his reign that year, and no later than 1830, since from then on Pabrėža devoted himself exclusively to botany (Tarvydas 1972: 56). Apparently on the basis of this view, the bibliography also states that Pabrėža’s Geografija was written after 1825 (Kišūnienė 1972: 97). However, another important fact allows the dating of Pabrėža’s geography textbook to be refined. The book mentions Pope Gregory XVI, who became pope in 1831, that is, much later than Tsar Nicholas I began ruling Russia: Poniawojecžio ira Grygaalós XVI. gawa baźniczys Rūnyszkoosys⁸ 63. Thus, Pabrėža wrote it after 1831. This is also confirmed by an analysis of the spelling. Having examined the development of spelling in Pabrėža’s works, G. Subačius determined that this book is one of Pabrėža’s earliest works written with the consonant sequences čž and šž and doubled vowels⁹, and suggests that it was composed around 1831–1834 (Subačius 1996: 42).

⁷ Since Pabrėža prepared a geography textbook in Samogitian, it may be assumed that he also taught geography to his pupils in Samogitian (Gidžiūnas 1994: 72).

⁸ Dėl Pabrėžos rašybos žr. Jonikaitė 1972: 62–65; Subačius 1996: 11–113.

⁹ These features are used much less frequently at the beginning of the book; they become more common in the second half, which is why the same word may be spelled differently in the article.

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Pabrėža nowhere indicates which sources he relied on when writing this book. He most likely used Polish geography books, as indicated by the Polish forms of proper names, e.g., Wataakaa ‘Italy’ 57 (as Tarvydas 1972: 57 also noted); rarer terms in the book are likewise explained in Polish. It was probably not a translation or adaptation of any one particular work, since no similar Polish geography work published between the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries has been found that describes the countries of all the continents so concisely. Pabrėža’s textbook somewhat resembles K. Wyrwicz’s Geografiją (Wyrwicz 1799). Here, as in Pabrėža’s book, the most important terms are explained first. The definitions in the two books are phrased similarly, except that Wyrwicz presents them in question-and-answer form; compare: Geografijo (:Žemiu-raszts) ira aprasžims žemys, at kóry giwenam 1 ir Co jest geografija? Geografia abo nauka kraiopisarśka jest Opisanie Ziemi (Wyrwicz 1799: 1). Wyrwicz’s Geografija could not have been Pabrėža’s principal source, since it describes only one continent, Europe. Pabrėža apparently drew on all the sources available to him and set out, in Samogitian, the most important information on the physical and political geography of all the world’s continents.

For the history of linguistics, it should be mentioned that the first Lithuanian geography textbook lists the main language groups of Europe, for example: Lyižówiu binktorýniu rokóu wyniśtyka 1) biskayskynis; 2) szkockoiryckynis (: celtogaulskynis); 3) cymbryskynis; 4) finskynis; 5) grekynis; 6) totynyszkasis; 7) arnauckynis arba albanskynis; 8) germanskynis; 9) žemaytynis, lytównys, yr tatwyszkasis; 10) stowianskynis; 11) tó r kys zkaa–tatarynis. Apar tu židyszkasis yr Cygonyszkasis 19–20. As can be seen, alongside the Indo-European language groups, groups belonging to other language families are also included here (the term biskayskynis probably refers to Basque, finskynis to a language or group of languages in the Finno-Ugric family; the Turkic group is called tór kyszkaa–tatarynis). Pabrėža did not use a single term for the Baltic language groups; the Samogitian dialect is treated as a separate Baltic language and is listed first.

This work by Pabrėža is important to Lithuanian linguistics and geography as one of the earliest examples of the creation of Lithuanian geographical terms. Its value for historical lexicology and dialectology is also unquestionable. Unfortunately, Lithuanian geographers did not follow the example of botanists and

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they did not use it when creating Lithuanian geographical terms¹⁰. Lexicographers, too, failed to pay the attention required by Pabrėža’s geography textbook—his words did not make it into the major Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽ).

More than 250 terms have been found in Pabrėža’s Geografijoje, of which about 200 are single-word terms. Naturally, the terms used here are not exclusively geographical; many terms from other fields closely related to geography have also been found. In discussing the country’s economic situation, the author cannot do without economic terminology; in describing its military forces (land and naval), he uses military and maritime terminology. The textbook also contains terms from botany, zoology (plant and animal names), chemistry, linguistics, religion, architecture, and certain other fields.

This article analyzes the terms in Pabrėža’s textbook according to their sources: 1) taken from the living language, 2) formed using the word-formation devices of Lithuanian, 3) borrowed from other languages.

