The Formation of M. Reinys’s Psychological Terms and Their Components

RITA KATELYTĖ, STASYS KEINYS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

An article has been published in the sixteenth volume of Terminologija reviewing the meaning and origin of psychological terms collected from Georgijus Čelpanovas’s textbook Psychology, translated freely from Russian by Mečislovas Reinys (1884–1953) and published in Vilnius in 1921 (see Katelytė 2009: 198–216). The present article examines the formation of Lithuanian and hybrid one-word terms used in the textbook prepared by this professor, one of the first to teach psychology in Lithuanian at a higher-education institution, as well as other such terms and words that serve as components of compound terms (international terms and words serving as their components are excluded).

The subject of the article comprises more than 390 one-word terms that are nouns, as well as words entering into compound terms—nouns, adjectives, verbs (participles), pronouns, and adverbs. Since the aim is to present a comprehensive picture of the word-formation structure of the terms used in M. Reinys’s textbook and of other words incorporated into them, all the examples collected and assigned to each subsection of the article are included. Inflected words are given in the nominative case (adjectives in the masculine singular nominative). Where a word’s nominative form was not found, it is determined from other cases or characteristic instances (for example, the masculine singular nominative of the pronominal adjective usually has the ending -asai in the textbook, so the nominative with this ending is given also for words whose nominative was not observed; such forms are marked with an asterisk). In the section on verb formation, the initial form is given as the infinitive (the formation of the participles themselves that occur in terms is not examined in the article, as it is not a matter of word formation). For words serving as components of compound terms, the term itself (usually one) is also given in parentheses. All examples are presented in the spelling of the source; the page from which each term was recorded is indicated beside it. To make the meaning or connection with psychology clearer, where necessary a sentence or its more significant part from which the term was recorded is provided.

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The methods and types of word formation in the article are ordered according to the abundance of the formations under study.

According to the number of constituent words, it is customary to distinguish one-word and compound terms. The latter most often consist of two words, although there are some three-word terms and, more rarely, terms made up of more words. The article examines 140 one-word terms that are nouns and slightly more than 250 words occurring in compound terms: nouns (140), adjectives (80), verbs (nearly 30), pronouns (3), and adverbs (1). Almost all the one-word terms examined are nouns; only one term is expressed by the pronoun aš (That “something” philosophers call the subject, “I,” the soul 2). Dependent components (those functioning as modifiers) are expressed by words from all the parts of speech mentioned above.

It has long been known that, from the viewpoint of word formation, the entire vocabulary of our language consists of simple words and derivatives, and that derivatives are far more numerous than simple words. This is also characteristic of the terms under study and the words functioning as their components: simple Lithuanian words make up only about nine percent of all the words examined here. Simple nouns are even fewer—they account for only close to 7% of all the nouns examined, e.g.: būdas 197, Dievas (Dievo meilės jausmas 177), galas (juntamojo dirksnio galas 76), garsas (garso jutimas 36), laikas 147 (<...> erdvės ir laiko sąvokos yra būtinos daiktų ir vyksmų įsivaizdavimo sąlygos 149), lankas (reflekso lankas 76), liga (psichinė liga 221), narys (pasąmonio asociacijos nariai 84), pradas (jausmų pradai 19), protas 2, siela 1, skaičius (skaičiaus sąvoka 147), sritis (lytėjimo sritis 34), spalva (spalvos jutimas 35), tauta (tautų psichologija 10), ūpas (liguistai linksmas ūpas 223), vaikas (vaiko psichologija 10), valia 193, varsa (varsų aklumas 54) and žodis (žodžių atmintis 88). Some of the words mentioned, e.g. garsas, lankas, skaičius (see Skardžius 1943: 310, 27, 77), and certain others are merely faded, synchronically less readily understood or no longer understood formations from earlier periods. Approximately one in twelve (over 8%) of the purely Lithuanian adjectives occurring in compound terms is simple, e.g.: b endras (bendrieji jutimai 39), grynas (grynas jutimas 36), lengvas (lengvo alsavimo jutimas 39), linksmas (liguistas linksmas ūpas 223), malonus (maloni kvapsnis 59), tobūlas (tobūliausia valia 196; now written tobulas) and žemas (žemesnieji jausmai 158). Moreover, the components of compound terms—

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Among the terms, several primary verbs without prefixes are used as participles, e.g.: to pierce (piercing pain 153), to feel (sensory nerves 31), to create (creative imagination 102), to oppress (oppressive affects 159), and to act (active attention 91). The two pronouns that function as dependent elements are also simple words: oneself (self-knowledge 208) and one’s own (one’s own “I” 201).

All the others (just over 91%)—words used as single-word Lithuanian and hybrid terms and as elements of compound terms—are derivatives. Nouns make up 73.6% of all derivatives, adjectives 20.7%, verbs (their inflected forms are participles) 5.4%, and adverbs 0.3%. The derivatives are examined in that order in this article.

NOUN FORMATION

The largest share (over 93%) of Lithuanian and hybrid nouns used to express terms in M. Reinys’s prepared Psychology textbook consists of derivatives. A little over 77 percent of the derivatives are formed with suffixes, nearly 19% with endings, and only about 4% are compounds and prefix derivatives (the latter are the least numerous, at a mere 0.7%).

Suffixal derivatives

Three quarters of the nouns examined that are formed with suffixes are names of actions (verbal abstracts), and nearly three quarters of these belong to the most productive formation type in this category, with the suffix -imas and its variant -ymas (111 derivatives, 10 of them with -ymas). These two subtypes differ only in the range of base words with which they combine: derivatives with the variant -ymas are formed from the relatively few third-conjugation verbs whose infinitives contain the suffix -yti.

