Priesaginė lietuviškų terminų daryba

S. Keinys

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LIETUVIŲ TERMINOLOGIJA

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

S. KEINYS

SUFFIXAL FORMATION OF LITHUANIAN TERMS

Word formation plays a major role in terminology, since the vast majority of one-word terms and components of multi-word terms are derivatives. Of the Lithuanian and hybrid one-word noun terms included in the Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary of Economic Terms (Vilnius, 1966), 92.5% are formed from other words (a little over 1,600 different words were counted in total, of which approximately 120 are simple, or primary). Derivatives also account for about 90% of the terms of the same type included in the Russian–Lithuanian–English Dictionary of Computing Terms (Vilnius, 1971) and the Dictionary of Botanical Terms (Vilnius, 1965) (over 1,900 and about 800 different words respectively, of which about 180 and 120 are simple). Thus, as N. Shansky has observed, language can meet the demands made by society only when all the various word-formation resources available are put to use, since word formation, above all, helps create a vocabulary that reflects the development of society¹.

Most noun derivatives used in terminology are formed with suffixes. For example, the dictionaries of legal, geological and physical-geographical, physical, sports, land-reclamation, chemical, textile (Part I), and literary terms contain nearly 5,000 derivatives formed using the resources of the Lithuanian language itself. Of those derivatives used as one-word terms in the aforementioned fields, 68.5% are formed with various noun suffixes. Suffixal derivatives account for an even greater proportion of the one-word noun terms included in the dictionaries of economic and computing terms (81.9% and 79%, respectively). Only in the Dictionary of Botanical Terms are there fewer suffixal derivatives, although even there they make up more than half of all derivatives. Thus, terms formed by means of endings, prefixes, and compounding are in the minority. This confirms the vitality and prevalence of suffixal noun formation in contemporary Lithuanian². Finally, this shows that in terminology, too, the greatest attention should be paid to suffixal word formation and to organizing and refining it. It is very important that everyone who creates or standardizes terms study suffixal word formation thoroughly, know well what benefits it offers to the language and to terminology itself, and know how to use them appropriately.

This paper examines the formation of noun terms with suffixes synchronically. The subject of the study consists of 4,955 suffixal derivatives (the same derivative

¹ Н. М. Шанский, Очерки по русскому словообразованию и лексикологии, Москва, 1951, p. 131.

² V. Urbutis notes that there are several times more suffixal derivatives in Lithuanian than all the other derivatives combined. See Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, Vilnius, 1965, p. 252.

often appears in several dictionaries of terms, but here it was counted only once). All these derivatives are presented as one-word terms in dictionaries of terms reviewed by the Terminology Commission of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Lithuanian SSR Academy of Sciences. These are dictionaries of legal, geological and physical-geographical, physical, sports, land-reclamation, chemical, textile, literary, botanical, economic, and computing terms. This choice of research subject is explained by the aim of surveying terminological work in fields that have been more thoroughly standardized and identifying the tendencies in this type of formation that have emerged.

The suffixal formation of terms is examined in the order customary in studies of word formation. Certain groups of term formations are distinguished according to the derivational meaning of the derivatives and the nature of their base words. More than two-thirds (68.7%) of the derivatives are formed from verbs. These derivatives are divided into the following groups: names of actions, names of instruments, names of agents and bearers of verbal properties, names of results of actions, and names of places. The remaining derivatives are generally based on nominal words. They are divided into the following groups: names of properties, names of bearers of nominal properties and occupational names of persons, diminutives, names of places, collective names, and names denoting origin and affiliation. Derivational types of terms are identified and examined within each such formation group. The groups and their most productive types are presented in order of the number of derivatives, beginning with those that have the most. In this way, V. Urbutis has investigated Lithuanian noun formation very comprehensively³. Unlike V. Urbutis’s classification, here the names of bearers of nominal properties and the names of persons by occupation are combined into a single formation group.

All terms that can be regarded synchronically as derivatives are examined, although not all were specifically coined for terminological purposes. This is done because in many cases it is apparently impossible to determine whether a term was newly coined or was a word already in use in the language. After all, new words combining the same parts (a base word and a suffix) can be formed at any period in the development of the language and anywhere where it is spoken. Even if it is known that a word was used, for example, in the oldest written texts or at some later time, one still cannot claim that the word was definitely taken from those older sources rather than newly coined. This is especially unclear when such words have been used by very few people. Moreover, it should not be overlooked that derived terms borrowed from non-terminological vocabulary can also create the conditions for the formation of corresponding term-formation types. Therefore, it would apparently be inaccurate not to regard them as members of those formation types. Finally, studies of contemporary word formation usually include all the words of a language that can be considered derivatives synchronically. However, there are also individual terms, including terms belonging to unproductive types, whose entry into terminology from non-terminological vocabulary is beyond doubt. In such cases, the derivational structure of the terms has become obscured, and their derivational and terminological (lexical) meanings no longer have a direct connection.

The paper examines only terms that have Lithuanian suffixes. From a derivational perspective, some international terms can also be counted, for example: aeronautika, analizatorius, arbitražas, automobilizmas, atmosferikai, aviamodelistas, deklaracija, diktatūra, ekspertizė, hidrostatika, kalcitas, magmatizmas, monarchija, olimpiada, operacija, proletariatas, propaganda, revizija, rezervatas, rezervuaras, sabotažas, sferoidas, šifratorius, technolo-

³ See Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, p. 251 and following.

gija, vakansija, vibrionas and many others. However, in many cases, the segmentation of international terms and the identification of certain suffixes would be highly conditional and formal. For such terms usually coincide in structure with corresponding terms in other languages (most often Russian) and enter Lithuanian terminology primarily already formed, as borrowings. Interestingly, it is not characteristic of Lithuanian terminology to derive terms from purely Lithuanian words using international suffixes. Describing the formation of international terms would be useful and could constitute the subject of a separate study.

VERB DERIVATIVES

ACTION NOUNS

Action nouns are suffixal derivatives formed from the principal forms of verbs and expressing an action, process, or state. Every action can have a name, although carrying it out does not always require any kind of means, a place devoted specifically to that action, or consequences that would call for a separate name. Moreover, derivatives formed from the same verb with different suffixes may name the action from more than one perspective: in one case, the derivatives have no additional shades of meaning and are pure action nouns; in another, in addition to the basic meaning of action, they have various shades of meaning contributed by the suffixes—for example, they may also express the organized nature or greater scale of an action, its specialized character, the manner in which it is performed, and so on. Derivatives with some suffixes name not so much individual actions themselves as particular spheres of human activity. For this reason, this group of derivatives is also referred to more broadly as verbal abstracts.

A large proportion of terms are action nouns. As noted, verb derivatives predominate in terminology, and most of them are action nouns (they make up over three quarters of the terms in the dictionaries examined). The wide prevalence of terms with this meaning is also evident from the fact that more than half of all suffixal derivatives belong to the group of action nouns.

Although action nouns are very numerous among terms, they nevertheless display little diversity in formation. The suffix -imas stands out for its exceptionally high productivity, accounting for more than three quarters of all action nouns. The second most productive suffix is -ymas. These suffixes, which give derivatives the same meaning, are attached to verbs of different structures. Together they encompass the full range of Lithuanian verbs: an action noun can be formed from every verb with -imas / -ymas. Therefore, as V. Urbutis has noted, -imas and -ymas are variants of a single suffix⁴. More than nine tenths of action nouns are formed with -imas / -ymas. The great significance of these suffixes in terminology is also shown by the fact that nearly half of all suffixal terms are their derivatives. Other word-formation types in this group are not particularly productive. With the suffixes -tis, -yba, -mė,

⁴ Ж. В. Урбутис, Словообразование имен существительных в современном литовском языке. Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени доктора филологических наук, Вильнюс, 1971, р. 23.

-uotė, -sena, -smas, -tynės, -mas, -esys, -ga, -lė and so on yield only a few or a dozen or so derivatives, or, less often, a couple or three dozen. Finally, more than half of the action nouns are still—?

borrowed from non-terminological vocabulary, so these word-formation types are of little significance in terminology.

-imas

In the language of science and technology, derivatives with this suffix play a very important role. Apparently, their abundance largely determines a characteristic feature of the style of scientific writing itself—the abundance of nouns with abstract meanings and the widespread use of various nominal expressions.

Almost all derivatives with the suffix -imas have the pure meaning of action names. They name the action, process, or state itself, without any extraneous nuances. E.g.: angliavimas “rubbing, coating with charcoal” ChŽ, anglinimas “conversion into charcoal” ChŽ, atidavimas “the ability of a body or substance to give something up, transfer it to the surroundings or to other bodies” MŽ, brendimas “the final phases of seed development” BŽ, buksavimas “slipping of drive wheels or tracks on roads, rails, or terrain because of insufficient friction or traction” MŽ, chemizavimas “comprehensive use in industry of chemical methods for processing materials” ChŽ, dūlėjimas “slow decomposition, rotting” ChŽ, “mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks under the influence of external factors (temperature, moisture, wind) and fauna and flora” MŽ, ėsdinimas “treatment of a metal surface with acid” ChŽ, gelsvėjimas “a defect in bleached fabric; a spontaneous process in which white fabric gradually turns yellow through aging or inadequate washing out of soap” ATŽ, grūdinimas “changing the hardness of a material by sudden cooling” ChŽ, irimasis “disintegration, breakdown of a material” ChŽ, įsibėgėjimas “gradual increase in speed during machine operation” MŽ, kopuliavimas “grafting by joining—a method of grafting in which the scion and rootstock are of equal thickness and are joined at obliquely cut ends” BŽ, lėkštinimas “making flat surfaces (e.g., slopes)” MŽ, mišrinimas “combining different hereditary traits in one organism (a crossbreed, hybrid) by crossbreeding (sexual hybridization) methods <…>” BŽ, plaukėjimas “a developmental stage of cereal plants when half of the ear emerges from the upper leaf sheath (in rye, wheat, and barley) or the tip of the panicle—3–4 spikelets (in oats and millet); in maize, when the tassel tip emerges from the sheath” BŽ, MŽ, prasikalimas “emergence of a sprout from the ground or seed coat” BŽ, rišimasis “hardening of a binding material” ChŽ, slūgsojimas “the occurrence of rocks and ores in the Earth’s crust” MŽ, stiebėjimas “a developmental stage in various plants, other than cereals, during which stems grow” BŽ, sukibimas “the property of the tiniest particles of a material to attract one another” MŽ, ChŽ, trauk(l)inimas “heating milk so that it curdles, coagulates” ChŽ, užgrūdinimas “acclimatization to unusual conditions, e.g., low temperatures or drought” BŽ, vakcinavimas “protection against illness by administering a vaccine, i.e., a preparation of weakened or killed disease-causing agents (pathogenic bacteria)” BŽ.

Only a small proportion of derivatives with the suffix -imas is also used with a more concrete meaning—they name the result of an action, the bearer of a verbal property, or a place. Nevertheless, all such derivatives can be understood derivationally as action names, and some of them are used with both meanings (abstract and concrete). The concretization of the meaning of individual derivatives

(more precisely, the formation of homonyms) is apparently, at least for now, more a semantic than a derivational (word-formation) phenomenon. For this reason, they are not examined in other groups of term formations but are discussed together with action names. In all, there are several dozen derivatives with the suffix -imas that have a concrete meaning. E.g.: išplovimas 2 “a depression formed when flowing water washes away loose soil (on the bed or surface), a washed-out place” MŽ (cf.: išplovimas 1 “washing of fine soil particles out of a slope”, išplovimas 3 “leaching of salts from soil; desalinization, washing out” MŽ), kalėjimas “тюрьма, пребывание в заключении” TŽ, palikimas “наследство” LŽ, “наследство; оставление” TŽ, rietimas “a piece of fabric wound into a roll as a commercial package; a piece of fabric wound into a roll by a measuring and winding machine” ATŽ, užgriebimas “the strip of land worked by a machine in one pass of its working part” MŽ, užvažiavimas “a specially equipped place for driving onto an embankment” MŽ, užvėlimas “a defect in woolen felted fabric; a more heavily felted area of fabric, a longitudinal shade stripe or rib (raised on one side of the fabric and recessed on the other) <…>” ATŽ, etc. Assigning concrete meanings to terms derived with the suffix -imas is undesirable. Such terms are often polysemous; their derivational structure first and foremost yields the abstract meaning of an action name. This should be borne in mind when standardizing terminology and specializing word-formation devices. Derivatives with concrete meanings should be formed with the suffixes and endings characteristic of the relevant derivational groups.