The Terming of Common Words

The conversion of ordinary language words into terms is called terming. Term formation is generally associated with greater or lesser semantic (and sometimes grammatical) modification and definition of a word. Most often, the meaning of a word being termed is broadened, narrowed, generalized, or transferred on the basis of a particular feature to designate an entirely different thing (Keinys 1980: 64; Klimavičius 1996: 6).

As the first to begin writing geographical texts in Lithuanian, Pabrėža immediately found himself lacking specialized words for naming various geographical concepts. Realizing that geography (especially physical geography) is a field of science whose concepts can readily be named using many words from the vernacular, Pabrėža boldly set about turning words from his dialect into terms. More than 80 common words have been termed in Geografijoje (40 percent of all single-word terms).

¹⁰ Kai kurie geografai (Švarcaitė 1981: 213) Pabrėžai ne visai pagrįstai prikiša, kad jis daugiausia vartojęs savo susikurtus, o ne iš gyvosios kalbos paimtus geografijos terminus.

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Pabrėža termed many foreign words used in the dialect that are now considered barbarisms (foreignisms), for example: rieds “state system, government” 106, rinkis 88 “district, region,” róbėzė 13 “borders,” swiets “world” 147 (this word is also used to form further terms, e.g., swietingóms 20). Foreign words used in the vernacular are also often employed as components of compound terms, for example: lęciugs katnu “mountain range, mountain system” 5; beswiety satas “uninhabited islands” 157; lousvijy miestaa “free cities” 76. Pabrėža apparently understood them as words of the living language, since they were widely used (and some still are) in the Samogitian dialect. Their conversion into terms should be regarded not as the borrowing of terms, but as terming. Likewise, terms formed by terming old borrowings are considered products of terming rather than borrowing.

First, Pabrėža’s geography textbook terms common words related to the geographical environment and climate, denoting inanimate natural objects and phenomena and undergoing almost no semantic change, for example: dauba 130, debesys ~ cloud 124, ězèrs 6, jura ar mary 5, kalns 6, kahwa 5, liitós ~ rain 116, ors 24, ópy ~ river 6, óula 132, pakalny 151, pawasaris 20, puga 7, sata 4, seklyma “drought” 12, snygis ~ snow 133, uksyna ~ haze 124, undóu ar wandóu ~ water 5, undenis 77, wies ~ wind 7, wasara 20, wietra 7, žyima ~ winter 21, žemy 1. All these words are ancient Baltic words; some are inherited from Proto-Indo-European and are known not only to Samogitians but also to speakers of other dialects. As the LKŽ shows, most of them are polysemous. They were probably used with more than one meaning in Pabrėža’s time as well. In this geography book, their primary meaning was termed. Ordinary words were similarly termed by another Samogitian, Laurynas Ivinskis, who undertook terminological work somewhat later than Pabrėža (see Auksoriūtė 1997: 45 for more details).

Many ancient Baltic words were termed to name mineral resources, for example: auksós 25, dróska 123, gelžys 25, ruudas 125, sydabrós 25, szwyns 41 and szwęns 123 ~ lead, waris 25. It should be noted that Pabrėža already uses the same names for countries of the world as are used today¹:

¹ For example, in the geography textbook edited by J. Jablonskis and S. Mečius, published in 1906, Trumpas žemės aprašymas, different names are used: east, wes-

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Daboty reik ketores binktoynes szalis, arba aplinkomus (okolice) swieta: Pytus (:południe meridies ar Sud)¹²; Siaury (:Północ, Septentrio ar Nord); Rìta (:Wschod. Oriens ar Est); Wakara (Zachod. Occidens ar Ouest) 12–13. These too are terms formed from words of the living language.

The book uses several popular-language words converted into terms to name not only physical but also political and economic geographical realities, for example: amataa 26, giwentojee 25, 166, miests 33, ōusts ~ oustas 6, pylys 60, preky 113, szalys 9, valde ~ valdžia 10. Some of these words are old borrowings, for example the Germanism amataa and the Slavism miests.

The conversion of ordinary words into terms is linked to the definition of terms. A term’s meaning must be precisely defined. In the book’s introduction (įžegis, pp. 1–13), quite a number of popular geographical terms are defined, that is, they are in a sense assigned the status of scientific terms, for example: sala (:Insula) ira dalys žemys ysz wysu szalu wądenio aplyta 4; ópy ir tay šōrinkyms undyns saldziojy, wagō tekąty 6.

