The Institute of the Lithuanian Language’s School Lithuanian Studies Group investigates the language of Lithuanian pupils. With permission from the National Examination Centre, two thousand papers written in 2014 for the state examination in Lithuanian language and literature are being analyzed.
Syntactic errors are the most dangerous because they undermine the language system itself. No single inappropriate word does as much harm to a language as an erroneous syntactic construction, which usually includes all the other words (Šukys 2001: 101). Therefore, this type of error was selected for the study. The errors were collected from the 2014 state examination essays in Lithuanian language and literature written by 104 speakers of Southern Aukštaitian (from Alytus County); further studies of data from other counties should show whether there are any regional differences in the use of these phenomena. The aim of the article is to identify the most characteristic syntactic errors in the 2014 state examination essays in Lithuanian language and literature written by Southern Aukštaitija school-leavers1. In determining the grammatical correctness of syntactic phenomena in the essays, the assessments of varying syntactic phenomena presented in Kalbos patarimuose were used: variants to be avoided and non-standard variants were considered language errors.
The principal object of syntax is the sentence as a whole of interrelations and semantic relations among words (DLKG 2006: 476). Syntax includes not only the sentence and the text, but also an intermediate unit—the word combination (Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 9). This discipline covers cases, prepositions and postpositions, participles, gerundial participles and half-participles, as well as matters of sentence linking. In classifying syntactic errors, this article draws on the conventional classification of syntactic phenomena presented in various normative publications.
1. ERRORS IN THE USE OF CASES
Of the syntactic errors in the graduates’ essays examined, case errors are the most frequent.
1 See also Aurelija Tamulionienė’s article “The Most Characteristic Spelling Errors in Students’ Essays and Blogs” in this volume of Bendrinės kalbos.
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1.1. One of the more common errors in students’ essays involving the use of the nominative is the incorrect expression of an indefinite quantity of things or a portion of an object (instead of the partitive genitive) with the verb ‘to be’:
There have always been wars and clashes (= wars and clashes) over wealth, land, and differences in religious views2 (A 9)3.
1.2. Essays occasionally contain an incorrect use of the dative of verbal nouns to express purpose or intended use. Such verbal nouns should be replaced by an infinitive (with the dative):
It is precisely the love he feels for her that makes him a better, gentler person and cultivates Mykoliukas’s noble character, <...> even prompting him to renounce himself and sacrifice his spiritual and physical strength for his brother’s future’s beautification (= to beautify the future) (A 44).
1.3. Students incorrectly use the accusative to express an indefinite quantity of things or a portion of an object (instead of the partitive genitive), for example:
By loving another, a person can do all sorts of things (= all sorts of things), even things like (= such things), which may seem overly bold or even foolish, but this makes a person a noble and distinctive individual (A 38). The latter had particularly good diplomatic skills (= good diplomatic skills), which he used in an attempt to stop the Teutonic Order’s raids <...> (A 23).
Essays quite often contain cases where the accusative is used with the transitive verb to impart, although the partitive genitive should be used4, especially when abstract concepts are involved, for example:
Taigi, meilė ne visada yra tinkamas būdas suteikti kilnumą (= kilnumo) <...> (A 12). Ši savybė suteikia žmogui ne vien laimės, džiaugsmo pojūčius (= pojūčių), bet ir pagarbos, vidinio dvasingumo ir doros (A 28).
1.4. When using the instrumental, graduates sometimes err by unnecessarily choosing this case to express the object with completive verbs beginning with the prefix pri-:
Does love really fill a person’s everyday life with nobility (= nobility) (A 20)?
Some essays incorrectly use the instrumental with adjectives denoting abundance, for example:
The poem describes the past of Lithuania’s forests, which was rich in flourishing forests, clean and orderly rivers <...> (= when there were abundant flourishing forests, clean and orderly rivers, and large meadows) (A 20).
2 In the examples, spelling and punctuation errors in the essays have been corrected.
3 The Alytus County and essay code are indicated.
4 Jonas Šukys tokius atvejus priskiria prie sunkiai nustatomų (Šukys 1998: 199).
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It is true that, since the adjective rich does not strongly govern the case, it is better, where possible, to use other means of expression.
In some cases, essays use the instrumental case of a noun with the verb to be, which should be avoided when expressing a permanent state. In such cases, it should be replaced with the nominative, e.g.:
Liudas’s parents wished that their son would become a priest (– priest) (A 10). Beingof high moral character man (– man), Vaižgantas wrote a work in which the love story portrayed is a true testament to nobility (A 56).