Derivatives with the suffix -imas are formed from base verbs of various structures and meanings (statistical data are presented in Table I; see the following page, etc.). More than a third of the derivatives (767 out of 2195, or 34.9%) are formed from primary verbs, most of them based on prefixed verbs. E.g.: ištįsimas, pervėlimas (ATŽ), brendimas, išgulimas, nunokimas, purkštimas, sužėlimas, trešimas (BŽ), blukimas, degimas, praskiedimas, rūgimas (ChŽ), atpigimas, brangimas, engimas, išsiuntimas, neišpirkimas, perpirkimas, sukaupimas, supirkimas, telkimas (EŽ), aušimas, lūžimas, pakrypimas, sutapimas (FŽ), atšilimas, dilimas, dubimas, sliūgimas (GŽ), perdėjimas, sušukimas (LŽ), grindimas, išsiurbimas, nušliaužimas, užtvenkimas (MŽ), brėžimas, sugedimas, įjungimas, išjungimas, lošimas, nesutapimas, perjungimas, sprendimas, suvokimas, vedimas (STŽ), čiuožimas, peržaidimas, sklendimas (SŽ), atleidimas, grobimas, ištuokimas, perrinkimas, priteisimas, skundimas, užgrobimas (TŽ). Some derivatives are used in more than one branch of terminology, e.g.: drumstimas GŽ, MŽ, įmirkimas GŽ, MŽ, išbrinkimas ChŽ, MŽ, skilimas ChŽ, FŽ, MŽ, stingimas ChŽ, GŽ, vilkimas GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, etc.

Most derivatives are based on derived verbs. A greater proportion of the base verbs are derived from Lithuanian words, more often from nominal forms, e.g.: akiavimas, apvaisinimas, įvairavimas “variation,” kryžminimas, mišrinimas, pumpuravimas, sulapojimas (BŽ), auksavimas, baltinimas, derėjimas, rūdijimas, sucukrinimas (ChŽ), apginklavimas, apmuitinimas, įbaudžiavinimas, lenktyniavimas, perrūšiavimas, prekiavimas, sandėliavimas, (su)stambinimas, suvalstybinimas, ūkininkavimas (EŽ), praretinimas, skystėjimas, skystinimas (FŽ), apanglėjimas, smulkinimas, sutitnagėjimas (GŽ), įasmeninimas, laipsniavimas (LŽ), lietininimas, įdubmėljimas, sausinimas, supelkėjimas (MŽ), dauginimas, dvejinimas, kibirkščiavimas, (pa)dvigubinimas, paž enklinimas, sandarinimas, skiemenavimas, suskaičiavimas (STŽ), blizgiavimas

1 lentelė

Number of derived terms in dictionaries

Base verb

ATŽ

BŽ

ChŽ

EŽ

FŽ

GŽ

LŽ

MŽ

STrŽ

SŽ

TŽ

Total number of distinct derivatives

non-prefixed

194

forest or prefixed verbal

–

117

prefixed nominal

231

prefixed international

132

154

140

507

of these, reflexive verbs

non-suffixal

non-prefixed

159

105

203

138

132

573

forest or prefixed verbal

179

prefixed nominal

–

113

303

prefixed international

–

of these, reflexive verbs

188

A total of 2,195 distinct derivatives, of which 240 are reflexive.

irklavimas, nuginklavimas (SŽ), apmokestinimas, įdarbinimas, išbuožinimas, perbalsavimas, piktnaudžiavimas, suvienijimas, užantspaudavimas (TŽ). A considerable number of terms are also derived from hybrid and secondary verbs, e.g.: derėjimas “fructification,” salinimas (BŽ), balinimas, gesinimas (ChŽ), įkurdinimas, išsiuntinėjimas, nesumokėjimas (EŽ), mirgėjimas (GŽ), aprašinėjimas, nutylėjimas (LŽ), ra-vėjimas, sudrėkinimas (MŽ), (į)kaitinimas, išplėtojimas, nutekėjimas, sendinimas, snausdinimas (STŽ), pralai-mėjimas (SŽ), įtikinėjimas, supirkinėjimas (TŽ).

Quite often, the base verbs of derivatives with the suffix -imas are derived from international words. There are almost 600 such derivatives in the terminology dictionaries examined, or 27.2% of all words formed with this suffix. K. Daukšas’s “Chemijos žodynas” contains particularly many such derivatives—here, almost half of all terms with the suffix -imas are based on verbs derived from international words. Characteristically, the base verbs of this type are usually unprefixed. For example: ablaktyravimas, anestezavimas, peraminavimas, vakcinavimas (BŽ), alkilinimas, koksavimas (ChŽ), brokavimas, decentralizavimas, dokumentavimas, industrializavimas, išbrokavimas, kolektyvizavimas, konvejerizavimas, normavimas, popularinimas, (su)proletarėjimas, specializavimas(is), subalansavimas, tarifkavimas (EŽ), įelektrinimas, jonizavimas, magnetinimas (FŽ), alegorizavimas, publikavimas, redagavimas (LŽ), frezavimas (MŽ), adresavimas, algoritmavimas, chronometravimas, demontavimas, ekstremavimas, formalizavimas, fragmentavimas, integravimas, intensyvinimas, išmontavimas, kodavimas, komutavimas, konkretinimas, maksimizavimas, minimizavimas, modernizavimas, optimizavimas, pasyvinimas, perforavimas, permagnetinimas, prognozavimas, programavimas, simetrinimas, standartizavimas, transformavimas, transliteravimas, tranzistorizavimas “transition to transistors,” vizualizavimas (STŽ), katapultavimas, lyderiavimas (SŽ), išregistravimas, komandiravimas, sudemokratinimas, užprotestavimas (TŽ) and so on. In this group of derivatives, the insufficient specialization of the formation of base verbs is conspicuous; as a result, different terms are sometimes proposed for the same purpose; compare peraminavimas “transfer of an amino group (NH₂) from one organic acid to another” (BŽ) and peramininimas “transfer of an amino group from one compound to another” (ChŽ). The choice of the derivational base for the verbs themselves has also not yet become sufficiently established. This, too, accounts for the emergence of variants, since alongside formalizavimas, industrializavimas, modernizavimas, standartizavimas and so on, formalininimas, industrinimas, moderninimas, standartinimas and similar forms are also acceptable. In addition to elektrinimas, konkretinimas, magnetinimas, listed in terminology dictionaries, elektrizavimas, konkretizavimas, magnetizavimas are also used in the language. Of such synonymous pairs, derivatives of the elektrinimas, magnetinimas type are preferable, since they are shorter and the formation of their base verbs is more strongly motivated in Lithuanian.

Approximately one in ten derivatives with the suffix -imas (10.9%) is based on reflexive verbs. These are most often prefixed (over three quarters of them). A considerable proportion of the derivatives are names of various spontaneous actions, e.g.: drapiravimasis (ATŽ), apsidulkini-mas, apsivaisinimas, krūmijimasis, spurgavimasis (BŽ), diferencijavimasis, koncentra-vimasis (EŽ), drumstimasis, nusistojimas (ChŽ), atsispindėjimas, dalijimasis, išsielektrinimas (FŽ), įsiurbimas, susisluoksniavimas (GŽ), krūmojimasis (MŽ), deformavimas(is), išsilyginimas, išsimagnetinimas, nusidėvėjimas, užsikirtimas (STŽ), skleidimasis (SŽ) and so on.

Derivatives with the suffix -imas are formed from the finite form of the past simple tense. This is especially clear in derivatives formed from verbs that have a distinct past-simple stem, e.g.: degazavimas: degazavo, ėjimas: ėjo, griuvimas: griuvo, radimas: rado, rovimas: rovė, separavimas: separavo, subrendimas: subrendo, sudūrimas: sudūrė, volavimas: volavo, žydėjimas: žydėjo.

The formation of derivatives with the suffix -imas has very clear limits. This suffix is not used to form derivatives only from hybrid verbs whose infinitive has the suffix -yti (matyti, rašyti, skaityti). However, derivatives are formed with the suffix -imas from secondary verbs with the suffix -yti, e.g.: liudijimas TŽ, trūnijimas BŽ. Irregularity in term formation is most often related not to the use of the suffix itself, but to the inappropriate selection or formation of the base verbs. Such cases have been examined in detail in works on verb formation.

-ymas

There are ten times fewer derivatives with the suffix -ymas in the terminology dictionaries examined than words formed with the suffix -imas. This results from the limited number of verbs used as bases for derivation. The function of this suffix in word formation is precisely the same as that of the suffix -imas, but it is attached only to hybrid verbs whose infinitive is trisyllabic and ends in -yti, while the third-person forms of the present and past simple are disyllabic, disregarding prefixes (e.g.: dažyti, dažo, dažė, skirstyti, skirsto, skirstė). From all the remaining verbs, action nouns are formed with the suffix -imas. Thus, action nouns can be formed with both suffixes from all types of Lithuanian verbs.

The derivational meaning of derivatives with the suffix -ymas is exactly the same as that of derivatives with the previously discussed suffix -imas. They are pure action nouns. They can denote an active action, a spontaneous action, or even a state, depending on the meanings of the base verbs themselves. For example: dažymas “transfer of the color of a dye or pigment to another substance” ChŽ, “treatment of plant and animal cells or tissues with special dyes that reveal the corresponding structural elements of the cells” BŽ, laistymas “a single artificial moistening of soil by pouring or sprinkling water over its surface” MŽ, perlaikymas “excessive exposure of a photosensitive layer” ChŽ, plukdymas “transporting timber by water” MŽ, susiskaidymas GŽ, “the division of compound substances into parts (e.g., the disintegration of peat)” MŽ, užtvindymas “a situation in which significant areas of land in use are inundated as the water level in a river, lake, or sea rises sharply” MŽ, valymas “removal of impurities” ChŽ, “removal of unnecessary objects and materials” MŽ, vystymasis EŽ, GŽ, STŽ, “the gradual transformation of a growing organism or part of it from a simpler structure into a more complex one” BŽ.

Several derivatives with the suffix -ymas are used with a specific meaning, in which case they approach names of action results. For example: apsakymas “рассказ” LŽ, įstatymas “закон” EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, prašymas “прошение, просьба, ходатайство” TŽ.

However, from the standpoint of word formation, even such derivatives are primarily names of actions; some are also used in terminology with both meanings, e.g.: įstatymas “подстановка” STŽ.

Nearly three quarters of the derivatives (72.4%) are based on prefixed verbs; one sixth of the derivatives are reflexive, since they are formed from reflexive verbs. The number of derivatives with this type of suffix -ymas included in terminology dictionaries can be seen from the following table:

Table II

Base verbs | Terminology dictionary | Number of derivatives | non-prefixed: non-reflexive, reflexive | prefixed: non-reflexive, reflexive | Total ATŽ | – | – | 1 | – | BŽ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | ChŽ | 10 | 1 | 12 | 1 | EŽ | 14 | 2 | 49 | 12 | FŽ | 4 | 1 | 4 | 3 | GŽ | 3 | 2 | 25 | 9 | LŽ | 2 | – | 5 | – | MŽ | 6 | – | 4 | 3 | STŽ | 25 | 3 | 66 | 12 | SŽ | 9 | 3 | 17 | 4 | TŽ | 12 | 1 | 41 | 7 | Total distinct derivatives | 52 | 7 | 126 | 29 | 214

The past simple could be considered the derivational base, although there are no obstacles to linking derivatives with this suffix derivationally to the present tense as well. Given that all the derivatives are related to verbs whose infinitive has -y-, one could distinguish the suffix -mas (if the derivatives in question were linked derivationally to the infinitive). Linking them to the past simple and distinguishing the suffix -ymas is more convenient, if only because of the already mentioned identity of the derivational meaning of these derivatives and the distribution of base verbs with the suffix -imas. As noted, this allows -imas / -ymas to be regarded as variants of a single suffix.