As already mentioned, the meaning of an ordinary word being converted into a term is often broadened or narrowed; sometimes a word from the living language is transferred into terminology to name an entirely different thing on the basis of a similarity or another feature. Such converted words may be regarded as semantic formations. The new meaning of a word converted into a term shares semes with the ordinary word’s meaning, and these motivate the new, terminological meaning. The ordinary word’s meaning and the term’s meaning are not equally close; this depends on how many semes they share and whether these belong to the core or the periphery of the meaning. If the cores of the ordinary word’s and the term’s meanings coincide, they are not considered different sememes and are not distinguished in dictionaries; for example, for the previously mentioned words denoting various natural bodies and phenomena (kalnas, upė, vėtra, etc.), both DŽ and LKŽ give a single meaning (they do not distinguish two meanings—ordinary and one marked geogr.¹³).

riai, žiemiai, vasariai. J. Jablonskis dar ir Mūsų žodynėlyje (1918) nebuvo apsisprendęs, kurie pasaulio šalių pavadinimai tinkamesni, vartoję nonemai sinonimu.

¹² Pabrėža often provides, in parentheses after a colon and beside a new term or a word he considers less common—sometimes following the conjunction ar—a Polish, less often Latin or another-language equivalent, or a Lithuanian synonym.

¹³ In DŽ, only kalnas has a meaning marked geogr., but its ordinary primary meaning is not distinguished; the meanings of upė and vėtra do not bear this label.

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When converting words into terms, Pabrėža did not shy away from various semantic changes. In the geography textbook we find ordinary words whose terminological meaning has been narrowed. The words versmė, sžaltnis (6) designate a river’s source, for example: pradė ópys vadynas versmė ar sžaltnis 6. At the end of the book, another synonym, werdōlis: sžaltnis (ar werdōlis zrždōlō) 131, is used alongside the word sžaltnis. The primary meaning of the word šaltinis is “a place where water flows from an underground water vein” (LKŽ XVIII), that is, a place that does not necessarily give rise to a river. The fourth meaning of versmė in LKŽ is “source of a river”; the illustrative sentences are taken from the writings of K. Būga and M. Daukša. Verdulis is treated in LKŽ as a phonetic variant of the word virdulys, and no separate meaning “source, spring” is assigned to it; however, a derivative of this word, verdulingas, meaning “spring-fed,” is listed, along with one illustrative example from Pabrėža’s botanical writings (LKŽ XVIII). The data in LKŽ do not indicate that the words šaltinis and verdulis were used in the sense “source of a river”; apparently, they may be considered Pabrėža’s individual terms.

In Pabrėža’s textbook we find further terms whose meanings are not recorded in LKŽ; apparently, other authors did not use these words with those meanings. They may be called Pabrėža’s individual geographical terms. In the geography textbook, the Samogitian dialect word troba is used to designate the parliament buildings, for example: [...] sodietamy ysz karaliaus ir dwejų trobų: ysz kórių pyrmoji sósydeva ysz Senata, atroji ysz Pashu yr Depūtawotojų 43. The meaning of the ordinary word ertmė, converted into a term, “an empty room, empty area, empty place” (LKŽ II), is generalized and made more specific—ertmy 105, “territory” (the term ertiby 2 is used with the same meaning). When converting the plural form of the ordinary word vaisius, waysey 25, into a term, Pabrėža greatly broadened its meaning: he used this word for livestock and plants raised in the state, as well as useful minerals extracted there (cf. vaisius 8. “wealth” LKŽ XVII). In the geography textbook, the word dyržōs 20 designates climate and climatic zone; the derivative žemdyržis is also used alongside it, for example: Dyržōs ar Žemdyržis, klimat 24.

To designate bays, Pabrėža used three words: atkōta, arba ataka, ar kōlszy jūrny 5. Polish geography books of the time also used three terms, cf.: zatok, odnoga morska, golf (Wyrwicz 1799: 14). The first word, atkula, is rare and apparently used only by Northern Samogitians.

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meaning “a wider part of a river where it cuts into the bank and where the water flows more slowly; a backwater”. The sources cited in LKŽ for the use of this word are Pabrėža’s writings, and two illustrative sentences are also given from the area of Pabrėža’s dialect—Plungė and Salantai (LKŽ I). There is no evidence that other Samogitians used this word, and it is not found in DūnŽ either. In the dialect (and in Pabrėža’s botanical writings), atkula is used to refer to a river backwater, whereas in the geography textbook Pabrėža generalized its meaning and used it to name a sea bay, e.g.: Babelmandeb (:wartaa smerty) jung jūra arabynu šo atkolo arabynu arba jūro raudonomoj 135. The other synonyms were apparently formed by adapting Polish terms: utaka (= uttaka) is formed on the model of Polish zatok (with an ending from the verb atiteka), while the compound term kólsży jūryny is translated from Polish odnoga morska.