A sentence was found in which a student uses the instrumental case to express being in an unchanging state. In such cases, it should be avoided (KP S1: 77):
Thus, although a person has been hurt by someone they love, they must remain an honorable and noble person (– an honorable and noble person) (A 68).
1.5. Essays quite often contain locative errors. Here we find unacceptable and avoidable calques, such as:
a) in the course: Love for one’s neighbor, the support and compassion of those around us, personal growth or appreciation of creation, over the course of life (– while living) should bring a sense of fulfillment (A 41). In the course of the work (– in the work) he falls in love and, blinded by love, forgets everything that was good and pure. Agnė’s love for Tilius is pure; nothing can destroy it, yet in the course of the work (– in the work) Tilius leaves Agnė <...> (A 91);
b) mainly: Probably mainly (= mostly) love is talked and written about (A 5);
c) as a consequence: In my opinion, the negative side of love is passion, as a result of which as a consequence (= as a result of which) infidelity arises (A 4). <...> love does not lend nobility to a person’s everyday life, and this is usually the case when as a consequence of love (= because of love) a person is humiliated <...> (A 41);
d) other cases: In earlier times (– In earlier times)5, when all the people of the nation had to be hardworking, persevering individuals (A 26). Love can exist in various forms (= in various forms), in this case toward a person, family, and homeland (A 66). Love also brings nobility into a person’s everyday life, but one must understand that this value can exist in a multitude of different forms (= can take many forms) (A 67).
Essays often overuse the internal locative ending in -e, in the name of. Some linguists classify it among newly emerging prepositions (see Klimavičius 1993: 20–21). In the Language Advice publications, it is stated that in the name of is not to be used to express purpose, cause, or an action
5 In informal language styles, time may be expressed by the plural locative, whereas in formal styles the usual instrumental case is used to express time (see Šukys 1998: 296).
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to express purpose (KP S1: 124). This is a bookish international calque, cf. Russian во имя, English in the name (of). The construction with vardan is justified only in two cases—in the sign of the cross (Vardan Dievo tėvo) and in the national anthem (Vardan tos Lietuvos). In all other cases, it should be replaced by for, for the sake of, in the interests of someone, e.g.:
It makes a person feel better (= be better), give up their vices, sacrifice something vardan (= for) the chosen one, or do harm to oneself for another’s happiness (A 1). Nowadays men vardan to, kad atsisakytų (= rather than give up) one (woman – S. L.), nevertheless keep two. Some are forced to give up their freedom vardan (= for) the well-being of others (A 10). In “Altorių šešėly,” a false vocation is renounced vardan (= for) creative freedom (A 10). Putinas sacrificed his freedom vardan (= for) his parents’ wishes, but later chose freedom, having given up what he did not care for (A 10). Lovers sacrifice their lives or their very lives vardan (= for) noble love (A 56). Love for our family members and loved ones prompts us to make sacrifices vardan (= for) their well-being (A 96).
1.6. It is necessary to mention separately the most common case error made by students, which was also corrected by Jonas Jablonskis (Jablonskis 1957: 551–672)—the use of the non-Lithuanian (Slavic) instrumental of state instead of the double cases. Double-case constructions consist of an adjective or adjectival word agreeing with an expressed or implied noun or nominal word in the sentence. As Antanas Rasimavičius points out, in Lithuanian the verb does not govern adjectival parts of speech; therefore, verbs cannot, by government, require an adjectival part of speech in the instrumental case (see Rasimavičius 1972: 4).
In contemporary Lithuanian, the norms for using these constructions are not firmly established. To determine what changes in usage might be expected in the near future, we examined the use of such constructions and considered for which model the norms for expressing state appear weakest with particular verbs, bearing in mind also that today’s students, apart from speakers of other languages, are no longer directly exposed to the influence of either Russian or, even less so, Polish.
Most cases found involved the instrumental of adjectives and adjectivally used words to express state being used instead of: a) the nominative; b) the dative; and c) the accusative.