Questionable terms are most often associated with an insufficiently considered choice of base verbs. For example, dispersion “the distance between points from a straight line or curve, when observation data are represented graphically”

would be better called by the term dispersion in MŽ, since what is named here is not the action or process itself, but a certain state caused by the corresponding action. The term re-dyeing “absorption of dye” in ChŽ is unclear, since its morphemic structure first suggests a different meaning. Specialists in particular fields could, of course, provide more such somewhat unclear or imprecise terms.

-tis

Derivatives formed with the suffix -tis differ somewhat in meaning from derivatives in -imas and -ymas, which function as true action nouns. The meaning of derivatives with this suffix is more specific and specialized; the action named often takes place only for a certain period of time or only in a certain place or field, e.g.: memory STŽ, defense TŽ, avalanche GŽ, SŽ, “fall of snow or earth from a mountain; avalanche” MŽ, taking SŽ, contest SŽ, landslide GŽ, “downward movement of a mass of earth” MŽ, composition “addition, summation” STŽ, etc. Some derivatives name a certain state or characteristic arising from the corresponding action, e.g.: volume EŽ, STŽ, memory “memory” STŽ, direction EŽ, FŽ, GŽ, LŽ, MŽ, SŽ, STŽ, position EŽ, FŽ, MŽ, SŽ, STŽ, “position of an atom or group in a molecule” ChŽ, inheritance SŽ, STŽ, purpose EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, secret EŽ, TŽ, experience EŽ, LŽ, STŽ, calmness FŽ, friction FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ.

There are terms whose meanings have moved away from the group of verbal abstracts, since they themselves are used in various concrete senses. For example: exception STŽ, TŽ, obstacle FŽ, GŽ, SŽ, STŽ, station EŽ, GŽ, SŽ, STŽ, estuary GŽ, “a place where a river flows into the sea, a lake, a water reservoir, or another river, or where it disappears by spreading over the land surface, and its water is taken for economic purposes (e.g., irrigation, water supply, etc.)” MŽ.

New terms are also formed with this suffix, though there are not many derivatives of this kind (37). Derivatives are formed only from primary verbs, with the infinitive serving as the derivational base, e.g.: grū́tis (: grū́ti), įremtis (: įremti), išvyktis (: išvykti), netektis (: netekti), padėtis (: padėti), užduotis (: užduoti). Derivatives from prefixed verbs are more common. Vowel alternation in the root is not characteristic of newly coined terms. It occurs only in a few words borrowed from the general vocabulary, e.g.: paslaptis (: paslėpti), šlytis (: šlietis), valktis (: vilkti) BŽ.

-yba (-os)

Derivatives with the suffix -yba (-os) are used relatively sparingly in terminology (the dictionaries of terms in the fields under examination contain 31 derivatives), but new terms are also formed with it. For this reason, it is important in term formation. It is also important because of the meanings typically acquired by terms derived with it.

Derivatives of this type designate: a) an aggregate of actions of a certain kind, organized processes or events, and b) the corresponding sphere of human activity, occupation. Some derivatives can have both meanings. E.g.: a) division STŽ, multiplication STŽ, extraction EŽ, GŽ, “obtaining large quantities of material from natural deposits” ChŽ, drilling GŽ, mining (the totality of work) GŽ, publishing LŽ, TŽ, nutrition GŽ, decomposition STŽ, exploration GŽ, TŽ; b) drafting STŽ, production EŽ, STŽ, invention EŽ, trade EŽ, TŽ, grafting “the science that explains the technique of transferring part of one plant to another plant tech-

“the science that explains the technique of transferring part of one plant to another, and the growth together and interaction of the grafted parts” BŽ, construction EŽ, fishing EŽ. Names for organized actions or events on a broader scale are often plural, e.g.: divisions EŽ, TŽ, negotiations TŽ, bets STŽ, exercises SŽ, competitions SŽ.

A few terms with this suffix have acquired a specific meaning, e.g.: discoveries TŽ, service EŽ, SŽ, TŽ, administration (“office”) TŽ, board EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, institution EŽ, TŽ.

Approximately equal numbers of derivatives with the suffix -yba(-os) are formed from primary, mixed, and secondary verbs, e.g.: publishing (: to publish, publishes, published), division (: to divide, divides, divided), service (: to serve, serves, served). This word-formation type is not characteristically based on prefixed verbs—only a couple of terms have prefixes (invention EŽ, penalties EŽ, TŽ). The derivatives extraction (: obtained), defense (: defended), creation (: created), feeding (: fed), discoveries (: discovered) show that the formation is based on the past simple tense. Secondary suffixes of base verbs are not transferred to the base stems, e.g.: multiplication (: multiplied), penalties (: failed to meet obligations), trade (: traded), care (: cared), grafting (: grafted).

-tė [-(i)uotė]

Derivatives of this type are usually names for certain defined actions performed for special purposes or tasks, e.g.: deblocking STŽ, business trip EŽ, LŽ, TŽ, maneuvering SŽ, marking STŽ, preparation GŽ, reconnaissance “a preliminary inspection of an area where certain work is planned” MŽ, castling SŽ, calculation STŽ, encryption EŽ, training SŽ, STŽ, probing GŽ.

A few derivatives have a more abstract meaning, e.g.: conjugation STŽ, formulation STŽ. There are also derivatives with entirely concrete meanings, e.g.: appropriation EŽ, blocking “a protective measure that prevents other processes from taking place while one process is underway” MŽ, but also “blocking” STŽ.

Most derivatives have international stems; only a couple are based on Lithuanian words (conjugation and calculation). The base verbs have no Lithuanian prefixes. Derivatives are formed only from secondary verbs that have the suffix -(i)uoti in the infinitive. Therefore, when derivationally relating the derivatives to the infinitive, it is not necessary to distinguish the suffix -(i)uotė, since the infinitive suffix remains in the derivative⁵.

In present-day Lithuanian, this suffix is apparently used only in terminological works. It has few derivatives (17).

-mė

Derivatives with the suffix -mė denote properties arising from the action indicated by the base verbs, e.g.: baigmė SŽ, drėgmė ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, “the amount of water or vapour in materials or the environment” MŽ, kilmė BŽ, TŽ, linkmė “direction” FŽ, reikmė EŽ, trukmė EŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, SŽ, “the length of time something lasts” MŽ.

Some derivatives have more specific meanings, e.g.: padermė “1. in microbiology, a series of microbial cultures; 2. in systematics, the largest divisions of the plant kingdom, which, according to Wettstein, arose independently of one another; <…>” BŽ, tėkmė GŽ, SŽ, “the flow of a river or other flowing liquid” MŽ.

⁵ In “Lithuanian Grammar” (I, p. 298), such words are regarded as derivatives with the suffix -(i)uotė.

2. Lietuvių terminologija

Most derivatives are derivationally related to primary verbs, although some are also derived from verbs of other structures. Derivatives with a prefixed base stem are rare, e.g.: ištvermė ŠŽ. The infinitive form of verbs is used in derivation, e.g.: kilmė (: kilti), reikšmė (: reikšti). Infinitive suffixes are not carried over into the derivatives, e.g.: reikmė (: reikėti). Since derivatives of this type are derivationally related to the infinitive, synchronically derivatives such as bausmė TŽ, drausmė EŽ, TŽ, prasmė LŽ, STŽ, can also be associated with the suffix -mė.

This is generally a low-productivity type. Some terms are old words taken from the general vocabulary. Some terms can be assigned to this derivational type only with difficulty (drėgmė, pradmė).

Other suffixes

Terminological dictionaries include verbal abstracts formed with a further 35 suffixes. However, only 1–2 derivatives each are used with 26 of these suffixes. Even the more productive suffixes in this group have fewer than 10 derivatives each. In all, 83 derivatives have been formed with these suffixes.

-atis: biuratis GŽ, gaišatis EŽ, karsatis GŽ.

-bos: paliaubos TŽ.

-ena: teisena TŽ. More precisely, this is a morphonological variant of the suffix -sena.

-esys: blizgesys ATŽ, GŽ, elgesys STŽ, judesys EŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, SŽ, ūžesys FŽ, STŽ, virpesys GŽ, STŽ.

-estis: mokestis EŽ, TŽ, užmokestis EŽ, STŽ. These derivatives could also be regarded as names of the object of an action.

-ga: atostogos EŽ, eiga FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, išeiga ChŽ, EŽ, GŽ, pareiga EŽ, TŽ, pareigos EŽ, užeiga GŽ. Some derivatives are used with specific meanings.

-iava: baudžiava EŽ, TŽ.

-ima: šilima ChŽ (the term is not recommended).

-inys: sukinys FŽ, STŽ, “rotation of an electron around its own axis” ChŽ, šaukinys STŽ.

-ynės: chasing game TŽ, games SŽ.

-klė: būklė ChŽ, EŽ, STŽ, SŽ, duoklė EŽ, medžioklė SŽ, TŽ, žūklė SŽ.

-la: veikla EŽ, GŽ, LŽ, STŽ, SŽ, TŽ.

-las: verslas EŽ, TŽ.

-lė: apgaulė TŽ, grimzlė SŽ, uoslė SŽ, veislė BŽ, SŽ.

-liava: levy EŽ, TŽ.

-lis: ančdelis EŽ, nuotolis EŽ.

-lius: surplus ChŽ, EŽ, STŽ.

-mas: glismas GŽ, MŽ, perversmas EŽ, TŽ, plūsmas GŽ, slyսmas GŽ, MŽ, teismas EŽ, TŽ.

-sena: būsena ChŽ, gyvensena GŽ, laikysena GŽ, SŽ, rašysena TŽ, sėdėsena SŽ, stovėsena SŽ.

-slas: confusion GŽ, sciences EŽ, sermon LŽ, conspiracy TŽ.

-smas: dvelksmas GŽ, skausmas SŽ, tirpsmas GŽ, veiksmas (-ai) FŽ, LŽ, STŽ, SŽ, TŽ, vyksmas (-ai) GŽ, STŽ. The derivative lankasmas “a bend shaped like the curve of a river, canal, or ditch” MŽ has a more specific meaning. Cf. the morphonological variant -mas.

-sna: dulksna GŽ, džiūsna “a disease characterized by partial or complete drying of infected leaves, sometimes even by the drying of the entire plant apex” BŽ.

-mast: itūpstas SŽ, mostas SŽ.

-tas: burtas STŽ, gaištas EŽ.

-tė: pašvaistė FŽ, GŽ, prošvaistė MŽ.

-wrestling: guit ynės SŽ, imtynės SŽ, racing SŽ, wrestling SŽ, competition SŽ, auctions EŽ, TŽ

-ule: sunbreak GŽ.

-ulys: vytulys “a disease of plants, including cotton, that considerably reduces the cotton yield and lowers its quality” ATŽ.

-uma: šiluma ChŽ, FŽ, MŽ, STŽ.

-umas: steadiness SŽ, shortage TŽ.

-tundra: bog tundra GŽ, MŽ.

-urys: whirlpool FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, SŽ.

-utė: suirutė EŽ.

-utis: doorbell STŽ.

-vis: būvis EŽ, sambūvis EŽ.

Some of the suffixes discussed are very rare in contemporary language, and only one or another derivative of this group has been formed with them at all, for example: -bos, -la, -umas, -uma, -undra, -urys, etc. Apparently, for this reason they are entirely unpopular in terminology as well. Moreover, more than one term mentioned here is an old Lithuanian word, for example: bausmė, blizgesys, drausmė, karšatis, lijundra, pragiedrulis, skausmas, teismas, verslas, and many others. Clearly, they entered terminology already formed from the general vocabulary. Derivatives with certain suffixes have important differences in meaning, which can be very useful in terminology. For example, derivatives with the suffix -sena indicate the manner in which an action is performed, as a characteristic of those performing that action that distinguishes them from others; derivatives with the suffix -tynės are characterized by the meaning of names for organized events or competitions.