There was no word in the Samogitian dialect for naming a strait. To designate this concept, Pabrėža terminologized the suffixal derivative pargniuža 6. Although this word is clearly a derivative, one may nevertheless say that Pabrėža took it ready-made from living speech rather than deriving it himself from the verb pergniaužti, since none of its meanings (“to squeeze”; “to stretch tight”; “to constrict halfway around the waist (a garment)” LKŽ III) motivates the term’s meaning, “a narrow stretch of water between continents, islands, or a continent and an island, connecting adjacent oceans, seas, and other bodies of water” (Vaitekūnas 1994: 171). The simple word pergniauža (and its variant pargniūža), meaning “a thinning, narrowing between two thicker, wider parts; an outgrowth” (LKŽ IX), was transferred to name the concept of a strait on the basis of the feature “narrowing, thinning”¹⁴. Alongside the term pargniuža, the compound term ąksztibe jūryny 6 is used synonymously; it is a calque of the German compound Meer enge “strait” (German Meer “sea”, Enge “narrowness, confinement”). Polish textbooks also used two terms, cieśnina, abo przemyśka morska (Wyrwicz 1799: 14). Alongside the term pargniuža, the adjective ankštas is sometimes used, e.g.: ąksztó pargniužó Faro di Messina 66.

¹⁴ In the newspaper “Lietuwiszka Ceitunga”, published in Klaipėda, pergniuža is likewise used as a geographical term to name a narrow strip of land (not water)—sasmalka (LKŽ IX).

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Several simple words terminologized in Pabrėža’s Geografijoje, whose terminologization is based on a transfer of meaning, are also used by other authors, and the meanings of these terms are recorded in LKŽ, e.g.: gyre “desert” 140, jōusta “a strip of land with a uniform climate” 129, kaps “region, country” 110, žīmie “coat of arms” 27. It is now difficult to say whether Pabrėža took inspiration from others in creating these terms or independently terminologized them with these meanings.

It is worth noting that Pabrėža uses a number of interesting dialect adjectives to describe various weather conditions, e.g.: į rytus kaytringas buun wasaras, o žīimus darganuotas yr wietringas 130; Wydōtynioji arba Auksztoji Azyje [...] tór sausa yr dydesnioje daliece ašzri ora, kaytringa wasara [...] yr pryky (ar body) žīmo 116. These adjectives are closely related to geographical terms. Some are derived from terms that do not even appear in the textbook under discussion (dargana, kaitra), but which Pabrėža clearly knew. Some of these adjectives may function as secondary components of compound terms (sausas, darganotas oras).

Formation of New Terms

It is understandable that Pabrėža could not find suitable words in his dialect to name all geographical concepts. It is almost impossible to find words for realities uncharacteristic of Lithuania (e.g., volcano, ocean) or for abstract categories established only by science (e.g., latitude, longitude). Thus Pabrėža, the pioneer of Lithuanian geographical terminology, had to seek other ways of creating terms in addition to terminologizing words from his own dialect. He was not quick to borrow terms or translate them from other languages. Pabrėža made successful use of the word-formation resources of Lithuanian. This textbook uses about 40 newly formed geographical terms (20 percent of all one-word terms).

Sometimes it is difficult to determine whether a morphologically analysable word used in the dialect (a clear derivative) has been terminologized—that is, taken ready-made from the dialect—or formed by some word-formation process. In such cases, the term’s motivation helps identify its source. If the term’s meaning is more strongly motivated by the derivational base, its source is considered to be word formation; if by the meaning of the simple word—

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This is terminologization. Therefore, the clear suffixal derivative pargrinda is regarded as the result of terminologization, not word formation. This chapter does not discuss non-original terms translated from words in other languages. These are considered calques.

Suffixal derivatives. Approximately 25 terms formed with suffixes were found in Pabrėža’s Geografijoje, more than half of all derivatives. When coining new terms, Pabrėža most often used the suffix -ybė. Most derivatives with this suffix are abstract nouns, e.g.: dalmii̇bė ‘administrative division’ (: dalmė); the derivative with the suffix -mė, daalme, is also used with the same meaning, 78; darbi̇by ‘business’ (: darbas), e.g.: Galwingóujy d a r b i i b y (Zatrudnieniem) ira Kawone bado-os yr bótasdarbš 119; dwasyszki̇iby ‘clergy’ (: dvasiškis) 133; gyṁinyby (narodowe) ‘nationality’ 11 (: giminė); galwzódiby ‘murder’ 119 (: galvižudys); moksli̇bys¹⁵ (umiejętności) ‘abilities, skills’ 26 (: mokslas); pasiedliby ‘colonies, possessions’ (: pasedła ‘place of a homestead, homestead’ LKŽ IX), e.g.: At pakrašti̇o aukšouto Europyjonis tór pa s i e d l i i b e s 144; žmogžórdliby ‘murder’ (: žnogzurdys ‘one who kills a person, murderer’ LKŽ XX). Several -ybė derivatives are formed from adjectives, e.g.: ygli̇iby ‘longitude’ 147 (: ilgas); ptatiiby ‘latitude’ (: platus), e.g.: [America] extends between 210–344° l g i b y s, and from 56° south to 80° p t a t i i b y s north 147; wartauniby ‘trade’ 38 (: vartaunas ‘one engaged in trade’).