1.6.1. With regard to the nominative case, the essays examined contained the following erroneous models for expressing state:
a) (can, try, have to...) be + what: Both writers claim that the homeland must be the most important thing to a person must be the very most important (= the most important), and everyone must love and protect it (A 20). Throughout the ages, people have striven to be virtuous and noble (= virtuous and noble) (A 36). <...> a person needs support and understanding, because without them one will simply no longer try to be that way (= like that) be
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(A 41). There are people who, for the happiness of others, =whocan sacrifice themselves and be noble and understanding (= noble and understanding) (A 57). While working in an elevatormust talk to strangers, smile at them, be humble (= humble) (A 84);
b) feel + what: Therefore noble (= noble) can feel only a person who has love for their homeland within them. No one at Stutthof felt (= did not feel) or could even feel free (= free) (A 70). Only by returning in memory to his youth, back to his native land, did he feel free and happy (= free and happy) (A 70);
c) remain + what: First of all, I would like to write that no matter how many memories live within a person, the most important (= the most important) will always remain those that bring a smile from ear to ear <...> (A 74).
d) (not) become + what: This act shows that even the greatest womanizers, when in love, can become noble and honorable (= noble and honorable) (A 103).
The data show that graduates less often err by choosing an adjectival instrumental for the predicative complement when verbs such as can, try, have to occur alongside the verb būti ‘be’ expressed by an infinitive.
Errors are more common when the copula is (a) a verb of becoming, (b) the partly related verb remain, or (c) various verbs of feeling, e.g.:
a) Therefore the tasks of everyday life seem quite easy, indeed light, because thanks to love you become noble (= noble) and give yourself entirely to everyday tasks <...> (A 28). Although he suffers deeply, he does not become vengeful or cruel (= vengeful, cruel) (A 42). Nobility is an increasingly rarely used word and an increasingly uncommon (= prominent) character trait, whereas love is the fundamental, still highly valued reason why people want to become better and nobler (= better, nobler) <...> (A 44). <...> we can not only change and become different (= different) from how we were before, but also set new goals and pursue them (A 45). People often become completely unrecognizable (= unrecognizable), for the desire to please and be liked by another person can bring about many wonderful things (A 55). Thus a person, with the help of love (= a person in love), who seemed to belong (= one’s own), becomes nobler (= nobler) than before (A 67). A person has been and will be troubled by certain hardships, but having overcome them, will become only stronger (= stronger) (A 85). Above all, love affects people positively—they become nobler, gentler, and happier (= nobler, gentler, happier) (A 85).Thus, a person who has left their homeland seeks to free themselves from the torments of the soul, become free (= free) in a foreign land, distancing themselves (= while distancing themselves) from vivid memories that still remain in their mind (A 88). Thus, a person who has left their homeland seeks to free themselves from the torments of the soul, become free (= free) in a foreign land (A 88);
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b) However many countless memories live within a person, the most important (= most important) will always remain those that bring a smile from ear to ear (A 74). Constantly immersed in past moments of life, he managed to preserve his national identity and values, to remain resilient (= resilient) (A 84);
c) Noble (= Noble) can feel only a person who has love for their homeland within them (A 67). No one at Stutthof felt, or could even feel free (= free) (A 70).
It was established that nonstandard cases in which the instrumental case of adjectives or adjectivally used words is used to express a state instead of the nominative account for about 33 percent of all double-case errors in the essays examined.
1.6.2. Another case occurs when students use the Slavic instrumental of state instead of the dative. The following incorrectly used constructions were found:
a) to be + some: This enlightened figure of the nation demonstrated his love for his homeland through his good deeds, which gave him the opportunity to be noble (= noble) in everyday life (A 12). <...> love not only prevents a woman from being happy (= happy), but also turns life into chaos (A 12). In such a situation, the nobility love brings will be hidden by mockery, and later even the desire to be such (= such) to be(A 41). Thus, love brings out a person's good qualities and helps them be better (= better) (A 47). To be noble (= noble) means unconditionally sacrificing oneself and one's well-being, not only one's own (A 86);
b) (not) to let someone feel + some: Time spent together gives one the courage to move forward, allows one to feel uplifted (= uplifted) (A1). Thus, Mykoliukas feels inferior (= inadequate), good-for-nothing, and most importantly, unloved by anyone; this is partly what prevents him himself from feeling noble (= noble) (A 37). This allows one to feel nobler (= nobler) than those who feel nothing for their nation and to whom the nation is worth nothing (A 50);
c) to remain + some: The power of this feeling is immeasurable, because it gives one the strength to survive and remain noble (= noble) (A 18). Even unrequited love helps a person remain virtuous (= virtuous) and noble of soul (A 47). Knowing that, even if one has acted (= having acted) perhaps wrongly, but not treacherously, one will be understood by one's beloved allows a person to remain strong (= strong) (A 56);
d) to become + some: This kind of behavior will help us choose the object of our love wisely, because only by choosing well can we reveal all our positive qualities and ultimately—become noble (= noble) (A 44). Thus, I can conclude that self-sacrifice for loved ones and love for them help one become noble (= noble) (A 51).