Only one legal term, sutuoktuvės, may be regarded as a name for a celebration or ceremony, but it too is very close to verbal abstracts.

TOOL NAMES

In the terminology of almost every field, there is a larger or smaller group of terms naming various means of carrying out an action: machines, devices, equipment, tools, or their parts. In word formation, derivatives of this meaning formed from verbs are generally called tool names.

The derivational meaning of all the derivatives in this group is the same, although the means named for carrying out an action—that is, the objects themselves—vary in complexity. For practical purposes, therefore, particularly bearing in mind the specialization of work tools, it may be useful, it seems, to divide tool names into finer categories on the basis of their lexical meaning. First, one can distinguish names for various simple tools (implements, farming tools, and other uncomplicated tools). The entire group of names for these simplest tools can be called implement names, or implements. The second group would comprise names for tools more complex than implements, for example, various devices, appliances, and apparatus. This group is here called device names. The third group would comprise names for various complex tools (equipment, installations, machines, and mechanisms). These are equipment names. Finally, the names of all other means of carrying out an action and their parts form a fourth group. Such a classification of tool names is, of course, unnecessary in an analysis of word formation; it is a secondary matter, since the most important consideration in such an analysis is the derivational meaning of the derivatives.

Names for certain means are formed not only from verbs and not only with suffixes. However, names for means formed from other types of base words (for example, nominal words) are not considered tool names in word formation.

The terminology dictionaries examined contain 299 tool names formed with 28 suffixes. The most frequently used affix here is the suffix -tuvas, with which about 40% of all suffixal derivatives are formed. Slightly fewer derivatives are formed with the suffixes -iklis, -tukas, -tas, -alas combined. Considerably fewer terms are derived with the remaining suffixes.

-tuvas

This is the most widely used affix for forming tool names. It is noteworthy that in terminology this suffix is used only to form tool names. This essentially corresponds to the tendencies in the formation of derivatives with this suffix in standard and vernacular language⁶. On the other hand, in vernacular language, derivatives with this suffix most often name only various implements. In terminology, in addition to the simplest implements and farming tools, various devices, equipment, machines, and their parts intended for carrying out a particular task are also named. This suffix also occurs in derivatives whose lexical meaning is not understood, or is only barely understood, as referring to tools—for example, names for types of ditches in drainage terminology and names for vessels in chemistry terminology.

The suffix -tuvas forms terms belonging to all four of the semantic groups mentioned. Most often, these are names for various devices.

A. Devices. E.g.: aušintuvas ChŽ, dalytuvas GŽ, STŽ, daugintuvas FŽ, STŽ, dulkintuvas ChŽ, garsintuvas FŽ, STŽ, gaudytuvas ChŽ, MŽ. STŽ, greitintuvas FŽ, imtuvas FŽ, MŽ, STŽ, keltuvas GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, lėtintuvas FŽ, maišytuvas FŽ, STŽ, nuimtuvas STŽ, purkštuvas ChŽ, MŽ, ramintuvas MŽ, siųstuvas FŽ, STŽ, slėgtuvas FŽ, MŽ, slopintuvas MŽ, STŽ, šildytuvas ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, tiesintuvas GŽ, trupintuvas ChŽ.

B. Implements. E.g.: grūstuvas SŽ, kastuvas GŽ, MŽ, kaupu-tuvas MŽ, semtuvas ChŽ, skaitytuvai EŽ, STŽ.

C. Equipment. E.g.: lėktuvas SŽ, lietintuvas MŽ, plautuvas “equipment for washing gases” ChŽ, siurbtuvas “equipment for pumping water” MŽ, sklandytuvas SŽ.

D. Other means. This group consists mainly of names for various vessels (chemistry and drainage), names for ditches (drainage), and names for protective devices. E.g.: daugintuvas “device or vessel for propagating seeds” BŽ, laistytuvas “vessel for watering” MŽ, mėgintuvas “thin-walled tube with a sealed end for carrying out reactions” ChŽ, nitrintuvas “nitrating vessel” ChŽ, rinktuvas “vessel for collecting distillate” ChŽ, sulfonintuvas “sulfonation vessel” ChŽ, tirštintuvas “thickening vessel, device” ChŽ, virintuvas ChŽ; drėkintuvas “lowest-order ditch in an irrigation system ‹…›” MŽ, sausintuvas “a ditch or drain in a drainage system into which water flows directly from the area being drained” MŽ, skirstytuvas “a ditch (canal) in an irrigation system from which water is distributed to smaller ditches” MŽ; gaubtuvas “a cover protecting individual machine parts and separate components from dust and atmospheric effects, or from minor dynamic impacts” MŽ, ChŽ, GŽ.

Derivatives of this type are formed from the infinitive of transitive verbs, e.g.: apverstuvas ChŽ (: apvers-ti), dėtuvas STŽ (: dė-ti), grandytuvas MŽ (: grandy-ti), kirstuvas

⁶ In language, although rather rarely, derivatives of other meanings are also formed with the suffix -tuvas; see Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, p. 333, Pr. Skardžius, Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba, Kaunas, 1943, p. 383, J. Otrębski, Gramatyka języka litewskiego, II, Warszawa, 1965, p. 94–95.

GŽ (: kirs-ti), Lithuanian STŽ (: lies-ti), perkrautuvas GŽ (: perkrau-ti), plėstuvas STŽ (: plės-ti), raižytuvas MŽ (: raižy-ti), skęstuvas GŽ (: skęs-ti), šaldytuvas FŽ (: šaldy-ti), šautuvas SŽ (: šau-ti).

The base verbs may be primary, mixed, or secondary. Most derivatives are derivationally related to verbs without prefixes. However, almost one fifth of the names of instruments of this type are derived from prefixed verbs, e.g.: apdulkintuvas ChŽ (: apdulkinti), išelektrintuvas FŽ (: išelektrinti), nukreiptuvas GŽ (: nukreipti), pailgintuvas GŽ (: pailginti), perkaitintuvas FŽ (: perkaitinti), praplėstuvas MŽ (: praplėsti), užsukt uvas GŽ (: užsukti). There are cases in which prefixed forms are also given alongside unprefixed derivatives for the same purpose, e.g.: (ap)šviestuvas STŽ, (su)trintuvas GŽ, (su)žadintuvas STŽ. Prefixed verbs are apparently chosen more often because of the influence of other languages’ terminology. Such terms are often uncreative calques; compare опрыскиватель — apdulkintuvas ChŽ, отвёртка — atsuktuvas SŽ, отклонитель — nukreiptuvas GŽ, and so on.

-iklis

There are half as many derivatives with the suffix -iklis used as names of instruments as there are derivatives with the suffix -tuvas. Almost all terms formed with the suffix -iklis belong to the word-formation group of instrument names. Terms with other derivational meanings (for example, names of bearers of nominal properties) number only one or two apiece.

Most commonly, derivatives with this suffix name various devices, their parts, and tools; less often, machinery. In addition, quite a few names of chemical substances are formed according to their function. In general, there are no major differences between names of instruments derived with the suffixes -tuvas and -iklis.

A. Devices. Derivatives with the suffix -iklis most often serve as names for simpler devices or for parts of various devices, machines, and the like. For example: čiulpiklis MŽ, daužiklis STŽ, SŽ, iškroviklis STŽ, jungiklis FŽ, STŽ, kaupiklis STŽ, keitiklis FŽ, STŽ, saugiklis MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, skaitiklis ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, stūmiklis STŽ, taikiklis SŽ, užkirtiklis STŽ.

B. Tools. For example: grandiklis GŽ, MŽ, rėžiklis GŽ, žiodiklis SŽ.

C. Machinery. For example: variklis FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

D. Other means. For example: džioviklis “drying substance” ChŽ, skiediklis “diluting substance” ChŽ, tirpiklis “substance that dissolves” ChŽ, FŽ, MŽ.

Derivatives of this type are formed from transitive verbs. These verbs are more often (in over three fifths of cases) primary; the remainder are divided approximately equally between mixed and secondary verbs, e.g.: bandiklis STŽ (: bandyti, bando, bandė), ieškiklis STŽ (: ieškoti, ieško, ieškojo), laikiklis ChŽ, STŽ (: laikyti, laiko, laikė), tramdiklis GŽ (: tramdyti, tramdo, tramdė); emulsiklis ChŽ (: emulsinti), kabiklis SŽ (: kabinti), tirpiklis ChŽ, FŽ, MŽ (: tirpinti).

The past simple tense is taken as the derivational base, as shown by daviklis FŽ, STŽ (: davė, duoti, duoda), iškroviklis STŽ (: iškrovė, iškrauti, iškrauna), kėliklis GŽ, MŽ, SŽ (: kėlė, kelti, kelia), kirtiklis STŽ, SŽ (: kirto, kirsti, kerta), pioviklis GŽ (: piovė, piauti, pjauna), skėtiklis GŽ (: skėtė, skėsti, skėčia), skyriklis STŽ (: skyrė, skirti, skiria), stūmiklis STŽ (: stūmė, stumti, stumia). Secondary verbal suffixes into

do not extend to derived forms, cf.: gramzdiklis SŽ (: gramzd-ino), saugiklis MŽ, STŽ, SŽ (: saug-ojo).

Approximately one quarter of the derivatives are based on prefixed verbs, e.g.: įspaudiklis GŽ, nukreipiklis STŽ, paleidiklis STŽ, perjungiklis FŽ, STŽ, pertraukiklis FŽ, STŽ, SŽ, prispaudiklis STŽ, sugeriklis STŽ, užkirtiklis STŽ. Dictionaries sometimes list variants, e.g.: (iš)jungiklis, (nu)metiklis, (nu)stum iklis, (su)jungiklis (all STŽ). A considerable number of names for prefixed instruments may have arisen through morpheme-by-morpheme translation of terms from other languages, cf. разбавитель — praskiediklis ChŽ, прерыватель — pertraukiklis FŽ, STŽ, SŽ. However, it is not appropriate to follow the structure of terms in other languages blindly; for example, the Russian verbs прерывать ir разбавить are not used without prefixes at all. Sometimes variants are needlessly proliferated in the language; for instance, alongside the terms skiediklis ChŽ, stumiklis STŽ, praskiediklis, nustumiklis are also coined for the same purpose. Bearing in mind that Lithuanian tends not to form words from prefixed verbs with the suffix -iklis, terminology too should proceed more cautiously and circumspectly. If the same device is used to switch on, switch over, and switch off, for example, it is entirely inaccurate to use as many as three or four terms instead of the single term jungiklis (jungiklis, įjungiklis, perjungiklis, išjungiklis).

-tuk

Derivatives with the suffix -tukas are used in terminology almost six times less often than derivatives of the most productive type with the suffix -tuvas. Instrument names formed with this suffix denote only implements and various small devices and their parts. E.g.: kištukas STŽ, laužtukai SŽ, mygtukas STŽ, SŽ, plaktukas GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, segtukas SŽ, smeigtukas STŽ, SŽ, trauktukas SŽ. A few botanical terms (BŽ) denoting certain parts of plants are also derivationally related to instrument names, e.g.: gnybtukas ‘a device by which the pollen masses of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweed) family attach themselves to the legs of insects’, kibtukai ‘the result of leaf metamorphosis, by which a plant clings to a support; they terminate in suckers’, siurbtukas, -ai ‘outgrowths of parasitic plants that absorb nutrients from the cells of the host plant’, skristukas ‘an appendage of a seed or fruit that serves for flight, i.e. dispersal with the help of the wind’.

Derivatives of this type are formed from the infinitives of primary transitive verbs, e.g.: liestukas STŽ (: lies-ti), nuleistukas SŽ (: nuleis-ti), spaustukas ChŽ, STŽ (: spausti). In word formation, there is a tendency not to rely on prefixed verbs. The three derivatives of prefixed verbs (įjungtukas MŽ, išjungtukas MŽ, nuleistukas SŽ) may be regarded as exceptions to the pattern.