Another fairly frequent word-formational element is the suffix -imas: itapyṁs ‘tributary’ (: įtapti ‘to flow into’ LKŽ XV, an example found only in Pabrėža’s writings), alongside which the synonymous derivative with the same suffix nóutapyṁs is used (: nutapti ‘to flow into’ LKŽ XV), e.g.: where many rivers run, and one river flows into another river or into the sea, it is an I t a p y m s or N ó u t a p y m s 6; padalyjyṁs ‘administrative division’ 27 (: padalyti); pagiwenyṁs ‘residence of a country’s ruler’ (: pagyventi), e.g.: pagiwenyṁs (rezydencya) ciesoriaus 27; sómaanims (przemysł) ‘industry’ 42 (: sumanyti). All these derivatives denote the result of an action and are formed from prefixed verbs.

¹⁵At approximately the same time (1832), this neologism was used with a similar meaning in the first Lithuanian newspaper published in Prussia, Nusidavimai apie Ewangelijos Prasiplatinimą tarp Žydų ir Pagonų (LKŽ VIII).

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Several derivatives with the suffix -einė were found. A derivative of this suffix with an uncommon meaning is gyveny ‘agriculture’ 149 (: gyventi ‘to work (of land)’ LKŽ III); boweyne ‘residence of a country’s ruler’ 46 (: būti).

Only one example of each of the other suffixal derivatives was found in Pabrėža’s Geografijoje: -umas: svietingóms (Ludność) ‘population size’ 20 (: svietas ‘people’ LKŽ XIV); -ūnė: darbuune ‘business, occupation’ (: darbas), e.g.: Among the Eskimos, whose occupation is hunting, fishing, etc. 151; -ukas: ligióks ‘equator’ 116 (: lygus). Other languages apparently prompted the formation of this term; cf. Latin aequator ‘one that makes equal’, Polish równik. S. Daukantas also used a neologism formed on the model of other languages: lygruba (DLLŽ I 180).

Ending-based derivatives. A fairly original derivative coined by Pabrėža with the ending -a is nóuszuuka ‘waterfall’ (: nùsóko), e.g.: Here the famous waterfall of Niagara is found (cataract) 152. In this book, Pabrėža also calls a waterfall by other terms: óżkarpis, żeminszukšis 6. Óżkarpis is probably a folk-language word that has been terminologized, whereas żeminszukšis is a compound.

Prefixal derivatives. One derivative formed with the prefix pri- (corresponding to prie-) was found: prižemis (Promontorium) 4 ‘promontory’ (: žemė).

Compounds. Compounding is a relatively productive method of forming Pabrėža’s terms. About ten terms were coined by this method, amounting to a quarter of all derivatives. One of Pabrėža’s most original neologisms is the compound ógnakalney (wulkany arba kalnaa ógni yszdómatyjy) 15 (: ugnis, kalnas). Pabrėža uses this compound with the linking vowel -a-, as is customary in the Samogitian dialect (cf. ugnakuras); according to LKŽ, this form of the word appears only in A. Kuršaitis’s dictionary. The word ugnikalnis, with the linking vowel -i-, was first recorded in 1906 in J. Mečys’s Trumpame Žemės aprašyme, edited by J. Jablonskis; A. Piročkinas attributes authorship of the word to J. Jablonskis (Piročkinas 2000: 16). Pabrėža used the word ugnakalnis (ugnikalnis) well before J. Jablonskis, so Pabrėža should be regarded as its author. Curiously, S. Daukantas did not use ugnikalnio; in his great dictionary we find wulkan, ugnis žiamej’ deganti, wulkanas (DLLŽ III 267).

The history of the word pusiasalis is somewhat different. For this geographical concept, Pabrėža used the neologisms pósiausata, ar pósiausalis (Perinsula) 4 (: pusiau, sala). J. Jablonskis is likewise regarded as the author of the word pusiasalis (Piročkinas 2000: 16). J. Jablonskis himself strictly distinguished the words pusia-

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island and peninsula meaning “middle of an island,” so Pabrėža can hardly be regarded as the author of the geographical term peninsula meaning “land surrounded by water on three sides.” Later, peninsula was used in the sense of “peninsula” by the Aušrininkai. S. Daukantas’s dictionary gives the neologism pusale. L. Kutina (1964: 156), a researcher of the development of Russian geographical terminology, considers the Russian term полуостров a calque of the German Halbinsel.