In such sentences, an adjective or adjectival word must agree in gender, number, and case with the dative functioning as the complement, but that complement is often only implied.
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The greatest number of instances were probably found in sentences where the instrumental is incorrectly used alongside the verb jaustis ‘to feel’, for example:
This allows one to feel nobler (= nobler) than those who feel nothing for their nation (A 31). The feeling occupying her heart allows her to feel happy (= happy), not only herself but also to make others happy (= happy) (A 39). However, devotion and respect are what make one feel honest and suitable (= honest and suitable) (A 104).
Nonstandard cases of the instrumental in double-case constructions in graduates’ essays, where the instrumental of adjectives or adjectivally used words is used instead of the dative to express a state, make up about 27 percent.
1.6.3. The double accusative consists of the accusative of the nominal part of a compound predicate and the accusative of the object. The accusative object is required by the predicate link—a transitive verb (Tolutienė 1967: 48). The double accusative has long been a living construction in Lithuanian, but, as the study data show, pupils fail to make the adjective expressing the nominal part of the predicate agree with the object. The main syntactic pattern for the erroneous use of the double accusative in essays is: (to) make + what, for example:
Dėl to jis nėra vadinamas savanaudžiu niekšu, kuris, būdamas nelaimingas, nelaimingu (= nelaimingą) daro ir kitą (A 1). Meilė kasdienišką žmogaus gyvenimą padaro tauresniu (= tauresnį). Meilė mus daro geresniais (= geresnius), verčia jaustis ypatingai (A 2). Šis jausmas priverčia žmogų džiaugtis ar liūdėti, gyvenimą padaro gražiu ir šviesiu (= gražų ir šviesų) (A 7). Be visa ko, ji praskaidrina mūsų gyvenimus, žmogų daro laimingesniu ir geresniu (= laimingesnį ir geresnį) (A 13). Taigi meilė žmogų daro geresniu ir kilnesniu (= geresnį ir kilnesnį) (A 28). <...> Daugelis rašytojų moko, kad meilė iš pagrindų pakeičia žmogaus gyvenimą, padaro jį laimingesniu (= laimingesnį) ir išmoko jį elgtis kilniai <...> (A 28). Meilė šiems vaikams bei meilė Severijai darė jį laimingu, kilniu, geru (= laimingą, kilnų, gerą) (A 33). Taigi, meilė suteikia žmogaus kasdienybei kilnumo, nes meilė daro žmogų geresniu ir rūpestingesniu (= geresnį ir rūpestingesnį), o kilnumas iš šių dalykų ir susideda (A 33). Meilė, mano manymu, žmogaus gyvenimą gali padaryti kilniu, išskirtiniu, pilnaverčiu (= kilnų, išskirtinį, pilnavertį) (A 38). Meilė Severijai Mykoliuko gyvenimą įprasmino, padarė jį gražesniu (= gražesnį) (A 38). Taigi apibendrinant galima teigti, kad meilė kasdienišką žmogaus gyvenimą ir jį patį padaro tauresniu (= tauresnį) ir suteikia kilnumo (A 54). Ji žmogų daro kilnesniu ir sąžiningesniu (= kilnesnį ir sąžiningesnį) (A 59). Iš to galima spręsti, jog aukojimasis dėl artimųjų daro mus labiau žmogiškais bei kilnesniais (= žmogiškesnius bei kilnesnius) (A 67). Meilė vis dėlto suteikia
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nobility on everyday life, no matter what one loves, but morality makes ordinary everyday life nobler (= nobler) (A 92).
According to Pranas Kniūkšta, there are nevertheless cases in which the accusative does not always fit, the dative is also unsuitable, and the instrumental is an error (see Kniūkšta 1983: 37). In such cases, it is best to choose another means of expression (a subordinate clause, an expanded adverbial, etc.). Bookish and lifeless sentences are formed with the verbs a) mokyti ‘to teach’, b) skatinti ‘to encourage’, c) versti ‘to make/force’, for example:
a) Thus love is not always happy, yet teaches a person to be better <...> (= better / teaches goodness). Thus sometimes love, though unhappy, teaches a person to be strong and forgiving (= strength, forgiveness), to come to terms with loss, and not to abandon moral values <...> (A 42). Love for one’s family teaches one to be respectful and tolerant (= respectful, tolerant / respect, tolerance), and helps one understand that a harmonious family is one of the greatest values (A 68);
b) Such work and self-sacrifice for the benefit of one’s homeland encouraged the partisans to fight, to remain dignified (= dignified / to behave with dignity), and not to give up (A 90). A person’s feelings and experiences can foster many positive and negative character traits; for example, happiness and joy encourage sincerity (= sincere), while anger or envy makes one act hypocritically (A 90);
c) A pure love that lasted only a week takes over the protagonist’s thoughts and makes him different (= different / makes him change) <...> (A 1).