-er

The word-formation type for instrument names with the suffix -tas is inactive in terminology, although by number of derivatives it ranks fourth (13 distinct derivatives). It names implements or simple devices (made and used without complexity), e.g.: gaubtas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, gnybtas STŽ, plaktas ‘large hammer’ MŽ, GŽ, raktas STŽ, svertas SŽ.

Transitive verbs, mostly primary ones, participate in forming these derivatives. Only raktas STŽ, užraktas STŽ, SŽ ir žibintas SŽ are associated with secondary verbs. The infinitive is taken as the base form, cf.: apsiaustas GŽ (: apsiaus-ti), grįstai MŽ (: gris-ti), spąstai STŽ (: spęs-ti). A pair of derivatives are based on prefixed

verbs (apsiaustas, užrak tas). In the formation of a few derivatives, root-vowel alternation is involved, e.g.: grąžtas GŽ (: gręžti), spąstai STŽ (: spęsti), sraigtas FŽ, MŽ, STŽ (: sriegti), varžtas MŽ, STŽ, SŽ (: veržti). These derivatives match the root vowels of the iterative counterparts of the indicated verbs (gražyti, sraigyti, varžyti).

-alas

Although words with the suffix -alas are also used quite frequently in the literary language, few names of tools have been formed with it. Terms formed with this suffix (12 different derivatives) primarily denote various covering devices, e.g.: apdangalas MŽ, SŽ, apvalkalas GŽ, STŽ, užvalkalas STŽ, SŽ. From the perspective of word formation, botanical terms also count as names of tools: apdangalas ‘the covering of an ovule, from which its coat develops as the seed develops (<...)’, apvalkalas ‘1. a soft, usually white layer of mycelium completely enveloping the young developing fruiting body of some Basidiomycetes; 2. the layer covering the sporangium of some representatives of Lepidodendrales’. Other derivatives with this suffix denote various chemical compounds (substances) used as means of carrying out the action expressed by the base verb, e.g.: degalai ChŽ, MŽ, dulk alai ‘powdered chemical substances used to dust plants against pathogens or pests’ BŽ, ryškalas ChŽ, tepalas ChŽ, GŽ, SŽ.

The base verbs of derivatives of this type are transitive and mostly primary. The names of chemical substances are derivationally related to non-prefixed verbs, while the names of covering devices are related to prefixed verbs (they also feature root-vowel alternation). The suffix does not participate in the derivation of secondary verbs; compare: ryškalas ChŽ (: ryškinti), žib alas ChŽ (: žibinti).

Other suffixes

Names of tools have also been formed with 21 other suffixes. All of these are rare in terminology, although new terms are formed with some of them. Altogether, the dictionaries examined contain 66 derivatives with these suffixes, or about 22% of all the names of tools listed.

-eklis: tear-off tool GŽ, grain crusher ChŽ, cable MŽ, tack MŽ, marker SŽ.

-enas: wheel⁷ GŽ, MŽ.

-ikas: tow truck MŽ, SŽ.

-ilas: spatula GŽ.

-yklė: catching device ChŽ, STŽ, throwing device SŽ, pointer FŽ, STŽ, SŽ, scales ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, SŽ, jumping device SŽ.

-klas: dek las SŽ, ginklas SŽ, įdek las STŽ, irklas SŽ, padėklas STŽ, paminklas LŽ, turėklai SŽ. From the word-formation perspective, the botanical term irklai ‘the two lateral petals of the papilionaceous corolla, resembling the oars of a boat’ is also a name of a tool, but it is used figuratively in terminology.

-klė: ketoklė SŽ, matuoklė MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, sūpuoklės SŽ, svyruoklė FŽ, važiuoklė MŽ.

-klis: alsuoklis SŽ, matuoklis STŽ, skaičiuoklis STŽ, trenir uoklis SŽ.

-las: siūlas STŽ.

-lė: replės STŽ, terkšlė SŽ, veržlė STŽ, SŽ, žnyplės GŽ.

-lys: hook GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, pickaxe GŽ, “a tool for breaking hard or frozen ground, ice, etc.; a pick” MŽ, steering oar GŽ, pump ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, sprenglys GŽ.

⁷Pr. Skardžius associates it with velti (‘to felt’) in “Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryboje,” p. 229.

-oklis: riboklis STŽ, piston FŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-onas: binoculars FŽ, SŽ.

-stas: raft SŽ.

-stis: prop GŽ, support MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, weight ChŽ, FŽ, SŽ, bandage SŽ, spindle SŽ.

-štas: scoop SŽ.

-ta: strip FŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-tė: waistband SŽ, measuring tape SŽ, ruler STŽ.

-tis: cover STŽ, SŽ, pin MŽ, STŽ, kyštis STŽ, pack saddle FŽ, clasp SŽ, latch STŽ, spengtis MŽ. Derivatives are masculine (first declension) or feminine (third declension).

-tuvė: fruit-ripening vessel “a vessel for ripening fruit <…>” ChŽ, container SŽ, drinking bottle SŽ, mortar ChŽ, rinsing vessel GŽ, scoop SŽ, tipper MŽ.

-urys: lighthouse SŽ.

The derivatives of most of these suffixes are names for various implements and simple devices (sometimes also their parts). In their derivational tendencies, they do not substantially differ from more productive types.

Incorrect use of the suffixes -tojas and -ėjas

These suffixes are usually used to form names of agents and, much less frequently, names of bearers of verbal properties. However, there are some derivatives that approach instrument names in meaning or simply name instruments, for example: spinduliuotojas FŽ, nešėjas FŽ. Names of substances used to produce various effects may also be considered names of means, for example: lėtintojas “a substance that slows a process” ChŽ, FŽ, minkštintojas “a substance that causes softening” ChŽ, nusodintojas “a reagent used for precipitation” ChŽ, pagreitintojas “a substance that accelerates a reaction” ChŽ, putintojai ChŽ, paralýžiuotojas “a substance that stops enzyme activity” ChŽ; perkėlėjas “a substance that transfers atoms or groups from one compound to another” ChŽ, sugerėjas ChŽ, and so on. More terms formed in this way are used in various publications, and they are also used in spoken language. They are all translations of corresponding terms from other languages, and their formation does not conform to Lithuanian word-formation norms. Moreover, this use of derivatives with the suffixes -tojas and -ėjas does not meet the requirements of terminology either. Therefore, this use of the suffixes -tojas and -ėjas cannot be recommended for term formation. Lithuanian is rich in suffixes, so it should not be difficult to use other suffixes in the cases mentioned (for example, names of substances intended for a particular action are often formed with the suffix -alas).

NAMES OF AGENTS AND POSSESSORS OF VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS

The meanings of derivatives in this word-formation group are not entirely uniform. Names of agents are more common in terminology; these are derivatives denoting the performers (usually persons) of actions expressed by their base verbs. Other derivatives describe persons, other living beings, or things, indicating that they are characterized by a property arising from a particular action or state, for example: patikėtinis TŽ, rašeiva LŽ, ropliai GŽ, raliuotinė LŽ. In Lithuanian linguistics, V. Urbutis⁸ distinguished such derivatives from genuine agent names.

⁸ See V. Urbutis, Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos galūnių darybos daiktavardžiai, „Kalbotyra“, III, Vilnius, 1961, p. 36.

The formation of names of agents and bearers of verbal properties in terminology is not especially varied. Most derivatives (about 60% of the total of 248) are formed with the two most productive suffixes -tojas, -a and -ėjas, -a, of which -tojas, -a is almost twice as frequent. The other somewhat more frequently used suffixes are -tinis, -ė and -ovas, -ė (about 15% of the derivatives). More than half of the word-formation types (15 of 27) have only 1–2 derivatives each.

In literary language, the formation of names of bearers of verbal properties is much more varied. A considerable number of derivatives have a negative or derogatory meaning. This way of naming persons is particularly well developed. Such word-formation types are, one might say, uncharacteristic of terminology. For example, the second most productive type in literary language, with the suffix -ėlis, -ė, whose derivatives most often have a derogatory meaning, is represented in the term dictionaries examined by just one botanical term, išlikelis, “a plant species that has survived to the present in the flora of a particular area, having had a much wider range or having been more widespread in that area in past eras.”

-tojas, -a

This is the most productive type in the formation of names of agents and bearers of verbal properties (almost two-fifths of all derivatives in this group). Most derivatives name persons who perform the action denoted by the base verb. The relationship of persons to the action varies. Some derivatives name persons according to an action associated with their permanent duties or occupation, for example: algoritmuotojas STŽ, braižytojas STŽ, brokuotojas EŽ, dėstytojas SŽ, gamintojas EŽ, kalkuliuotojas EŽ, koduotojas STŽ, normuotojas EŽ, planuotojas EŽ, STŽ, projektuotojas EŽ, STŽ, rašytojas LŽ, tardytojas TŽ, vairuotojas SŽ. Other derivatives name persons according to a particular status, usually unrelated to work or duties and arising from the performance of a particular action on a permanent or temporary basis, and sometimes even on a single occasion, for example: dovanotojas TŽ, grobstytojas EŽ, TŽ, įdukrintojas TŽ, įgaliotojas EŽ, TŽ, išvnytojas TŽ, įvaikintojas TŽ, kovotojas SŽ, liudytojas TŽ, mokėtojas EŽ, TŽ, nuomotojas EŽ, TŽ, nugalėtojas SŽ, pasakotojas LŽ, skaitytojas LŽ, skolintojas EŽ, TŽ, tarnautojas EŽ, TŽ, vartotojas EŽ, STŽ. Only a few derivatives closer to names of bearers of verbal properties are used, for example: gyventojas EŽ, TŽ, paveldėtojas TŽ, turėtojas EŽ, TŽ. Very rarely, derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a name non-persons, for example: atrajotojai (Ruminantia) GŽ, dulkintojas “a carrier of pollen from a flower (insects, wind, water)” BŽ. Sometimes this suffix is incorrectly used to form names of instruments and derivatives with a similar meaning.⁹

The base verbs of all the terms examined are secondary or mixed, that is, they have suffixes in the infinitive. The verb form involved in word formation is the infinitive, and in this case the stems of the base words of the derivatives coincide in all cases with the morphological infinitive stems. It should be noted that verbs bearing clear affixes from earlier stages of derivation are also used as base words. As a result, some derivatives have a considerable chain of word-formation affixes, for example: ir-ti: ir-klas: (ir-kl)-uo-ti: (ir-kl)-uo|-tojas SŽ, vert-ė: pri-vert-ė: (prie-vart)-a: (prie-vart)-au-ti: (prie-vart)-au|-tojas TŽ, lyg-us: (lyg-in)-ti: iš-(lyg-in)-ti: iš-(lyg-in)|-tojas STŽ.

⁹ This is discussed in greater detail in the section “Names of instruments.”

Derivatives of this type are most often formed from transitive verbs, but when necessary intransitive verbs are also used (slightly more than a tenth of the derivatives), e.g.: fechtuotojas ŠŽ, lupikautojas EŽ, TŽ, piktnaudžiautojas TŽ, sklandytojas ŠŽ, stažuotojas ŠŽ, TŽ.

The base verbs of approximately a quarter of the derivatives have prefixes, e.g.: aprūpintojas EŽ, atstatytojas STŽ, įkainotojas EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, įkaltintojas TŽ, išeikvotojas EŽ, TŽ, išieškotojas TŽ, nemokėtojas EŽ, perrašinėtojas LŽ, pristatytojas EŽ, sudarytojas LŽ, STŽ, užsakytojas EŽ, užstatytojas TŽ. In certain cases, it is necessary to use prefixed verbs. This is especially true when prefixed verbs have acquired a new lexical meaning, e.g.: įgaliotojas EŽ, TŽ (: įgalioti), išnaudotojas EŽ, TŽ (: išnaudoti “to exploit”), nugalėtojas ŠŽ, pavaduotojas TŽ. However, where there is no such need, prefixed verbs should be used more cautiously. This is most clearly demonstrated by the practice of forming derivatives with the suffixes -tojas, -a in both folk and literary language, and ultimately in terminology itself. For when a person copies, imitates, writes, or reads, they also copy, imitate, write, or read, yet are nevertheless called kopijuotoju LŽ, mėgdžiotoju ŠŽ, rašytoju LŽ, and skaitytoju LŽ. There are terms that would be entirely clear and precise even without prefixes, e.g.: aprūpintojas EŽ (= rūpintojas), (iš)eikvotojas EŽ (cf. eikvotojas TŽ), įvertintojas EŽ (cf. vertintojas LŽ), (iš)lygintojas STŽ, pristatytojas “доставщик” EŽ, and so on.