-imas and -ymas. This is the most productive formation type not only for names of actions but for nouns in general. Almost two thirds of the derivatives with the variant -imas are formed from prefixed verbs, e.g.: reproduction 72, withdrawal 132, falling away 55, recognition 73, excitation 165, rage 164, tension 67, fury 159, evaluation (evaluation of sensations 94), disintegration 96, deviation (mental deviation 222), learning (rate of learning 89), destruction (method of destruction 33), reasoning 146, not speaking (Finally, there are cases in which people with a healthy tongue and throat suddenly lose the ability to utter words—this is aphasia (not speaking) 33), sadness 8, weakening (weakening of the will 223), decision (decision of the will

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19), astonishment 138, decision (decision of the will 3), irritation (irritation of the nerves 29), worship (feeling of worship 177), sensation 71, inclination 76, touching 58, renewal (renewal of sensations 73), desire 189, observation 12, satisfaction 15, experience (inner experience 4), attraction 16, awakening (awakening of sensations 197), cognition 15, looking at oneself (looking at oneself 4), transfer (transfer of associations 83), convergence 125, ability 138, combination (simple combination of images 142), collapse 55, becoming similar 131, disintegration (disintegration of consciousness 222), perception 71, excitation 37, and suffocation (sensation of suffocation 39).

More than a third of the derivatives with the suffix -imas are formed from verbs without prefixes, e.g.: doubting 142, breathing (sensation of light breathing 39), growth (growth of a child’s speech 139), existence (the spontaneous existence of the soul’s powers 17), sneezing 31, burning (sexual burning sensations 153), irritation 37, rejoicing 159, irritation 37, improvement (improvement of memory 100), hearing (the process of auditory sensation 43), life (psychic life 10), gnawing (gnawing of the conscience 174), feeling (the faculty of feeling 16), movement (reflex movement 31), joining (the process of joining 131), sensation 1, suffering 15, intention 192, rise (theory of the rise of affects 160), coughing 32, training (memory training 100), touch (sense of touch 36), blinking 32, contradiction (feeling of contradiction 178), reasoning 3, blushing (cause of blushing 21), vision 34, monitoring (self-monitoring 4), pain (feeling of pain 153), decision (decision of the will 200), fluctuation 142, assertion 141, activity (activity of the soul 22), and execution (execution of a voluntary act 196).

Most derivatives formed with the variant suffix -ymas come from verbs without prefixes, e.g.: holding (retention of images 74), thinking 19, seeing (hallucinatory vision 113), consideration 19, and impairment (speech impairment 220). Only description (description of mental phenomena 6) and inability to write (In addition to the ability to speak, there is often a related inability to write. This deficiency is called inability to write, or agraphia 221) are based on prefixed verbs.

One fifth of the names of actions formed with both suffix variants from prefixed and unprefixed verbs are reflexive (their derivational bases are reflexive verbs), e.g.: mistake (mistake of the senses 193), devotion (feeling of devotion 177), recollection 75, renewal 79, imagination 72, conviction 178, imagination 2, dissatisfaction 165, despondency 159, disgust 159 (now writ-

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disgust), disgust), compassion 174, resistance (sensation of resistance 58), satisfaction 165, recollection 128, persistence 210, interweaving 109, hurt 4; interweaving (interweaving of images 80), opposition (sensation of opposition 61); adherence (adherence to sensations 73), learning (attentive learning 101) and self-control 195. The fact that a considerable proportion of the derivatives are formed from reflexive verbs may stem from the subject matter studied by psychology, which, in the words of the textbook, differs from the natural sciences in three respects: 1) “psychic phenomena cannot be felt <...> and apprehended through the external, or outward, sense organs” (p. 3), 2) “psychic <....> phenomena are immediately accessible only to the person who experiences them” (p. 4), and 3) “the measure of spatiality” cannot in any way be applied to mental processes (p. 5). The mode of cognition applied in psychology is called “introspection, self-observation, self-perception, looking into oneself” (p. 4). And indeed, one of the important means of expressing the relation of an action to the person performing it is the use of reflexive forms.

A considerable percentage of current terms formed with the suffix for action nouns –imas are hybrids associated with so-called international words. In the psychology textbook there are only two terms formed in this way: imitation 168 and interesavimos 18. Incidentally, it is interesting how a reflexive form ending in –os, usually attributed to Samogitians (LKG I 1965: 231, Zinkevičius 1966: 207–208), found its way into the textbook by M. Reinys, an Easterner from Daugailiai. Z. Zinkevičius’s Lithuanian Dialectology does, however, give one example from Eastern Aukštaitian as well (south of Linkuva).

Alongside the primary, derivationally related, purely actional meaning, living language also gives rise to the use in the standard language of some derivatives of the word-formation type under discussion with a specific lexical meaning. Terms used in this way, particularly with the meaning of an action’s result, also occur in the source examined in this article. The use of plural forms of derivatives may be considered a grammatical indicator of specificity in the meaning of terms, e.g.: stimuli (external stimuli 220, cf. A physical process that causes sensation is called excitation, stimulation 37), deviations (mental deviations 222), sensations (A person has to live through all kinds of sensations 38, cf. <....> the sensation of hunger, thirst, satiety, etc. depends on the state of the digestive organs 39), irritations (There are two kinds of irritation: external and internal 39, cf. the concept of irritation 36), perceptions (evaluation of perceptions 94, cf. the process of perception 94), interferences (speech interference 220, With regard to psychology, it is important to consider the interferences associated with the use of speech 220), and so on.

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A further 16 suffixes have been used to form verbal abstracts denoting psychological terms (36 derivatives in all). A quarter of these words are derived with the suffix -tis, and nearly a fifth are derivatives with the suffix -smas.