1.6.4. It is very rare for pupils to fail to use the double genitive (usually with a negative verb):
Most people who love sincerely do not try to destroy another person’s personal happiness, do not make them unhappy (= unhappy), and do not seek revenge (A 68).
In pupils’ essays, about 27 percent of nonstandard double-case forms involved the instrumental of adjectives or adjectivally used words being incorrectly used instead of the accusative to express a state; the instrumental was used instead of the genitive in 2 percent.
1.6.5. There are cases (hypercorrections) in which pupils overdo it by using a double case unnecessarily, for example, with the verb virsti ‘to become’ and its derivatives:
On the other hand, glimpses into the past make life easier (= make life easier), whatever kind of person one needs to be (A 8). It is precisely these qualities that have always helped people reveal their good side and their talent, or helped them understand the most important
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things, makes life more interesting (= more interesting). By sacrificing herself, the soul of a person becomes more noble and virtuous (= more noble and virtuous) (A 63).
That students do not fully understand the expression of state is evident from the correct and incorrect variants presented in the same essay, e.g.:
<...> only love, which he experiences every day, allows him to remain noble, decent, striving and eager to make others happy. <...> In conclusion, I could say that this world without love would be gloomy and sad, for it is thanks to it (= because of it) that a person finds the strength to change, do something good and, of course, become better (= better) (A 34).
I think it is very important, in relation to oneself and others, to remain honourable and exemplary and noble. <...>. This bond encourages people to become at least a little better, more humane and more caring (= better, more humane and more caring) (A 36).
Thus, examples of the students’ language also clearly show that the predicative instrumental is encroaching on the old double-case constructions (see Fig. 1).
FIG. 1. Frequency of errors in double-case constructions (percentages)
1.6.6. According to Vytautas Ambrazas, double cases are one of the most distinctive ancient features of the sentence, which the Lithuanian language retained into historical times and, in some cases, to the present day (see Ambrazas 2006: 280). Such constructions expressing state have also survived to this day in Latvian. In Slavic languages, however, only the instrumental is used (see Table 1). It is true that the Latvian linguist Janis Endzelynas (Jānis Endzelīns) believed that the predicative instrumental was a phenomenon of Baltic and Slavic languages (see Endzelīns III 2: 456).
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TABLE 1. Expression of state in Baltic and Slavic languages
Lithuanian
Latvian6
Russian
Polish7
tried to be honest (nom.)
tried to be honest (nom.)
пытался быть честным (įnag.)
starał się być uczciwym (įnag.)
to feel happy (instrumental)
to feel happy (instrumental)
to feel happy (instrumental)
to feel happy (instrumental)
makes special (accusative)
makes special (accusative)
makes special (instrumental)
makes special (instrumental)
According to the data from the study of graduates’ essays, errors in the use of dual cases stand out among case usage errors for their frequency. Therefore, more effective methods must be sought for teaching students to preserve these ancient Baltic constructions.
2. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PARTICIPLES, HALF-PARTICIPLES, AND GERUNDS
As noted, students carelessly use the following in their essays:
a) participles of the active voice, past simple tense, when an action occurring simultaneously with the predicate’s action needs to be expressed, e.g.:
He shows noble conduct having chosen (= choosing) one woman (A 5). Women would take the intellectual vagabond into their homes, perhaps having resorted (= resorting) to their ingenuity (A 24). This writer, having feared (= fearing) Russian repression, was forced to leave his native lands (A 60);
b) gerunds, which cannot express a subordinate action performed by the same agent (most of the sentences found were of this kind), e.g.:
It is not surprising that often people try to escape from the reality of the world, using (= by using) memories (A 8). Thus, unexpected love our everyday and seemingly righteous path in life can turn upside down and steer in the right direction, compelling (= compelling) us to act nobly and rightly (A9). The protagonist decides to see his beloved only from afar, without trying (= without trying) to approach her as before (A 13). Thus, in life one must know how to let go of what is dear and close to you, because living (= while living) on memories alone will not satisfy you (A 14). Looking (= Looking) upward we see blue
6 Based on Latvian Grammar (LVG 2013) and the article “Datīvs latviešu valodas sintaktiskajā sistēmā” by Latvian linguist Ilze Luokmane (Ilze Lokmane).