The textbook also uses several compound terms whose second element is a noun: dyjdūris “ocean” 5 (: great, sea), e.g.: Dydjurio (oceanum) szaukas ciela prabaga undyns surojy uplejęcziojy żemyn 5; nausodis “colony” 159 (: new, garden); pythruksznis “meridian” 3 (: south, line); žemdryžis “climate” 115 (: earth, stripe “climatic zone”).

One or two compounds whose second element is based on a verb are also used: žmogžūda “murder” 120 (: person, kills), žmogžórda 120 (: person, zurdoja “kills” LKŽ XIX).

In summary, it can be said that, in creating geographical neologisms, Pabrėža most often relied on the usual word-formation patterns of Lithuanian. Suffixation is the most productive method, and there is also a tendency for compounds to become more numerous in terminology. Many of Pabrėža’s neologisms were successfully formed. This is evident from the fact that later authors created similar or even identical neologisms, for example, pusiasalį by the Aušrininkai, and ugnikalnį by J. Jablonskis. They were probably not taken from Pabrėža’s textbook, since the manuscript was never printed and was little known; S. Daukantas probably had not read it either, as not a single one of Pabrėža’s geographical neologisms is found in his major Polish–Lithuanian Dictionary.

Borrowed Terms

Besides the resources of one’s own language, another source of terms is foreign languages. The degree of borrowing varies. In works on lexicology, borrowings are divided into material and non-material borrowings according to whether the whole word (both its form and meaning) or only part of it (the form is translated or the meaning adopted) is borrowed (Barauskaitė 1995: 35). The borrowed terms used in Pabrėža’s Geografija can likewise be divided into material borrowings, taken from other languages with

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a similar form and meaning, and non-material borrowings, translated morpheme by morpheme from words in other languages. The textbook uses about 80 borrowed terms (40 percent of all terms). The relatively high proportion of borrowed terms is due to the subject matter of the textbook. Describing foreign lands, states, and their realities is impossible without borrowed words.

Material borrowings. A substantial proportion of the borrowings in Pabrėža’s Geografija consists of names for administrative divisions in various countries, e.g.: Poland and France—departamețs 40, 55; Denmark—diecczyji 103, explained in a footnote: Dijecczyje (written with j!) cze tón pati znoczy, koú Prawincÿe; Mexico—distrikts (larger division) 155 and in-tendencÿe (smaller division) 155; Switzerland—kantons 69; other states—góbernyjy 27, jorydykcyje 38, prawincÿe 37, 51, etc. Political and economic geography terms are also found, e.g.: dakadaa “income” 26, 84, pabryks 26 ~ factory, religyÿs arba wieras 19 and wiera 103, stalicźe “capital” 27; sometimes the compound term miests pyrmótynis 32 is used instead. Borrowings are also used for names of ships, e.g.: fregata 26, 78, brygs 78. All these borrowings have been Lithuanianized: Samogitian endings have been added to them, and they are inflected according to the rules of Lithuanian (more precisely, the Samogitian dialect) grammar.

A few borrowed terms in Pabrėža’s textbook have not been Lithuanianized at all, e.g.: alabaster ~ alebastras 41, Geizer ~ geizeris 105, Samum ~ samumas “a kind of African wind” 116, 135, e.g.: pÿtu szalie łakee pót wies kaytresis óztroszkÿnatesis wadynams Samum. These are rarely used terms denoting phenomena or objects entirely unfamiliar in Lithuania; only one or two occur in the geography textbook. Pabrėža not only coined no Lithuanian equivalents for them, but also did not adapt them to the grammar of the Samogitian dialect: he added no endings and did not inflect them. In present-day geographical terminology, these concepts are likewise named by borrowed words.

The book under discussion uses many borrowed words to name animals (a) and plants or their fruits (b) from various other lands:

a) bawoolaa 127 (cf. Polish bawół “buffalo”), hyenas ~ hyenas 126, kolibraa ~ hummingbirds 149, krokodilee 136, lamas 149, lampartaa 125 (cf. Polish lampart “leopard, panther”), ława “lions” 123, 125, 149, papuugas 127, poowaa ~ peacocks 126, reniferaa 25, 118 (cf. Polish renifer “reindeer”), stanee “elephants” 126, struśžė ~

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ostriches 136, szakale 123 (cf. Polish szakal), tygrysaa ~ tigers 123, 149, werbludaa “camels” 122, wigonie ~ vicuña “a kind of llama” 149;

b) ananasaa 136, china “Chinese sarsaparilla, Smilax china” (BVŽ 1998: 278) 149, daktilee 136 (cf. Polish daktyl “date”), ipekakuuna ~ ipecac “a kind of Central and South American shrub” 149, kakao ~ cocoa 149, manioks 149, sago “sago palm; groats obtained from the starch of that palm” 149, sassafras “a kind of North American tree, sassafras” (LBŽ 1938: 312) 149, sassaparilla “sarsaparilla,” cf. German Sassaparill (BVŽ 1998: 278) 149, vanilla ~ vanilla 149.