-tis. Derivatives with this suffix belong to two subtypes—the larger group has the ending of the third declension (genitive singular in -ies), e.g.: scope (scope of attention 91), abstraction (Abstraction is an act in which, from some group of sensations or images, we isolate a particular sensation or image 130–131), memory 72, thought 1, experience 13, cause (the concept of cause 16), and nature (the nature of the soul 2); in a pair of derivatives, -is has the ending of the first declension (genitive singular in -io), e.g.: fright 159 and anger 164. All the derivatives are formed from primary verbs. The sources of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language suggest that some of these derivatives, e.g. scope, experience, began to be used only during the emergence of the modern standard language; the word abstraction, incidentally, is included in the psychology terms and names glossary of the Psychology Textbook twice (p. 231), but did not make it into that dictionary at all.

-smas. Derivatives with this suffix are likewise all formed from primary verbs, e.g.: joy 138, desire 16, feeling 1, longing (<...> one who knows how to control one’s longings or desires 201), action (altruistic action 169), weeping 9, and process (process of perception 94). They denote certain states studied by psychology and their manifestation. It is striking that almost all the above derivatives with the suffix -smas apparently were not recorded from living speech for the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language; the same is true of the word longing, included in the dictionary from the writings of M. Mažvydas and Vydūnas, which, apparently, is no longer used today.

-ulys. Derivatives with the suffix -ulys denote the manifestation of psychological states, e.g.: desire 189, boredom 128, pain (<...> burning pains arise because tactile burning sensations are added to the feeling <...> 153), drowsiness 214, thirst 152. Incidentally, the word boredom, familiar from living speech, is treated in the first volume of the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (p. 312) as a derivative of the adjective boring; however, it seems more convenient and consistent to derive it directly—as a designation of a mental phenomenon, without the intermediary adjective boring expressing a quality—from the verb to be bored. One might consider whether there are derivational homonyms.

Only one to three derivatives with other suffixes, used as terms or component words in the Psychology Textbook, were found, e.g.:

-esys: attention 90, pity 174, movement (movements of the soul 160: <...> affects are sometimes called “movements of the soul”);

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-ga: course (the course of a mental sensation 36), duty (a sense of moral duty 173);

-yba: kūryba (the creativity of the imagination 105: <...> imaginative creativity manifests itself in all areas of life);

-ima: šilima (the sensation of warmth 58);

-lė: uoslė (olfactory nerve 23, the sensation of smell 39);

-lius: perteklius (the sensation of excess 58);

-mė: baimė 138, esmė (the essence of the soul: <...> psychology investigates the essence (nature) of the soul 2);

-nė: sąmonė 5. This old word, related to the verb sumoti, is not mentioned as a derivative either in Pr. Skardžius’s Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryboje or in the first volume of Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos. In K. Būga’s Kalboje ir senovėje (1922), it is true, not on account of word formation but because of the alternation of the root vowels, sąmonę was compared with the verb form sumanau (Būga 1959: 136).

-sena: būsena (a state of the soul 6);

-slas: mokslas (mental learning 89: <...> a child may understand the sequence of words in a prayer, may anticipate the logical relation between words and learn the prayer while understanding it fully. This will be mental learning <...>);

-snis: dirksnis 25, kvapsnis (the image of kvapsnis 81, a pleasant kvapsnis 59).

These two derivatives, owing to their different endings in the source, belong to two subtypes. The feminine-gender variant (third declension) kvapsnis, -ies was well known in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (see LKŽ VI 1046). Dirgsnis was also often used as a feminine-gender third-declension word at that time (see LKŽ II 580), but in the textbook, where it is written with k and used as the main designation for “nerve,” it is a masculine-gender first-declension word.

-tas: kerštas 164, trokštas (When one becomes very accustomed to satisfying a particular great desire, a mental state develops that is called trokštas 189). Trokštas must have been a rare word; it did not make it into the comprehensive Lietuvių kalbos žodyną.

-uotė: vaizduotė 102. This word, too, is unattested in the spoken language for the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”; apparently it spread from written language.

The second largest category by number of derivatives used in the Psychology textbook is the derivational category of names of qualities (abstract nouns derived from adjectives; 49 derivatives are analyzed in all). These are words with an abstract meaning, formed with four suffixes on the basis of mostly adjectives, and to a lesser extent nouns, pronouns, and participles of denominal verbs.

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–umas. Most (three quarters) of the names of properties used for the article’s source terms are formed with this same productive suffix of the category. Almost all the derivatives are based on Lithuanian qualitative adjectives (which are usually gradable), e.g.: aklumas (psychic blindness 33), atsakom ingumas 201, dėkingumas (feeling of gratitude 177), greitumas (speed of learning 89), įdomumas 92, ilgumas (duration of memory 89), išdidumas 166, jaudringumas (excitability of brain centres 219), jausmingumas 210, juokingumas 181, kietumas (sensation of hardness 58), kilnumas 181, koktumas (sensation of nausea 61), kurtumas (deafness to speech 220: <...> he hears what others say, but he cannot understand what the sounds he hears mean. This condition is called speech kurtumas), linksmumas 8, malonumas 165, nemalonumas (feeling of displeasure 6), nesmagumas 154, panašumas (association of similarity 75), pastovumas (steadfastness of will 137), priežastingumas (laws of psychic causality 200), puikumas (feeling of excellence 157), siaurumas (narrowness of attention 91), skirtumas (difference in timbre 40), smagumas 154, sotumas (sensation of satiety 39), sunkumas (sensation of heaviness 15), šaltumas (sensation of cold 58), šiurkštumas (sensation of roughness 15), tikslumas (accuracy of memory 89), and troškumas (physiological process of thirst 21).