7 I thank my colleague Dr Asta Leskauskaitė for her assistance in translating into Polish.
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a little bird flying across the sky (A 17). A person who has experienced such terror remembers it for a long time, because having found themselves (= having found themselves) in such situations a person loses their faith, outlook, and develops new values that last a lifetime (A 45). To sum it all up (= summing up), I would like to say that a person truly has the gift of a good memory, <...> (A 53). Often it is only after parting and losing (= having parted and lost) a person do we understand that we cannot live without them (A 89);
c) half-participles, when they are unsuitable for expressing a circumstance involving an action that does not occur at the same time as the predicate action, e.g.:
Understanding the consequences of his affair with Monika, out of love for her he shields the woman, thus saving (= shields the woman and saves) her from death <....> (A 1). Thus Baranauskas moralizes that everyone must create an image of their homeland, cherishing and loving it (= to cherish and love) (A 20). In conclusion, I would like to say that the feeling of love changes a person's daily life, but thereby creating (= and creates) something new (A 63).
Present-tense half-participles are most often used incorrectly in the essays.
3. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS
In the essays, students most often misuse three prepositions: pas, prieš, virš.
Students make mistakes using the preposition pas to indicate belonging, ownership, or possession (the source of this error is the neighboring Slavic languages):
Feelings, I think, with everyone (= for everyone) are different (A 5).
To begin speaking about Mykoliukas, he worked for his family's family (= in his brother's family) (A 29).
In the essays, there are sentences in which the preposition prieš is ineptly used to express an object:
<...> it is important to remain human not only before oneself (= to oneself), but also before others (= to others) (A 12).
It is as if the ruler has been defeated by his own people (= to his own people) and by himself (= himself), because humanity has been lost once and for all (A 36).
In one essay, the student used the preposition virš, which should be avoided when referring to exceeding an amount:
It is known that 13 people died that day and more than five hundred (– over five hundred) were injured (A 30).
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SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Būdingiausios sintaksės klaidos Pietų Aukštaitijos abiturientų rašiniuose
Errors are more often made when using postpositions or instrumental forms close to them. It has been observed that graduates use the postpositions dėka and (su) pagalba incorrectly, for example:
Thanks to reason (= By reasoning / Thinking), we consider things carefully and choose the best solution (A 4). In my opinion, a person's love for their nation, state, and religion distinguishes them from others and places a kind of mask, thanks to which (= with which) a person becomes a patriot, unable to tolerate lies, dehumanization, or threats to statehood (A 36). In the novel „Miškais ateina ruduo“ he depicts a love triangle, thanks to which (= because of which) the characters' lives are briefly illuminated anew (A 62). The norms imposed by contemporary society have led to (= Because of the norms imposed by contemporary society) this specialty being greatly devalued (A 84).
In the essays, the postposition pagalba is incorrectly used to express a means; in such cases, it should be replaced by the instrumental case of means with what or another construction, for example:
Therefore, I think that we should not be afraid of memories, because with their help (= by remembering) we can not only change... <...> (A 45). He had mastered this weapon perfectly and knew how to use it wonderfully with its help (= with it) to spread ideas of freedom among people (A 67). Love is a feeling with the help of which (= by which; helped by which) a person can overcome even illness, help someone whom fate has treated unfairly, or simply enrich everyday life and impart a sense of nobility and refinement (A 93).
The essays also contain sentences with atžvilgiu, used in the sense of a postposition. Some linguists call it a fossilized instrumental form (see Akelaitis 2005: 71), while others call it a specifying instrumental (see Šukys 1998: 557). Some such relation-marking instrumental forms are acceptable in Lithuanian, but when atžvilgiu merely makes a sentence longer, cumbersome, or stylistically awkward, the whole sentence or part of it should be changed, for example:
When people encounter passion and true love in life (= having encountered them), they become blind to bad things (– they fail to notice bad things) (A 1). Thus, love makes a person blind to another person’s feelings (– Thus, love blinds a person and prevents them from noticing another person’s feelings) (A 90).