Pabrėža rarely coined his own terms to name rarely used concepts or the administrative units of various states, and he did not replace exoticisms with native words. He mostly borrowed terms to name them from Polish or through Polish.

Non-material loan translations. At the beginning of the 19th century, during the Lithuanian national revival, foreign words were especially avoided. The simplest way to create new terms was to translate words morpheme by morpheme. For example, as many as 90 percent of the compounds coined by S. Daukantas, the greatest creator of Lithuanian neologisms, match a Polish prototype in their constituent parts (Subačius 1993: 147). Many calques were also used in the geographical terminology of neighboring languages—Russian (Kutina 1964: 194–204) and Polish (cf. Wyrwicz 1799).

Pabrėža tried most often to translate terms from Greek. He rendered the Greek term geografija morpheme by morpheme as žemūraszts 1, but used it not as the main term, only in parentheses, for example: Geograpye (: žemūraszts) 1. In Polish geography books, this term of Greek origin was also translated, for example: Geografia abo nauka kraiopisarska (Wyrwicz 1799: 1). At the beginning of the textbook, several more terms derived from this calque are used, for example: žemraszitojee “geographers” 9; mile žemrašž- nynyny (: Mila geograficzna) 2. He translated another Greek term, archipelag “archipelago,” using several terms: salmary 6, 108 (: sala, mare), tabjuaris 162 (: perhaps bay, sea), binktūrmary 6 (: perhaps bay, sea). These are Pabrėža’s own calques; other authors apparently did not use them, since none appears in LKŽ. S. Daukantas also gives no Lithuanian equivalent for this word in his dictionary. Alongside borrowed terms for naming forms of government, Pabrėža also used their calques, for example: Rieczy

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paspolito or Daugivvaldy; Demokratycznynis or gaujewaldis; Anstokratycznynis or dydūmenwadis 10.

Pabrėža coined several terms by translating Polish terms, for example: jurtarpis “isthmus” 4 (cf. Polish międzymorze); rąkweykalaa “handicraft” 26 (cf. Polish rękodzieła); póskaraalós “viceroy, the king’s representative” 59 (cf. Polish wicekról).

Atskirai minėtini vietų pavadinimai su priesaga -ystė. Kaip teigia S. Ambrazas (2000: 69–70), šie vietų pavadinimai atsirado mūsų raštijos pradžioje dėl slavų įtakos ir jie laikytini vertiniais¹⁶. Jų randame ir Pabrėžos vadovėlyje, pvz.: ciesowystny 9; kónygaukštystv 9; ponistv „valstybė“ 9 (plg. lenk. państwo). Vartojama vietų pavadinimų ir su slaviška priesaga -stvo, pvz.: grabstwo 9, laudgrąbstwo 9, wawadztwa 43.

Clearly influenced by Polish, Pabrėža gave several words foreign meanings: žemų “continent” (cf. Polish ląd “land, mainland, continent”), for example: Dydesniosses dalis juro nepaskyrtas wadynas Žemiemis (: Lądami) arba dalymis žemvs 3; kótka “(terrestrial) globe” 5 (cf. Polish kula ziemska “globe”). The calque póskólkis “hemisphere” was formed from the latter word, for example: at póskólkió saulielidynió 3. It is somewhat odd that, while using the name of a part of the world drawn from living speech—vakarai—Pabrėža calls the western hemisphere by a calque, saulielidynis, cf. Polish zachódni, while calling the eastern hemisphere rytynio 3.

The main factor behind Pabrėža’s decision to use calques was apparently the contemporary aspiration to have native terms. It should be noted that Pabrėža often used calques not as primary terms, but alongside loanwords.

Conclusions

1. Pabrėža’s geography textbook (written after 1831), considered the first Lithuanian geography textbook, remained unpublished and was therefore inaccessible to most readers. The work of creating Lithuanian geographical terminology begun with it was not taken up by later au-

¹⁶ In LKG, these words are not considered calques (LKG I 402).

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thors; even S. Daukantas, who spoke the same dialect and with whom Pabrėža maintained contact, did not use these terms.

2. In creating geographical terms, Pabrėža used the principal sources of terminology identified by modern terminology studies in reasonably balanced proportions: 1) the lexicon of the living language; 2) word-formation resources; 3) the lexicon of other languages.

2.1. Specialized folk geographical vocabulary was successfully term-formed; numerous dialect words were turned into terms by transferring their meanings, on the basis of a particular feature, to name a geographical concept.

2.2. Neologisms were most often created for geographical concepts for which Lithuanian words were coined later as well (dyjuris, cf. vandenynas). One or another term coined by Pabrėža (ognakalis, cf. ugnikalis) was on a par with J. Jablonskis’s neologisms, which are now geographical terms.