-ėjas, -a

Derivatives with this suffix have exactly the same meaning as those with the previously discussed suffix -tojas, -a. Nearly all the derivatives are true agent nouns. People are named both according to their permanent occupation, activity, or position and according to an action performed for a shorter or longer period (the action may also be performed just once). E.g.: draudėjas EŽ, TŽ, engėjas TŽ, grėžėjas GŽ, MŽ, iškundėjas TŽ, kūrėjas LŽ, lošėjas STŽ, padėjėjas TŽ, pardavėjas EŽ, TŽ, patarėjas EŽ, LŽ, TŽ, pervežėjas TŽ, pirkėjas EŽ, TŽ, puolėjas ŠŽ, rinkėjas LŽ, TŽ, skelbėjas LŽ, slėpėjas TŽ, steigėjas EŽ, TŽ, teisėjas STŽ, ŠŽ, TŽ, tiekėjas EŽ, TŽ, vedėjas EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, veikėjas LŽ, žaidėjas STŽ, ŠŽ. At most, the term mėgėjas (amateur) can be considered a name for a bearer of a verbal property: the athlete it denotes does not perform an action but merely has a property arising from an action. Some terms are more appropriately regarded as names of instruments. These are irregular derivatives.

Derivatives are formed from simple verbs (the possible exception being globėjas TŽ). The suffixes -tojas, -a and -ėjas, -a have the same function; they differ essentially only in their base verbs. Only together can they cover the full diversity of verbs. The base verbs are most often transitive, with a few derivatives as exceptions, e.g.: čiuožėjas ŠŽ, kenkėjas TŽ. The past frequentative tense is used as the basis for derivation, as these examples clearly show: dėjėjas ŠŽ (: dėjo, dėti, deda), gavėjas EŽ, STŽ (: gavo, gauti, gauna), gynėjas ŠŽ, TŽ (: gynė, ginti, gina), išdavėjas EŽ (: išdavė, išduoti, išduoda), įgijėjas TŽ (: įgijo, įgyti, įgyja), leidėjas LŽ (: leido, leisti, leidžia), priėmėjas EŽ, STŽ (: priėmė, priimti, priima), skundėjas TŽ (: skundė, skųsti, skundžia).

In nearly half of the derivatives, the base verbs are prefixed. In many cases, prefixed verbs must be used because they have different lexical-

meanings, e.g.: įgijėjas TŽ, padėjėjas TŽ, pardavėjas EŽ, TŽ, pareiškėjas EŽ, TŽ, pranėšėjas TŽ. Sometimes a prefixed verb describes the action of the person being named more precisely, e.g.: perėmėjas STŽ, TŽ, perteikėjas STŽ. In some cases, this gives rise to groups of terms sharing the same root, e.g.: išdavėjas EŽ, padavėjas EŽ, pardavėjas EŽ, TŽ; pirkėjas EŽ, TŽ, išpirkėjas EŽ, supirkėjas EŽ. However, using a prefixed verb is not always necessary. For example, the terms pasėkėjas LŽ and pažaidėjas TŽ have been established in usage from prefixed verbs, although derivatives from the corresponding unprefixed verbs would have meant the same thing. It is entirely inappropriate for dictionaries to list variant terms such as (su)rinkėjas EŽ. The choice of a prefixed or unprefixed verb for forming a term must be justified in every respect.

-tinis, -ė

Only names for bearers of verbal properties are formed with the suffix -tinis, -ė. Most (almost two thirds) of the terms presented in the dictionaries examined are names of various inanimate things. The remaining derivatives name people. People and other things are most often designated according to properties they possess that arise from an action performed on them by another agent, an action expressed by the base verb. Thus, derivatives of this type name bearers of properties resulting from an action received from an external source. E.g.: a) atleistinis EŽ, globotinis TŽ, įgaliotinis EŽ, TŽ, išlaikytinis EŽ, TŽ, ištuoktinis TŽ, patikėtinis TŽ, sutuoktinis, -ė TŽ; b) atmintinė LŽ, gaubtinė STŽ, išvestinė STŽ, išklotinė GŽ, STŽ, kreiptinė STŽ, raliuotinė LŽ, rinktinė LŽ, SŽ, skeltinė “a detached piece of skin without a face” ChŽ. Names of inanimate things are always of one grammatical gender. The meaning of only a few derivatives stems from actions characteristic of the things themselves, e.g.: gaubtinė STŽ.

Derivatives are formed from verbs of various structures, but most often (in two thirds of cases) they are based on simple verbs. Names of people tend more often to be formed from secondary and mixed verbs, while names of inanimate things are more often formed from simple verbs. The base verbs of a few derivatives are intransitive, e.g.: atsim estiniai EŽ, TŽ, griaustinis FŽ, GŽ, išvyktinis EŽ.

The meaning described above (designation not according to an action performed by the person or thing being named) links derivatives with the suffix -tinis, -ė to passive participles. Indeed, more than a few derivatives of this type are likely to have originated from past passive participles, e.g.: apgyvendintinis TŽ, įgaliotinis EŽ, TŽ, rinktinė LŽ, SŽ, skeltinė ChŽ, sutuoktinis TŽ. In that case, they would have to be considered derivatives with the suffix -inis, -ė. On the other hand, however, some derivatives have no clear semantic connection with those participles, and in some cases there is no such connection at all, e.g.: atmintinė LŽ, griaustinis FŽ, GŽ, išvyktinis EŽ. In meaning, the terms globotinis TŽ and išlaikytinis EŽ, TŽ are more closely related to present passive participles. Taking this into account, it is most convenient and, apparently, most accurate to consider all such derivatives as formed from the infinitive with the suffix -tinis, -ė, since only this form makes it possible to relate all of them derivationally. The botanical term veltinys, denoting “a mass of long, matted hairs on the surface of a plant leaf,” is close to names for the results of actions and may be terminologized from an ordinary word.

-ovas, -ė

Few derivative terms of this type are included in terminology dictionaries. Derivatives most often name persons who perform actions denoted by the base verbs, e.g.: atsakovas TŽ, ieškovas TŽ, užsakovas TŽ, vadovas EŽ, STŽ, SŽ, valdovas TŽ, varovas SŽ, varžovas SŽ, žiūrovas SŽ. These are names of agents. Several derivatives serve as names for bearers of a verbal characteristic; among them, one denotes a person (žinovas TŽ), while the others denote inanimate things, e.g.: palydovas “impurities of other minerals present in a mineral” ChŽ, palydovai (of chromosomes) “small bodies that take up nuclear stains and are attached by a thin filament to the end of a chromosome” BŽ, vadovas “путеводитель; справочник” LŽ, valdovė “ферзь” SŽ.

Apparently, there is a greater tendency to form derivatives from mixed verbs, although they are also formed from other kinds. Verbal suffixes are not carried over into the derivatives. Most derivatives are based on non-prefixed verbs.

The derivation of rangovas EŽ, TŽ is distinctive. This term should apparently be associated with the noun ranga “3. carrying out some work to order” DŽ 650.

Other suffixes

Fewer than 10 derivatives are formed with each of the remaining 23 suffixes, and the greater part of them (15) are distinguished in only 1–2 terms. In all, 62 derivatives belong to these derivational types (25% of all derivatives in the group of names of agents and bearers of a verbal characteristic).

-alas: perfume ChŽ.

-čius: honeydew “sugary (sweet) excretions, released in the form of smaller or larger droplets on the surface of plants, e.g., droplets of liquid that appear on cereal ears attacked by ergot” BŽ.

-eiva: rašėiva LŽ.

-throat: throat GŽ.

-enė: verdenė GŽ. This derivative can also be considered a place name.

-whirl: whirl GŽ, MŽ, SŽ.

-ling: survivor BŽ.

-er: Names persons, e.g.: runner SŽ, insurer TŽ, walker SŽ, swimmer SŽ, collector TŽ, other creatures, e.g.: rodents (Bodentia) GŽ, SŽ, hound SŽ, and inanimate things (certain chemical substances), e.g.: deceiver “shiny mineral” ChŽ (for dictionary usage, the term glitter is considered better for this purpose), drumstikai ChŽ.

-er: indicator FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-ee: messenger TŽ, subordinate TŽ (not recommended for use), hireling EŽ, subject TŽ; skater MŽ, SŽ. Names persons and occasionally other things.

-kliai: horses (Equidae) GŽ, sharks (Selachii) GŽ. It should be noted that, as names of certain taxonomic units, these are not newly formed words, but are used in the plural (also in Russian terminology, e.g.: лошади, окуни). In Lithuanian terminology, derivatives with the suffix -iniai are more customary for this purpose (see the section on names of possessors of verbal characteristics).

-lys: merchant EŽ, rifleman SŽ, guide SŽ; reptiles (Reptilia) GŽ; jet “fountain” MŽ, waterfall “a place where water suddenly falls downward” MŽ, GŽ.

-na: cherškšna GŽ.

-okliai: nomads EŽ.

-snys: factor BŽ, EŽ, STŽ.

-šna: lipšna GŽ.

-tys: sponges (Porifera, Spongia) GŽ.

-ulys: ray ChŽ, protrusion MŽ, cone GŽ, boulder GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, circle SŽ, sphere GŽ, SŽ, disc STŽ, SŽ, ray FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-ūnas: lakūnas SŽ, skraidūnas TŽ; augūnas “a plant obtained by vegetative propagation (by layering, cuttings, or offshoots)” BŽ, perėjūnai “plants introduced from elsewhere that have not become established permanently in a given territory, appearing by chance in some localities for a time and then disappearing again” BŽ.

-uoklė: spring STŽ.

-uolis, -ė: bubble BŽ, fallen fruit “a fruit that has not reached the degree of ripeness required for picking, or is ripe, and has detached itself from the fruit spur” BŽ, flyer SŽ, mammals (Mammalia) GŽ.

-uonis(-ys): pressurant GŽ, oxygen ChŽ, GŽ, SŽ, carnivores (Carnivora) GŽ.

-utis, -ė: jellyfish ChŽ, “gurgučiai” ChŽ, bracket SŽ, brackets STŽ, residue ChŽ, whirligig SŽ, mica ChŽ, GŽ, STŽ, rattle SŽ.

Most derivatives formed with these suffixes are names for bearers of verbal characteristics. Names of agents have also been formed, but only with the suffixes -ikas, -lys, -ūnas. Some of the derivatives with the suffixes mentioned here are taken from non-terminological vocabulary. This is apparently true of derivatives with the suffixes -alas, -etas, -kliai, partly -ulys, and some others. In particular cases, the formation of derivatives is no longer entirely clear.

NAMES OF ACTION RESULTS

This derivational group comprises terms whose derivational meaning is the designation of the consequence or object of an action expressed by the base verb. Relatively few such suffixed derivatives occur in terminology dictionaries—224 in all. The derivatives are formed with 48 suffixes, but most of these are used to form only one or a few derivatives each. The most widespread suffix here is -inys (about one-third of the derivatives); the other somewhat more frequent suffixes are -alas, -muo (-menys), -tis. These four suffixes form three-fifths of all the terms belonging to this group.