The research data show that there are not many errors in the use of prepositions in students’ work. Errors are more often made when using postpositions.
4. ERRORS IN SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS AND SENTENCE LINKING
The fewest errors in this group were found in the work of South Aukštaitian graduates. In their essays, students incorrectly use conjunctions, particles, and various word combinations to join subordinate clauses of time.
BENDRINĖ KALBA 88 (2015)
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SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Būdingiausios sintaksės klaidos Pietų Aukštaitijos abiturientų rašiniuose
The conjunction as is used incorrectly—it should be avoided for joining temporal subordinate clauses, so it is corrected to when (see KP 2009: 30):
I have no doubt that we have heard of the great love stories of “Titanic,” which is deeply moving and proves that true love does not die, even when, as (– when) you lose it (A 15). But the time always comes as (– when) we have to say goodbye or lose someone close to us (A 22). He felt the freedom of his own personality when he as (– when) chose something he liked—the pursuit of creativity (A 83).
The essays also contained the calque expression instead of the fact that, which is not recommended with a finite verb form to express concession:
Instead of receiving (= Rather than receiving) at least some respect, love, or warmth from them, he receives nothing (A 37).
To join sentence parts, pupils also choose unsuitable means of expression, for example, the phrase and also, which is not used to add homogeneous sentence parts or clauses (KP 2009: 37): In the works “Lithuania, Dear” and “Where the Šešupė Flows,” the poet states that the fighters for Lithuania are heroes, and also (= also / moreover) remembers Vytautas’s regiments (A 73); the particle taipogi, not recommended in standard language (DŽ.): People who depart this life remain in our memories, also (= also) forever (A 30).
There are ambiguous cases in which the language norm is applied in the wrong place or in the wrong way; in such cases, the sentence is defective because of an inappropriate conjunction, for example:
This is because, since (= that) the whole society is radically opposed to such people. (A23). This is because, since (= that) people are selfish and do not think about others; they think only about what they lose <...> (A 41).
Language norms are violated in sentences that begin with the conjunction nes (“because”): without clear stylistic motivation, clauses in a complex sentence should not be split off and presented as separate sentences, for example:
Other important themes in Maironis’s poems include descriptions of the beauty of the homeland and nature . Because (= beauty, because), like every romantic’s characteristic trait, is to seek peace and inspiration in nature (A 20). Often, love can leave us with deep hurts and bad memories in life. Because (= memories, because) love is not always so easy and wonderful or within reach (A59).
One sentence was found in which the conjunction and is used in emphatic constructions with repeated particles:
They reflect the fact that in the human subconscious, what is gone and will not return will always remain: whether it is love, childhood, or perhaps the homeland, people will always return to them in their memories again and again (= many times / ever / once more).
BENDRINĖ KALBA 88 (2015)
www.bendrinekalba.lt
ISSSN 2351-7204
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SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Būdingiausios sintaksės klaidos Pietų Aukštaitijos abiturientų rašiniuose
In summary, it can be said that the conjunctions and connective words used in complex sentences are most often used incorrectly in the essays.
FIG. 2. Frequency of syntactic errors (percentages) in the essays of high school graduates in Alytus County
It should be noted that, overall, errors involving all cases make up about 62 percent of all syntactic errors found in the essays of high school graduates in Alytus County, and approximately 40 percent of these are errors involving the double case. The data show that another relevant category of errors concerns the use of verb forms—the participle, the adverbial participle, and the half-participle (about 18 percent). Fewer errors are made in the use of prepositions and postpositions (about 11 percent) and in combining clauses or sentence elements (about 9 percent).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Among syntactic errors in the essays of high school graduates in South Aukštaitija, errors in the use of cases predominate. A large group of case-use errors involves the instrumental case, which unnecessarily replaces the second component of the double case. This may have arisen not only because of the influence of Slavic languages, but also through analogy with nouns. The most problematic verbs, with which the greatest number of nonstandard cases of expressing a state were found, are to be, to remain, to feel, to consider, to (cause to) become, to become. It is therefore necessary to investigate the reasons for this usage, as well as more effective methods of teaching the double case so that these norms are maintained. No sentences containing an incorrectly used genitive were found in the essays examined.
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SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Būdingiausios sintaksės klaidos Pietų Aukštaitijos abiturientų rašiniuose
2. The second group of syntactic errors involves the incorrect use of participles, adverbial participles, and half-participles. Most syntactic errors are probably made when adverbial participles are chosen incorrectly, where in personal clauses the same agent performs both the main and the subordinate action.