Three abstract nouns are formed from adjectives considered relational, e.g.: gretutinumas (association of contiguity 81), šaltakraujumas 210, visuotinumas (universality of associations 84); and one is formed from a participle, e.g., apibrėžiamumas (definability of sensations 94).

Only a couple of derivatives are based on borrowed (international) adjectives, e.g.: individualumas (individuality of a person 162) and komingumas (feeling of komingumas 181).

Of the derivatives with the suffix –umas listed here, only atsakom ingumas, jaudringumas, komingumas and šaltakraujumas are unusual in present-day Standard Lithuanian. Three of them are included in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language only on the basis of pre-war (up to 1940) written sources (jaudringumas only from dictionaries), while komingumas and its base adjective are absent from that dictionary. Incidentally, in the 1939 publication Language AdviceKalbos patarėjyje, the adjective atsakomingas, -a is corrected (atsakingas, -a is recommended) because it “<...> is formed from atsakomas in an unusual way” (p. 20). Because of its base word, šaltakraujumas is likewise considered incorrect in present-day language (it is unusual to form abstract nouns from such relational adjectives).

–ybė. Abstract nouns formed with the suffix –ybė are used by a little more than a third less frequently. Most derivatives are formed from qualitative adjectives, e.g.: gyvybė (sensation of vitality 62), ypatybė (property of the soul 2: <...> rationa-

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psychology explores the attributes of the soul), weakness (weakness of memory 11), identity (personal identity 206), certainty (certainty arising from conviction is an essential basis of the act of reasoning 142), unity (unity and identity of the self 205). A couple of derivatives with the suffix –ybė used as psychological terms or within them are derived from nouns, e.g.: personality 174, frivolity 210, and from pronouns, e.g.: quality (quality of sensation 38), totality (totality of the nerves 26); one is derived from a participle, e.g., obligatoriness (obligatoriness of the moral sense 174.

Two further types of nominal abstract formation are represented by a single derivative each, e.g.:

-enybė: erdvenybė (quality of spatiality 107). The Glossary of psychological terms and names at the end of the textbook gives the following equivalents in other languages for erdvenybės mato: protiažienijė, extensio, rozciągłość, Ausdehnung (p. 232). This word is included in the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language with a neologism label only on the basis of the entry “space” in M. Nyderman, A. Sen, F. Brender and A. Salys’s Lietuvių rašomosios kalbos žodyno. The textbook uses the term erdvė much more often, whereas erdvenybė seems to mean “tangible space”; cf. “Among other qualities, one must also note the quality of erdvenybė (protežon(n)osti), that is, that things have length, width, and thickness, that they are round, quadrangular, ‘to the right’. These qualities may be called spatial relations” (p. 107).

-ovė: gerovė (feeling of well-being 62).

Third in terms of the abundance of suffixal derivatives is the derivational category of names of action results. The textbook uses ten derivatives with three suffixes as psychological terms or their components; these make up slightly less than one twentieth of all the suffixal derivatives examined.

As in the standard language generally, the largest share of derivatives is formed with the suffix –inys, e.g.: buvinys 2, davinys (products of imagination 106), padarinys (result of an act of will 183), reiškinys (manifestation of feelings 15, psychic phenomenon 1), tarinys (<....> the concept by which something is expressed and the thing represented by that concept are called object and predicate, respectively 141), uždavinys (task of psychology 2), vaidinys 72. In the textbook’s glossary, buvinys and būsena are listed as synonyms (p. 231); the terms vaidinys and atvaizdas are likewise linked (pp. 231, 235).

These suffixes have only one derivative each:

–snis: dėsn is (laws of the psyche 6);

–tas: raštas (word blindness 221). In the glossary and the text, the international word aleksija is given as a synonym of this two-word term (pp. 234, 221).

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Very few (only one or two of each) names for bearers of nominal properties are used, e.g.: empirininkai 176, intuicininkai 175 (these hybrids refer to psychologists working in fields that study the moral sense), gyvulys (gyvulių psichologija 10) and ligonis (proto ligonis 12, psichikos ligonis 11), and names for bearers of verbal properties, e.g.: erzintojas (uoslės dirksnių erzintojai 59) and veiksnys 94, usually assigned to this category (a synonym of faktorius, ibid.). Erzintojas was a word in use at the time; it was included in both editions of the second volume of the Lietuvių kalbos žodynas from the writings of J. Gerutis (Jonas Balvočius, 1842–1915); somewhat later, it was superseded by the now-current dirgiklis (PŽ 1993: 59–60).

Suffixal derivatives

There are about fifty nouns formed by inflectional endings that are used as one-word psychology terms or occur in multiword terms—that is, four times fewer than suffixal derivatives.

More than half (nearly three fifths) of the nouns formed by inflectional endings are names of actions (verbal abstracts). Almost every other word is derived with the ending -(i)a, e.g.: gėda (gėdos jausmas 21), įtaiga 216, jėga (vaizduotės jėga 105), kalba (vaiko kalbos augimas 139), klausa 34, nuoskauda 153, nuoboka 32, pagarba (pagarbos jausmas 163), pastanga (pastangos jausmas 192), patrauka 188, and vada (Jeigu duryse kaba skarinis (rankšluostis), mėnesienos nušviestas, yra vada (povod), kad manytume kambary esant baidyklę <...>, tai ne kas kita, tik iliuzija 145). A couple of terms are derivatives with the variant ending -ia, e.g.: galia (garsų analizės galia 41) and kančia 162.

A quarter of the derivatives are formed with the ending -is, e.g.: alkis (Kadangi sielos būsenoje, kaip alkis, yra jutimo ir jausmo, tai toji būsena yra vadinama ir jausmas, ir jutimas, vienu ir kitu vardu 152), nuovargis (nuovargio jutimas 62), pojūtis (jutimo arba pojūčio tonas 38), sambūvis 125, santykis (valios santykis su jausmais 188), sąryšis (nuolatinis psichinių reiškinių sąryšis 18), stojis (<...> yra jausmai, atsivaizdavimai bei kiti tolygūs buviniai (stoviai) 2) and tūris (atminties tūris 89).