-inys

More than a third of the names of action results are formed with the suffix -inys. Most derivatives of this type have the meaning of an action result, that is, they name various concrete things that are the consequences of actions expressed by the base verbs. For example: auginys “a part of a stem or root prepared for planting—this is a means of vegetative propagation based on a plant’s ability to regenerate” BŽ, gręžinys GŽ, “a deep hole of circular cross-section made with earth-drilling tools” MŽ, grindinys SŽ, “a road or street paved with stones” MŽ, junginys STŽ, SŽ, “a set of identical molecules” ChŽ, karšinys “a semi-finished product discharged by a carding machine; a web of carded, loosely interlocking fibres, oriented mainly lengthwise” ATŽ, kasinys EŽ, GŽ, “an excavated cavity at the earth’s surface or underground passages (corridors)” MŽ, rentinys “1. a well lining; 2. a stone-filled crib—a structural element for river-control installations” MŽ, skiedinys GŽ, “a mixture of binding material with sand and water” ChŽ, skiepinys “grafted parts of two plants, one of which is to grow roots and the other an above-ground part, e.g., grafted scions of blackcurrant and gooseberry” BŽ, telkinys “a site where mineral resources have accumulated” ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, tvenkinys GŽ, “an artificial body of water formed by damming a river or another watercourse” MŽ.

Only a small proportion of the derivatives have a clearer meaning as the object of an action, e.g.: atėminys STŽ, ieškinys EŽ, TŽ, siuntinys EŽ, šovinys SŽ, taikinys STŽ, SŽ. Some derivatives have both an action-result and an action-object meaning, e.g.: klojinys “a pile of fibre formed by stacking layers so that various components of fibrous materials recur at specified intervals, intended for making a spinning blend” ATŽ, “1. something with which something is lined (e.g., board lining); 2. a formwork structure for placing concrete in a building” MŽ, GŽ.

Derivatives of this type are most often formed from primary verbs. However, a substantial proportion (more than a third) are derivationally related to mixed or secondary verbs, e.g.: bandinys ChŽ, MŽ (: bandyti, bando, bandė), darinys ChŽ, GŽ, STŽ (: daryti, daro, darė), ieškinys EŽ, TŽ (: ieškoti, ieško, ieškojo), lydinys ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ (: lydyti, lydo, lydė), rašinys LŽ (: rašyti, rašo, rašė), sakinys LŽ, STŽ (: sakyti, sako, sakė), statinys EŽ, GŽ, MŽ (: statyti, stato, statė), turinys EŽ, LŽ, STŽ (: turėti, turi, turėjo); derinys MŽ, STŽ, SŽ (: derinti, derino, derino), gaminys EŽ, STŽ (: gaminti, gamina, gamino), ked(inys) ATŽ (: kedenti, kedena, kedeno), klijiniai ATŽ (: klijuoti, klijuoja, klijavo), skiep(iny)s BŽ (: skiepyti, skiepija, skiepijo), skolinys LŽ (: skolinti, skolina, skolino).

The base stems are based on the past-tense form of verbs, e.g.: atėminys STŽ (: atėmė, atimti, atima), davinys EŽ, SŽ (: davė, duoti, duoda), kėlinys SŽ (: kėlė, kelti, kelia), kliuvinys GŽ (: kliuvo, kliūti, kliūva), krovinys EŽ, TŽ (: krovė, krauti, krauna), kūrinys LŽ (: kūrė, kurti, kuria), puvinys BŽ (: puvo, pūti, pūva), radinys TŽ (: rado, rasti, randa), svėrinys ATŽ, ChŽ (: svėrė, sverti, sveria), uždavinys EŽ, STŽ, SŽ (: uždavė, užduoti, užduoda). Verbal suffixes in the base words do not carry over into the base stem, cf.: gludinys GŽ (: glud-ino), ieškinys EŽ, TŽ (: iešk-ojo), klijiniai ATŽ (: klij-avo), mūrinys MŽ (: mūr-ijo, and so on.

The base verbs of derivatives of this type are most often transitive. Only a few derivatives are based on intransitive verbs, e.g.: auginys BŽ, ieškinys EŽ, TŽ, mišinys ATŽ, ChŽ, priklausinys TŽ. Derivatives whose base stems contain prefixes are also rare, e.g.: atėminys STŽ, įdėjinys STŽ, įrenginys ChŽ, EŽ, FŽ, MŽ, STŽ, padariniai EŽ, perdenginys MŽ, perdirbinys EŽ, priklausinys TŽ, sumet(inys) MŽ, uždavinys EŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-muo (-menys)

Most derivatives with this suffix are clear names for the object of an action, e.g.: armuo “a layer of earth that is turned over during ploughing” MŽ, metmenys “strong yarn or thread of increased twist; the longitudinal system of threads in a fabric” ATŽ, nešmenys “solid particles carried by flowing water that form sediment layers in riverbeds or on floodplains” MŽ, riedmenys EŽ, sprogmenys “explosive substance” GŽ, šaudmenys EŽ, SŽ, tirpmenys “the soluble part of a mixture” ChŽ. In other derivatives, the meaning of the result of an action is more prominent, e.g.: dalm(uo) (on a scale) ChŽ, STŽ, duomenys EŽ, STŽ, kaitmenys “the weight of a material after heating to constant weight” ChŽ. A few derivatives are closer in meaning to other derivational groups, e.g.: gręžmenys “drilling tools” GŽ, svarmuo SŽ is closer to names of tools, pradmuo TŽ—to verbal abstracts, kaitmuo (synonyms galūnė, fleksija) STŽ—to names of bearers of verbal properties.

Base verbs are more often simple, but derivatives are also formed from mixed and secondary verbs, e.g.: dalmuo ChŽ, STŽ (: dalyti, dalija, dalijo), kaitmuo STŽ (: kaityti, kaito, kaitė), matmuo FŽ, STŽ (: matuoti, matuoja, matavo), reikmenys EŽ, STŽ (: reikėti, reikia, reikėjo), šaudmenys EŽ, SŽ (: šaudyti, šaudo, šaudė). Derivatives from intransitive verbs are also found, e.g.: reikmenys EŽ, STŽ, sprogmenys TŽ, tirpmenys ChŽ.

Most derivatives can readily be related derivationally to the infinitive, e.g.: dėmuo STŽ (: dėti, deda, dėjo), duomenys EŽ, STŽ (: duoti, duoda, davė), žiomuo GŽ (: žioti, žioja, žiojo), but there are also derivatives with a past-tense stem, e.g.: metmenys ATŽ (: metė, mesti, meta), spaudmenys STŽ (: spaudė, spausti, spaudžia). Secondary suffixes of verbs are not carried over into derivatives; cf.: dalmuo (: dal-yti), reikmenys (: reik-ėti), skaitmuo STŽ (: skait-yti).

It is quite uncharacteristic of this type of derivative to be formed from prefixed verbs. The only prefixed derivative is netirpmenys “insoluble parts of a mixture” ChŽ, but it too can sometimes be formed with a prefix (the opposite of tirpmenys).

-alas

Almost five times fewer terms have been formed with the suffix -alas than with the suffix -inys. Slightly more than half of the derivatives are names for the result of an action, e.g.: gemalas “the rudiment of a new plant organism in a seed, consisting of a radicle and a bud” BŽ, guralas GŽ, “weathering products” MŽ, lydalas STŽ, “a fused, liquid mass” ChŽ, tirpalas “a body of liquid consistency, composed of a solvent and fine, invisible particles of another body dispersed in it” BŽ, ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, verpalai “product in the form of thread from spinning machines, made from limited-length fibrous materials—wool, cotton, flax, etc.” ATŽ. For other derivatives, the meaning of a name for the object of an action is somewhat more characteristic, e.g.: pakaitalas ChŽ, STŽ, skaitalas LŽ, smilkalas ChŽ. A few derivatives are close to other derivational groups, e.g.: augalas BŽ, MŽ can also be considered a name for a bearer of a verbal property, masalas SŽ—a name for a tool, reikalas EŽ, GŽ, STŽ—a verbal abstract.

Simple verbs most often serve as the base words for derivatives of this type; mixed verbs occur less often (e.g.: lydalas, reikalas, skaitalas). Only one derivative, masalas, is derivationally related to a secondary verb. The past tense is taken as the derivational base, e.g.: pabėralas SŽ (: pabėrė, paberti, paberia). Secondary verbal suffixes present in the base forms are not carried over into derivatives; cf.: reikalas (: reik-ėjo). Base verbs are more often transitive; about one in four derivatives has a prefixed base stem, e.g.: pabėralas SŽ, pakaitalas ChŽ, STŽ, užbėralas SŽ, užminkalas SŽ. Vowel gradation in the root is characteristic only of the derivative pakaitalas (: pakeitė).

-tis

Derivatives with the suffix -tis (there are 11 of them) most often name the result of an action and only sometimes can be understood as names of the object of an action. In terms of derivation, they are related to the infinitive of primary transitive verbs, e.g.: užduotis EŽ

(: užduoti, užduoda, uždavė), užgrūtis GŽ (: užgrūti, užgrūva, užgruvo). The base verbs may be prefixed or unprefixed, e.g.: atremtis SŽ, nutartis TŽ, sutartis TŽ, užgrobti GŽ and jungtis ChŽ, STŽ, keltis SŽ, skilts BŽ, EŽ, STŽ.

Other suffixes

Names of the result (and object) of an action have also been formed with 44 suffixes (92 derivatives in total). Most of these suffixes (34) have only 1–2 derivatives each. All these suffixes play a minor role in terminology. Their derivational tendencies do not essentially differ from those of the derivational types: prefixed base stems are rarely combined with these suffixes either, and the base forms are the infinitive or the past simple tense. Secondary or mixed verbs participate in derivation much less often than primary verbs, and their verbal suffixes are not carried over into the derivatives.

-ana: residue EŽ, GŽ, STŽ, interest EŽ, TŽ.

-da: deposit EŽ.

-das: deposit ChŽ, GŽ.

-eklis: spindle GŽ.

-ena(-os): decay ChŽ, fossil(-s) BŽ, ChŽ, EŽ, GŽ, humus GŽ, MŽ.

-ėsiai: smoke GŽ, MŽ, fireplace coals ChŽ.

-ikis: catch SŽ.

-iklis: indicator EŽ, FŽ, GŽ, SŽ.

-yklas: malt kiln BŽ.

-yklė: rule EŽ, SŽ, STŽ, TŽ.

-kla: seed BŽ.

-klas: cover TSŽ.

-klė: tribute EŽ, riddle LŽ.

-lė: jet FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, TSŽ, shaving MŽ, sludge ChŽ, GŽ, boreholes GŽ, proverb LŽ, seam BŽ, SŽ.

-lis: contribution EŽ, TSŽ, TŽ, resources EŽ, loss(es) EŽ, FŽ, TSŽ, TŽ, scaffolding MŽ, SŽ, increment BŽ, appendix EŽ, TSŽ. Possibly, the word ūglis “a stem or twig that has grown during one year, together with its leaves” BŽ also belongs to this type.

-lius: harvest BŽ, EŽ, surplus EŽ.

-ma: non-acceptance TŽ (may also be considered a verbal abstract noun).

-mena(-os): consumables (-a) EŽ, MŽ, TŽ, fraction TSŽ.

-mė: consequence TSŽ, SŽ, TŽ, preface LŽ, duty TŽ, need BŽ, legend LŽ, spring GŽ, MŽ.

-nis: hump FŽ, GŽ.

-slė: riddle LŽ.

-snis: law BŽ, GŽ, TŽ, workpiece ChŽ, degree EŽ, TSŽ, SŽ, fathom EŽ, layer BŽ, EŽ, FŽ, TSŽ, interval BŽ, step SŽ. The derivatives pliūpsnis ChŽ and šoksnis SŽ may also be considered names of actions.

-stas: stump BŽ, GŽ, MŽ, bend MŽ.

-stė: fold ATŽ. Possibly this derivative would be more accurately associated with a frequentative verb, in which case it would be a derivative with the ending -ė.

-šlė: wrinkle ATŽ, GŽ, MŽ.

-šnis: mushroom puff SŽ.

-ta: burden EŽ.

-tas: food EŽ, bedding MŽ, writing EŽ, LŽ, TŽ, parentheses STŽ, wedge MŽ, property (-ai) EŽ, TŽ, mashings ChŽ. Derivatives clip FŽ, SŽ and trap SŽ may also be considered names of tools.