3. The third group of syntactic errors consists of the incorrect use of prepositions and postpositions. The prepositions pas, prieš, virš are most often used incorrectly. Among incorrect postpositional uses, constructions with dėka, (su) pagalba and atžvilgiu. stand out.
4. Errors in combining sentence elements and sentences occur less frequently in the essays; most often, high school graduates use conjunctions and connective words in complex sentences incorrectly.
LITERATŪRA
Akelaitis G. 2005: Konstrukcijos su atžvilgiu, požiūriu administracinėje kalboje. – Kalbos kultūra 78, 67–76.
Ambrazas V. 2006: Lietuvių kalbos istorinė sintaksė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.
DLKG 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.
DŽ₆ 2008 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.
Endzelīns J. III-2: Darbu izlase 3, 2 daļa, 1980, Rīga: Zinātne.
Jablonskis J. 1957: Raštai 1, Vilnius: Valst. polit. ir moksl. lit. 1-kla.
LVG 2013: Latviešu valodas gramatika. Autori: Ilze Auziņa, Ieva Breņķe, Juris Grigorjevs u. c. Rīga: LU Latviešu valodas institūts.
Lokmane I. 2002: Dativos latviešu valodas sintaktiskajā sistēmā. – Linguistica Lettica 10. Rīga: LU Latviešu valodas institūts, 151–161.
Klimavičius J. 1993: Kada tinka vardarī, o kada ne. – Gimtasis žodis 4, 20–21.
Kniūkšta P. 1983: Tarinio įnagininko bėdos. – Kalbos kultūra 45, 30–38.
KP S1: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2. Sintaksė: 1. Linkšnių vartojimas. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Vitas Labutis, Aldonas Pupkis ir Jonas Šukys. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009.
KP S2: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2. Sintaksė: 2. Įvairūs dalykai. Sud. Rita Miliūnaitė, teksto aut. Vitas Labutis ir Aldonas Pupkis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2009.
Rasimavičius A. 1972: Dėl dvejybinių linksnių vartojimo. – Mūsų kalba 3, 3–5.
Sirtautas V., Grenda Č. 1988: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė. Vilnius: Mokslas.
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ISSN 2351-7204
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Šukys J. 1998: Lietuvių kalbos linksniai ir prielinksniai: vartosena ir normos, Kaunas: Šviesa.
Šukys J. 2001: Lietuvių kalba 11 klasei, Kaunas: Šviesa.
Tolutienė B. 1967: Dvej ybinis galininkas. – Kalbos kultūra 13, 48–50.
Gauta 2015 11 09
Priimta 2016 01 22
COMMON SYNTAX MISTAKES IN GRADUATES’ ESSAYS OF SOUTH HIGHLANDERS
Summary
This article discusses common syntax mistakes found in the essays written by graduates during the Lithuanian Language and Literature Exam 2014. The data was obtained from 104 essays of South Highlanders (Alytus county), and further study should show whether there are any regional differences in the use of these phenomena.
Syntax mistakes prevailing in the graduates’ essays are case use mistakes (about 60%). A common mistake which has been described since Jonas Jablonskis’ times is the use of not Lithuanian (Slavic) state instrumental case instead of double declension. In modern Lithuanian, use of these structures are not sound. Perhaps they appeared not only due to the impact of the Slavic languages but also for the analogy with nouns. The most problematic verbs which were mostly accompanied by a number of non-normative state expression cases are būti, išlikti, jaustis, laikyti, (pa)daryti, tapti (be, remain, feel, keep, do, and become). Hence, it is necessary to look for the causes of such use, as well as effective methods to observe norms.
Other category of relevant mistakes is use of verb forms, such as participles (about 18%). Perhaps major syntax mistakes are made while using participles when a single character performs both major and minor roles in personal sentences.
The third group of syntax mistakes contains use of prepositions and postpositions (about 11%). Prepositions which are used most incorrectly are pas, prieš, virš (about, at, before, over). The most abundant are the cases of incorrect use of postpositions déka, (su) pagalba (thanks (to), (with the) help (of)).
When writing essays, fewer mistakes are made while joining sentences or clauses (about 9%).
BENDRINĖ KALBA 88 (2015)
www.bendrinekalba.lt
ISSSN 2351-7204
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SOLVITA LABANAUSKIENĖ. Būdingiausios sintaksės klaidos Pietų Aukštaitijos abiturientų rašiniuose