A few derivatives are formed with the ending -ė, e.g.: garbė (Dievo garbės jausmas 177), meilė (artimo meilė 163), sąžinė 173 and sopė 138.

The fewest (only a couple) found among the inflectional derivatives belonging to this word-formation category are those with the ending -as, e.g.: miegas 10 and noras 1.

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There are half as many names of action results among the inflectional derivatives examined as there are names of actions. In this respect, the derivatives of this formation type used in the terminology of the Psychology Textbook differ considerably from the general language as a whole, in which derivatives formed with inflectional endings belonging to the category of names of action results (outcomes) are by far the most numerous.

The derivatives under consideration are formed with the following three endings:

–as: atvaizdas 72 and its variant atavaizdas 72, išvaizdas (erdvės išvaizdas 12), įvaizdas (erdvės įvaizdas 12), pagrindas (fiziologinis atminties pagrindas 74) and vaizdas (smegenų veiksmo vaizdas 34);

–a: išraiška (jausmų išraiška 195), sąvoka (sąvokų sintezė 141) and šviesa (šviesos jutimas 64);

–is: įprotis 194, įspūdis 71 and potyris 2 (pojūčių potyris 150).

Fewer still (one seventh of all the inflectional derivatives examined) are names of properties (nominal abstracts). These are derivatives with three endings (–is, –a, and –ė). For example:

–is (–io) and –is (–ies): dydis (judesio dydis 109), skonis (skon ies jutimas 36), sotis (sočio jutimas 61), svoris (svorio jutimas 61) and šaltis (šalčio jutimas 15). The word skonis is now prescribed for standard language with the first-declension ending –is, but in some dialects, in earlier times, and in written sources (including J. Jablonskis’s Mūsų žodynėlyje), it is found with the feminine third-declension endings (see LKŽ XII 1020). The textbook’s first-declension word sotis is different: it is recorded in LKŽ (XIII 304–305) and prescribed for current usage (see DŽ₄ 2000: 721) as a feminine third-declension word. In descriptions of modern word formation, the word šaltis is treated as a derivative formed by an inflectional ending from the adjective šaltas (see Urbutis 1961: 44, LKG I 1965: 316); however, it seems possible to regard it also as a verbal abstract derived from the verb šalti with the suffix –tis.

–a: aistra 189, dora (doros jausmas 158);

–ė: erdvė (lytėjimo pojūčio erdvė 107), laisvė (valios laisvė 198).

Compound words

In the present-day terminology and in the standard language itself, very few psychology terms and other nouns incorporated into complex terms have been found that were formed by this word-formation method, whose output competes in number with suffixal derivatives: only 8 compounds, that is, roughly six times fewer than suffixal derivatives.

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The second constituent of almost all compound terms is derived from verbs, e.g.: pėdsakas (trace theory 75), pusiausvyra (sense of balance 62), savisauga (the relation of anger to self-protection 165), savistaba 207, savižiūra 4, sielotyra (<…> psychology, or the study of the soul, is the science of mental phenomena or the life of the soul 1). The word pusrutulis, which occurs in the term smegenų pusrutulių dirksniai 32, is a conventional compound formed from two nouns.

The term sav(i)ąmonė 207 (Just as mental images, feelings, and so on can be objects of perception, so too we can similarly know ourselves. Such a process is called self-consciousness, or self-knowledge 208), is explained in the textbook glossary by the Russian, Polish, and German equivalents samosoznani(j)e, samowiedza, Selbstbewusstsein (p. 234), and should apparently be regarded as a calque (cf. the equivalents), or at least as a loan translation. The Russian term самосознание is now rendered in psychology terminology by savimonė (see PŽ 1993: 265), already familiar from St. Šalkauskis’s dictionary Bendroji filosofijos terminija, published in the journal Logos in 1937 (Šalkauskis 1991: 180). Incidentally, the word saviąmonė was included in the Lietuvių kalbos žodynas only with an example from Soviet-era writings (see LKŽ XII 258), but the “Psychology Textbook” shows that it was used earlier as well.

Prefixal derivatives

The psychology terminology under examination includes only two nouns formed with prefixes—atjausmis 153 and pasąmonis 84. That atjausmis is a prefixal derivative is shown not only by its form (the ending -is), but also by the explanation given by the textbook’s author, M. Reinys: “<…> the difference in suffering in both cases depends on these or other elements of cognition. They, and nothing else, give rise to empathy in feelings. (Atjausmis is formed by analogy with atspalvis, atgarsis, atšesėlis)” 153. Incidentally, this excellent word is absent from both editions of the first volume of the Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. The masculine-gender variant of the second derivative, pasąmonis, was used alongside the now-established pasąmonė (Šalkauskis 1991: 168, 240; DŽ₁ 1954: 548; PŽ 1993: 203–204) as late as the middle of the 20th century (see LKŽ IX 453).

ADJECTIVE FORMATION

To express the constituents of complex terms, M. Reinys’s Psichologijos vadovėlis uses 80 adjectives that are purely Lithuanian or hybrid—that is, formed with both borrowed and Lithuanian word-formation morphemes. The largest share of these adjectives (over 90%) are derivatives, primarily suffixal derivatives. Adjectives formed by other word-formation methods account for only slightly less than one seventh of this part of speech’s derivatives. Accordingly, the formation of adjectives used in psychology terms with suffixes is presented first.