2.3. The terms borrowed were mainly those that reflect the realities of foreign lands and are used less frequently, while those translated from other languages were terms common enough in geography and lacking equivalents in the Samogitian dialect.

LITERATŪRA

Ambrazas S. 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 2, Vilnius.

Auksoriūtė A. 1997: Paprastųjų žodžių terminologizavimas XIX a. (L. Ivinskio Prigimtūmenė). – Lituanistica 3 (31), 44–53.

Barauskaitė J. 1995: Leksikologija. – Lietuvių kalba 1, Vilnius, 4–77.

BVŽ – Botanikos vardų žodynas. Red. R. Jankevičienė, Vilnius, 1998.

DLŽ – Simono Daukanto raštai: Didysis lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas 1–3. Parengė G. Subačius, Vilnius, 1993–1996.

DūnŽ – Vitkauskas V. Šiaurės rytų dūnininkų šnektų žodynas, Vilnius, 1976.

DŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Red. St. Keinys, Vilnius, 1993.

Gidžiūnas V. 1994: Jurgis Ambraziejus Pabrėža (1771–1849), Roma–Vilnius.

Jonikaitė Z. 1972: Apie J. Pabrėžos botanikos veikalų rašybą. – Jurgis Pabrėža (1771–1849), Vilnius, 62–65.

Keinys St. 1980: Terminologijos abėcėlė, Vilnius.

Kišūnienė N. 1972: J. Pabrėžos bibliografija. – Jurgis Pabrėža (1771–1849), Vilnius, 95–114.

Klimavičius J. 1996: Nuo liaudies terminijos prie mokslinės. – Terminologija 3, 4–25.

Kudaba Č., Bieliu kas K. 1976: Pirmųjų lietuviškųjų geografinių vadovėlių apžvalga. – Geografinis metraštis 14, 207–213.

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K u t i n a L. 1964: Л. Л. Кутина, Формирование языка русской науки (Терминология математики, астрономии, географии в первой трети XVIII века). Москва – Ленинград.

LBŽ – Lietuviškas botanikos žodynas. Red. J. Dagys, Kaunas, 1938.

LKG I – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1, Vilnius, 1965.

LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20, Vilnius, 1941–2002.

P i r o č k i n a s A. 2000: Jonas Jablonskis – naujų žodžių kūrėjas. – Gimtasis žodis 11, 14–16.

P r i b u š a u s k a i t ė A. 1982: Knygos iš Jurgio Pabrėžos asmeninės bibliotekos. – Bibliotekų darbas 4, 35.

S u b a č i u s G. 1993: Simono Daukanto Didžiojo lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodyno naujadarai: individuali žodžių daryba. – Lietuvių algimimo istorijos studijos 4, 135–216.

S u b a č i u s G. 1996: Jurgio Ambraziejaus Pabrėžos žemaičių kalba. – Lietuvių atgimimo istorijos studijos 8, 10–113.

Š v a r c a i t ė I. 1981: Lietuviškoji geografinė terminija. – Geografinis metraštis 19, 213–216.

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V a i t e k ū n a s S. 1994: Enciklopedinis geografijos žodynas, Kaunas.

W y r w i c z 1799: Geografia czasów teraznieyszych, albo opisanie naturalne y polityczne królestw, państw, stanów wszelakich...: ku pożytkowi narodowey młodzi przez X. Karola Wyrwicza... wydana; a teraz na nowo przedrukowana w Wilnie w Drukarni J. K. Mci przy Akademii.

THE TERMINOLOGY OF J. A. PABRĖŽA’S GEOGRAPHY TEXTBOOK

Summary

This article deals with the terminology of the first Lithuanian Geography textbook written by J. A. Pabrėža (1771–1849), a famous Samogitian naturalist and Franciscan Father. Pabrėža created terms by three means: 1) making terms out of folk lexis, 2) derivating neologisms, 3) borrowing terms (from other languages). Pabrėža used many words from his native dialect as terms of geography (kalnys ‘mountain’, ópın ‘river’, sala ‘island’); created suitable terms of geography (darbiiby ‘occupation’, ógnakálnis ‘volcano’, dyðjuris ‘ocean’ etc.); borrowed terms to name various phenomena (geizer ‘geyser’) and used some calques from Greek (žėmiuraszts ‘geography’) and Polish (jurtarpis ‘isthmus, neck’).

The book was written in his native Northern Samogitian sub dialect of Kretinga after 1831 but was not published.

Robertas GEDRIMAS

Gauta 2003-11-12

Šiaulių universitetas

P. Višinskio g. 38, LT-5400 Šiauliai

E. paštas [email protected]

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