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Suffixal derivatives

The formation of the adjectives under consideration is not diverse: the suffixes -inis, -ė and -ingas, -a stand out for the abundance of derivatives they produce. Only a few derivatives formed with other suffixes have been found. -inis, -ė. Two-thirds (41 in all) of all the denominal adjectives examined are formed with the suffix -inis, -ė. A smaller proportion of them (slightly more than a third) are based on purely Lithuanian base words, e.g.: asmeninis (asmeniniai jausmai 163), dirbtinis (dirbtinis miegas 216), dvasinis (dvasinė asmenybė 105), galinis (klausos dirksnio galinės formacijos 66), išorinis (išorinis potyris 4), nuolatinis (nuolatinis psichinių reiškinių sąryšis 18), pagrindinis (pagrindinis empirinis pažinimo elementas 149), pamatinis (pamatinis psichinis vyksmas 183), pirminis (pirminiai estetiniai jausmai 179), protinis (protinė atmintis 89), savaiminis (savaiminis charakteringas atjausmis 159), tolydinis (tolydinis psichinių reiškinių sąryšis 18) and visuomeninis (visuomeniniai jausmai 163). Most of these derivatives are formed from nouns; there is one each based on passive past participles, adjectives, and numerals (dirbtinis, tolydinis and pirminis), and two from adverbs (nuolatinis and savaiminis).

The participial derivative -inis, -ė grįžtaminis is used several times. In the textbook glossary, this adjective is explained by the synonym refleksinis (p. 232). The two adjectives are repeatedly paired in the textbook itself, e.g.: 1) Such an action is called reflexive, or grįžtaminis 31; 2) <...> a person performs certain movements, which have a grįžtaminis, or reflexive, character <...> 138; 3) Already earlier [= earlier] there was mention of what we call reflexive (reflexive), or grįžtaminis, movements 184. The fact that grįžtaminis and refleksinis are juxtaposed more than once apparently indicates that Prof. M. Reinys wanted to accustom textbook readers to a Lithuanian word. Unfortunately, this is one of the rare cases in which the word in use had no grounds for becoming established: grįžtaminis is unacceptable in terms of word formation, since adjectives are generally not formed from passive present participles.

Nearly two-thirds of the adjectives derived with this suffix are formed from international nouns or adjectives, e.g.: altruistinis (altruistiniai jausmai 168), asteninis (asteniniai afektai 159), egoistinis (egoistiniai jausmai 168), eksperimentalinis (eksperimentalinė psichologija 14), elementarinis (elementariniai jausmai 167), empirinis (empirinė psichologija 2), estetinis (estetiniai jausmai 179), fizinis (fizinis jausmas 158), fiziologinis (fiziologinė psichologija 14), individualinis (individualiniai jausmai 163), intelektinis (intelektiniai jausmai 178), kinestetinis (kinestetinis jutimas 109),

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mechaninis (mechaninė atmintis 89), metafizinis (valios laisvė metafizine prasme 198), motorinis (motorinis dirksnis 24), muzikinis (muzikinė atmintis 88), organinis (organiniai jutimai 39), psichinis (psichinis gyvenimas 10), psichofizinis (psichofizinis Webero-Fechnero dėsnis 66), psichologinis (psichologinė analizė 93), racionalinis (racionalinė psichologija 2), refleksinis (refleksinis veikimas 31), socialinis (socialiniai jausmai 163), specialinis (pojūčių specialinių organų jutimai 39), specifinis (specifinė energija 65) and steninis (steniniai afektai 159).

A small number of the hybrid adjectives used in Psichologijos vadovėlyje are, by current standards, outdated. For example, the collective authors of Kalbos praktikos patarimuose (1985) consider not eksperimentalinis, elementarinis, racionalinis, specialinis, but eksperimentinis, elementarus, racionalus, specialus to be preferable (pp. 72, 240, 271).

–ingas, –a. In the terms used by M. Reinys, there are three times fewer adjectives with the suffix –ingas, –a than those formed with the suffix –inis, –ė. Only a third of the derivatives with this suffix, too, are based on Lithuanian words, e.g.: galingas (galinga vaizduotė 106), įdėmingas (įdėmingas mokymasis 101), noringas (noringasai judesys 187), savaimingas (savaimingas sielos galių buvimas 17) and valingas (valingasai judesys 187). Although Lithuanian generally has a sprinkling of –ingas, –a derivatives from adjectives (see LKG I 1965: 558), įdėmingas seems unusual and an exception in terms of word formation. By the way, this word is absent from the fourth volume of the Lietuvių kalbos žodyno.

The base words of most of the adjectives under consideration with this suffix are international, e.g.: aktingas (aktingas dėmesys 91), automatingas (automatingas judesys 184), charakteringas (savaiminis charakteringas atjausmis 159), impulsingas (impulsingi judesiai 184), instinktingas (instinktingas judesys 91), logingas (logingasai mąstymas 221), pasingas (pasingas dėmesys 91), refleksingas (refleksingas judesys 184) and simpat ingas (simpatingasai sekimas 168). Alongside the term refleksingas judesys, the adjective is also given in parentheses in its derivative with the suffix –inis: refleksinis.

At that time, in the first decades of the 20th century, such adjectives were not rare in written language. They were included, for example: aktingas, igieningas (now higieniškas), objektingas, produktingas, simpatingas, in Mūsų žodynėlyje (1918), compiled by J. Jablonskis, which M. Reinys may have used or at least leafed through. Indeed, he corrected some words containing the suffix –ingas. For example, in his language review of J. S. Dovydaitis, author of J. Tumas (Vaižgantas)’s lecture on Šiaulėniškio Senelio, published in 1924, the adjective

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instead of adjectival forms inteligentingas, nepatriotingas and deverbal nouns autonomin-gumas, labdaringumas, among other things, the great teacher of the language proposed using inteligentiškas, nepatriotiškas, autonomiškumas, labdariškumas instead (JR V 1936: 44). Of the previously mentioned hybrids with the suffix -ingas, -a, it seems that only charakteringas and simpat­ingas remain in current usage. In place of many others, either derivatives with the suffix -iškas, -a are used (e.g., automatiškas, logiškas), or international adjectives (e.g., aktyvus, impulsyvus, instinktyvus, pasyvus, refleksyvus). Incidentally, when M. Reinys was preparing the Psychology Textbook, frequent competitors of derivatives with the suffix -inis, -ė were adjectives formed with the suffix -iškas, -a. There was little need for these in the textbook’s terminology. It would be interesting and useful to scholarship to find out whether this was a characteristic feature of the psychology terminology of that period or merely a matter of the textbook compiler’s individual usage.

The components of the psychology terms under study are also expressed by several adjectives widely familiar in the language, derived with the following suffixes:

-ish, -ish: primitive (primitive feeling 162);

-ish, -ish: alien (alien* psychic entity 8);

-ras, -a: mixed (mixed* feeling 157);

-štas, -a: high (high* psychic activity 34);

-tas, -a: simple (a simple combination of images 142);

-uistas, -a: morbid (a morbid cheerful mood 223);

-utinis, -ė: kraštutinis, -ė (karštutinis realizmas 65).

More than half of all the different adjectives used in the source terms are hybrids, derived from international words with the Lithuanian suffixes -inis, -ė and -ingas, -a. In this respect, the formation of nouns and adjectives used in the textbook’s terminology differs greatly.

Prefix derivatives

Only four derivatives with the prefix ne- were found among the psychology terms used in the textbook, e.g.: nemalonus (nemalonus jausmas 128), nenoringas (nenoringi judesiai 184), nepriežastinis (nepriežastinė baimė 161), and nevalingas (nevalingi judesiai 187).

Derivatives formed by mixed derivation

Four of the adjectives among the terms examined are expressed by formations derived simultaneously with a prefix and a suffix. These are purely Lithuanian derivatives formed by mixed derivation: išvidinis (išvidinis valios veiksmas 183), išviršinis (išviršinis poty-

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ris 4), and hybrids įcentrinis (įcentriniai dirksniai 31) and išcentrinis (išcentriniai dirksniai 31).

In terms of morphemic structure, the adjective išorinis, -ė is formed in the same way; however, alongside it there is the widely familiar noun išorė, which can readily be regarded as the base word of the adjective in question. It is true that the nouns išvidė “inner side; interior” and išviršė “outer side” (pp. 258, 260) are included in volume four of the Lietuvių kalbos žodyno, on the basis of original sources of the standard language dating from seven or eight decades ago; išviršė from a prewar source also made its way into the first two editions of the Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyno. On this basis, rather than on present-day usage, the adjectives išvidinis, -ė and išviršinis, -ė might seem to be derivatives formed with the suffix –inis, –ė; however, their derivational meaning shows that these adjectives were nevertheless formed simultaneously with a prefix and a suffix. No evidence has been found to cast doubt on the mixed formation of the hybrids įcentrinis, -ė and išcentrinis, -ė (although the Lietuvių kalbos žodyne does contain the noun išcentris “a disk mounted off-centre on a shaft (used to convert rotary motion into progressive motion),” IV166, from prewar writings, its meaning gives no grounds for considering it the base word of the adjective išcentrinis, -ė).

Ending derivatives

Only two old adjectives formed with endings, both customary in the language, occur among the textbook’s terms. They are kartus (karčios skonies jutimas 5) and the old adjective senoji psichologija 210).

Compound words

One compound adjective is used as a dependent component (modifier) of the compound terms examined in the article: dviakas (dviakas regėjimas 115, dviakas matymas 113). In both cases, the adjective binokuliarus is written as a synonym alongside dviakas (the textbook glossary gives binakularus 232). Incidentally, the adjective dviakas does not appear in the second volume of the Lithuanian Language Dictionary.

VERB FORMATION

Twenty-four verb participles occur as dependent components in the compound terms examined. Since participles are verb forms, it is customary to examine infinitives from the perspective of word formation, also taking the other principal forms into account. Nearly four fifths of the verbs are mixed formations or secondary suffixal and prefixal derivatives.

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The non-prefixed mixed verbs girdėti (girdimoji haliucinacija 219), judėti (judamasai [atminties] tipas 86), regėti (regimoji haliucinacija 219), and svarstyti (svarstomoji galia 33 and svarstytoji mintis 101) are old words sharing a root with the corresponding primary verbs, but having a suffix, or the same suffix variant, in not all principal forms.

Three non-prefixed secondary verbs are derived with the suffix -inti, for example: gaminti (gaminamoji vaizduotė 102), judinti (judinamasai* dirksnis 76), žadinti (žadinantys afektai 159); one is derived with the suffix -auti, for example, protauti (protaujamasi sielos esmės ir ypatybių pažinimas 3).

Ten verbs are prefixed derivatives of primary and secondary verbs, for example: atgaminti (atgaminamoji vaizduotė 102, atgamintasaи vaidinys 144), įgimti (įgimtoji atmintis 98), išplėtoti (išplėtota valia 196), neveikti (neveikiamासai dėmesys 91), pajusti (pajuntamieji jausmai 168), palyginti (palyginamoji psichologija 10), panaudinti (panaudintieji jutimai 72), pasekti (pasekamieji vaizdai 54), patirti (patiriamasa* sielos reiškinių pažinimas 3), and prislegti (linguistai prislegtas ūpas 223).

ADVERB FORMATION

One adverb, liguistai (liguistai linksmas ūpas 223, liguistai prislegtas ūpas 223), is used in the compound source terms; it is a characteristic derivative formed from an adjective with the suffix –ai.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The language of Professor M. Reinys’s freely translated Psychology Textbook from Russian is clear, lively, and easy to understand even today, nine decades after its publication (1921). This demonstrates the compiler’s strong connection with the living language of the people and his excellent command of the standard language for scholarly subjects of his time. This broadest conclusion is also supported by an examination of the formation of the terms used in the textbook and of other words that form parts of multiword terms.

2. The terms examined and the words they contain (nouns, adjectives, participial verbs in their base forms, and adverbs) were formed by all the morphological methods of word formation: suffix derivatives account for 77.2%, ending derivatives (nouns and adjectives only) for 14.5%, prefix derivatives for 4.6%, compounds (nouns and adjectives only) for 2.6%, and mixed-formation derivatives (adjectives only) for 1.1% of all the derivatives examined in the article (over 350 in total).

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3. The largest share of all derivatives (87.8%) is purely Lithuanian, while 12.2% consists of hybrids formed from international words with Lithuanian affixes. Particularly striking are the very small number of hybrid nouns (all formed with suffixes: 1.7% of all derived nouns, or 3% of the suffix derivatives in that part of speech) and the abundance of hybrid adjectives (50% of all derived adjectives; nearly all are derivatives with the suffixes –inis, –ė and –ingas, –a, and only a couple of derivatives were formed at once with a prefix and a suffix).

4. A distinctive feature of the derivatives examined is the abundance of abstract nouns: 90% of nouns formed with suffixes and endings denote actions (verbal abstracts) and qualities (nominal abstracts). The largest proportion of abstracts is formed with the most productive suffixes of these two word-formation categories, –imas and –umas.

5. Many derivatives are widely familiar, have long been used in ordinary written language, or were coined as terms. There are few rare, unsuccessful, or unacceptable words in general usage. The status in the language of adjectives formed with the suffix –ingas, –a has changed the most: some of them are no longer used.

In general, the derivatives in the source examined show that the formation of terms and their components has changed relatively little over the past 90 years.

SOURCE

Psychology Textbook. Freely translated from Prof. G. Chelpanov by Dr. M. Reinys, Ph.D. Vilnius, 1921 (publication of the Lithuanian Scientific Society).

LITERATŪRA

Būga K. 1959: Rinktiniai raštai. T. 2. Sud. Z. Zinkevičius. Vilnius. DŽ₁ 1954: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ats. red. J. Kruopas. Vilnius. DŽ₄ 2000: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. St. Keinys. Vilnius. JR V 1936: Jablonskio Raštai. T. 5: Kalbos dalykai. Redagavo J. Balčikonis. Kaunas. Katelytė R. 2009: Mečislovo Reinio laisvai versto Psichologijos vadovėlio psichologijos terminų reikšmė ir kilmė. – Terminologija 16, 198–216. KP 1939: Kalbos patarėjas. Paruošė L. Dambrauskas. Redagavo A. Salys, Pr. Skardžius. Kaunas. KPP 1985: Kalbos praktikos patarimai. Sud. A. Pupkis. Vyr. red. Z. Zinkevičius. II pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas. Vilnius. LKG I 1965: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. T. 1. Vyr. red. K. Ulvydas. Vilnius. LKŽ I–XX 1941–2002: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Ats. (vyr.) red. J. Balčikonis (t. 1–2), K. Ulvydas (t. 3–5, 11–16), J. Kruopas (t. 1–2, 6–10), V. Vitkauskas (t. 17–20). Vilnius. Mūsų žodynėlis. „Vargo mokyklos“ priedėlis. Surinko Rygiškių Jonas. Voronežas, 1918. PŽ 1993: Psichologijos žodynas. Spec. red. R. Augis, R. Kočiūnas. Vilnius. Skardžius Pr. 1943: Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba. Vilnius. Šalkauskis St. 1991: Bendroji filosofijos terminija – Raštai. T. 2: Filosofijos ir pedagogikos terminija. Parengė A. Sverdiolas. Vilnius, 126–252. Urbutis V. 1961: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos galūnių darybos daiktavardžiai. – Kalbotyra 3, 27–60. Zinkevičius Z. 1966: Zinkevičius Z. Lietuvių dialektologija. Vilnius.

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WORD FORMATION OF MEČISLOVAS REINYS’ TERMS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THEIR COMPONENTS

The first three decades of the 20^th century was a period of rapid development of contemporary Lithuanian terminology of various fields of science and technology. In 1921 Lithuanian scientific society published Psichologijos vadovėlis (Psychology textbook) which was a free translation of Georgij Chelpanov’s Учебник психологии performed by professor Mečislovas Reinys (1884–1953). This paper analyses the word formation of substantival one-word terms as well as nouns and other parts of speech which comprise components of complex terms used in this textbook.

There were 390 words researched, 91% of them are formations. The majority of formations (73.6%) are nouns. Other parts of speech are less common – adjectives comprise 20.7%, verbs (participles) – 5.4% and adverbs – 0.3%. Cases of word formation of terms with suffixes, endings and prefixes as well as compounds and terms of mixed formation (with prefixes and suffixes at the same time) are researched in detail.

It was established that the majority of formations researched (about 88%) are purely Lithuanian and about 12% are hybrids. Nearly all hybrids are derivates made from international words with Lithuanian suffixes. Very many terms of psychology and their components have an abstract meaning – 90% of nouns made with suffixes and endings are substantial or verbal abstracts. On the whole, the word formation of the one-word terms and components of complex terms researched has not changed much in 90 years.

Gauta 2010-12-14

Rita Katelytė

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

E. paštas [email protected]

Stasys Keinys

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

E. paštas [email protected]

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