-tė: bedding BŽ, GŽ, MŽ.

-tinė: summary EŽ, STŽ.

-tinys: felted fabric MŽ.

-tulas: vytulas “a soft, easily deformable, cylindrical hollow package of yarn and thread without any tube or spool, removed from centrifugal spinning spindles” ATŽ.

-tuvė: stacking area MŽ.

-tva: drill ŠŽ.

-tvis: rėžtvis “rėž...” GŽ.

-ula: fiber BŽ, STŽ.

-ulas: bubble FŽ, gniutulas ATŽ, EŽ, GŽ, gniužulas BŽ.

-ulys: embers BŽ, protrusion STŽ, krėšulys ChŽ, precipitation FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, vytulys “a plant disease usually caused by fungi or bacteria that block the water-conducting pathways” BŽ.

-uolys: kernel BŽ, ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, MŽ, STŽ.

-(i)uotė: grouping GŽ, gluing ŠŽ, sorting ŠŽ. Given that all derivatives with this suffix are derivationally related to verbs with the suffix -(i)uo-, the suffix -tė, rather than -(i)uotė, could be distinguished here.

-uras: bud BŽ.

-urys: hollow GŽ, MŽ, ŠŽ.

-utas: tar BŽ.

-utis: residue EŽ, STŽ, pinučiai MŽ.

Some names for the result of an action and for objects were not coined specifically for terminological purposes. This applies to almost all derivatives with the suffixes -ana, -lė, -mė, -stas, -stė, -ulas, -urys, etc. Some derivatives formed with other suffixes have also been borrowed from the vernacular.

It should be noted that suffixal derivation tends to be based more on verbs without prefixes. The derivation of forms with the suffix -tis differs somewhat from this general tendency. Consequently, some derivatives from prefixed verbs, such as netirpmenys, are formed in a very unusual way.

PLACE NAMES

There are few terms in terminological dictionaries for place names formed from verbs with suffixes. However, some word-formation types are quite productive both in the standard language and in terminology. Apparently, it is not the limited use of place names in the language of science and technology, but some other factors that prevent their inclusion in specialized dictionaries.

Verb-derived formations of this group name places according to the action performed there or the process taking place there, e.g.: daigykla “a room where seeds are germinated” BŽ, maudykla “a bathing place equipped with certain facilities” MŽ. Derivatives of this and other types are very suitable for naming various production facilities and premises intended for other purposes.

Place names are also formed from nouns and adjectives. They are discussed separately.

-ykla

This is the most productive type of formation for verb-derived place names. The derivatives name places of various kinds according to the characteristic actions that take place or are performed there, e.g.: audykla EŽ, džiovykla ChŽ, gamykla EŽ, STŽ, ganykla MŽ, girdykla MŽ, kasyklos EŽ, GŽ, kepykla EŽ, mokykla EŽ, LŽ, SŽ, plauk ykla SŽ, saugykla EŽ, siurbykla GŽ, MŽ, stebykla GŽ, šaudy kla SŽ, talpykla “a place for keeping or storing” MŽ, valg ykla EŽ.

3. Lietuvių terminologija

The base verbs of most derivatives are transitive; a few derivatives are exceptions, e.g.: čiuožykla SŽ, plauk ykla SŽ, stovykla EŽ, SŽ. Derivatives are formed from verbs of various structures, e.g.: kasyklos (: kasti, kasa, kasė), maudykla (: maudytis, maudosi, maudėsi), stebykla (: stebėti, stebi, stebėjo), talpykla (: talpinti, talpina, talpino). Prefixal verbs are never used as a basis. The derivatives take the stem of the past simple tense, as shown, for example, by audykla EŽ (: audė, austi, audžia), leidykla LŽ (: leido, leisti, leidžia), siuvykla EŽ (: siuvo, siūti, siuva). Secondary verb suffixes are not carried over into the derivatives, cf.: daigykla BŽ (: daig-ino), gamykla EŽ, STŽ (: gam-ino), saugykla EŽ (: saug-ojo), stebykla GŽ (: steb-ėjo), but suffixes that do not lengthen the verb form are retained in the derivatives, e.g.: girdykla MŽ (: gir-dė, cf. ger-ti), šaudykla SŽ (: šau-dė, cf. šau-ti).

Of all derivatives of this type, sausykla ‘a device used to test the drought resistance of cultivated plants under field conditions. It is a shelter framework made of wood, covered with tarpaulin when it rains’ BŽ is less transparent in its formation.

Other suffixes

Dictionaries list place names derived from verbs with a further 10 suffixes. However, each of these has only one or a few derivatives (there are somewhat more derivatives only with the suffix -tuvė).

-einė: habitat SŽ, TŽ.

-imys: beach GŽ, MŽ.

-ynas: au gynas ‘an area where plants are grown for the purpose of developing new varieties’ BŽ.

-klė: daboklė TŽ.

-lis: sandėlis EŽ.

-ta: brasta GŽ, MŽ, SŽ.

-tas: vartas EŽ. The formation of this derivative is obscure.

-tinė: nature reserve SŽ.

-tinis: reservoir LŽ.

-tuvė: container STŽ, workshop EŽ, MŽ, shop EŽ, store EŽ, print shop STŽ.

A derivative close in meaning to place names is žiotys ‘an opening leading into the tube of a corolla or calyx’ BŽ.

NOMINAL DERIVATIVES

NAMES OF PROPERTIES

The group of formations denoting properties, or abstract nouns, includes derivatives that name detached properties of specific things in reality, areas of human activity, and the like. Derivatives are formed from inflected words, primarily adjectives, much less often nouns and participles, and only individual derivatives are formed from numerals and pronouns. Derivatives from uninflected words (usually adverbs) are also very rare.

There are quite a lot of terms belonging by derivation to the group of names of properties—the number of derivatives exceeds that of all the major groups of names with specific meanings taken separately by three to four times (for example, names of tools, action results-

and the like). However, there are roughly three times as many names of actions. From this it is easy to understand that suffixal derivation plays an especially important role in forming derivatives with abstract meanings in terminology.

The derivation of names of properties is not distinguished by a great variety of derivational types. Derivatives are formed with only 18 suffixes (834 derivatives in total). The type with the highly productive suffix -umas stands out. 83.7% of all names of properties are formed with this suffix. Of the remaining suffixes, -ybė and -ystė are also worth mentioning; together, they form almost seven times fewer derivatives than the suffix -umas. The other suffixes are rarely used in term formation.

-umas

Derivatives with the suffix -umas name a generalized, detached property, attribute, or state deriving from the meaning of the base word, e.g.: aukštaūgiškumas “a change in the nature of plants manifested in unusually tall stature” BŽ, dažumas “the property of a fibrous material to draw dyes from their solution, bond with them, and take on the corresponding color” ATŽ, galingumas “the capacity of a machine to perform a certain amount of work in a given time” MŽ, imlumas “the ability to become filled with something and retain it” MŽ, jautrumas “the indication of small changes in concentration or small quantities” ChŽ, kapiliarumas “the physical phenomenon in which a liquid rises above or falls below its level at the walls of a vessel or in narrow tubes” MŽ, klampumas “the property of a liquid whereby, as one layer moves, it drags or shapes another layer; explained by friction between particles” MŽ, lakumas “tendency to evaporate or sublime” ChŽ, ligotumas “degree of illness” BŽ, našumas “the quantity of output produced by a production unit per unit of time” ChŽ, ortotropiškumas “1. growth straight upward; 2. presence of orthotropic organs in a plant” BŽ, pelkėtumas “the ratio of the area of marshes to the total area of a territory” MŽ, pleiskanotumas “a defect in wool fiber, yarn, or wool products; the presence of flakes in wool or wool fabric; products with this defect appear grayish and dirty” ATŽ, pūkuotumas “a property of napped or pile fabric; a surface covering consisting of upright or turned fibers raised from the fabric by a napping machine, or formed by cutting special pile warp or weft threads” ATŽ, radioaktyvumas “spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei” ChŽ, rūdingumas “richness in ore” ChŽ, rūgštingumas “the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, e.g., the acidity of a nutrient medium, cell sap, or soil; acidity is expressed by pH values” BŽ, “the amount of active acid” ChŽ, “a property of a substance (water, soil) that depends on the amount of hydrogen ions it contains” MŽ, sidabriškumas “similarity of color to the color of Ag” ChŽ, skalbumas “the property of fabric whereby it releases dirt into water or washing solution during laundering; fabrics made of synthetic fibers are more washable than those made of natural fibers” ATŽ, tamprumas “the property of a material to regain its original shape and dimensions after the force causing deformation has been removed” ATŽ, “the property of a body to return to its original shape once the force causing deformation ceases to act” MŽ, žalumas “a defect in viscose staple fiber or silk; a greenish tint caused by incomplete decomposition of cellulose xanthate” ATŽ.

Certain differences in meaning are also determined by the nature of the base words; for example, in derivatives with participial base stems, the abstract meaning is connected with the action expressed by the base word. E.g.: brinkstamumas “tendency to swell” ChŽ,

deformability “tendency to deform” ChŽ, covering capacity “the ability of paint or metal to form a durable coating” ChŽ, evaporability “limiting evaporation” MŽ, variability “the emergence of new characteristics or properties in organisms. Variability is caused by crossbreeding, grafting, and transferring a plant to entirely new living conditions < … >” BŽ, thinkability “tendency to think” ChŽ, repeatability “repetition” MŽ, permeability “the passage of water from the wet side of the skin to the dry side” ChŽ, passability “the possibility of passing or driving through” MŽ, adaptability “the property of organisms of actively and independently responding to the influence of external conditions through greater or lesser reorganization of the organism, and thereby adapting to new environmental conditions” BŽ, decomposability “tendency to decompose” ChŽ, sublimability “tendency to sublime” ChŽ, flammability “tendency to catch fire” ChŽ; turbidity “amount of suspended matter per unit volume of liquid” MŽ, crimp “the curling of a wool fiber into a curve resembling a sinusoid, characterizing the fineness of wool; the finer the wool, the smaller and more frequent the crimp; crimp also refers to the spiral twisting of a cotton fiber” ATŽ.

More than three quarters of the derivatives have adjectival base stems, which themselves are not uniform in structure—they may be underived or derived¹⁰. Nearly all the remaining derivatives are derivationally related to participles. Only a few derivatives are formed from numerals and nouns. The distribution of derivatives according to their base words is shown in Table III (see the following page).

The table shows that more than three quarters (77.1%) of the derivatives formed from adjectives are derivationally related to polysyllabic adjectives. There is a particularly strong tendency to use adjectives with the suffixes -iškas, -a and -ingas, -a. Incidentally, these polysyllabic adjectives with suffixes are most often formed from nouns. For it is unusual to form names of properties directly from nouns with the suffix -umas (there are only a few such derivatives in terminology); thus, an adjective serves as an intermediate link between the noun and the corresponding -umas derivative. In many cases, for example, adjectives with the suffix -iškas, -a arise precisely because the corresponding names of properties are needed. This is quite apparent when -iškas, -a derivatives are based on compound adjectives. Since there is little inclination to form -umas derivatives directly from indeclinable compound adjectives, here too an intermediate link—a adjective with the suffix -iškas, -a—usually emerges, e.g.: daugiareikšmišk-umas STŽ, ilgaamžišk-umas EŽ (cf. ilgaamžystė EŽ), įvairiavaišišk-umas BŽ, lygiavertišk-umas STŽ, vienarūšišk-umas EŽ, žemaičių-umas BŽ.

The disyllabic derived adjectives and the polysyllabic adjectives formed with endings serving as bases are themselves derivationally related to verbs (in all, nearly one fifth of all the adjectives considered here). Property names derived from such adjectives denote properties or characteristics arising from a tendency or ability to perform particular actions, or from association with particular processes. Verbal adjectives alone apparently cannot fully meet the need to name properties arising from actions or processes. As a result, many property names are derived from participles.

¹⁰ In determining which adjectives are derived and which are underived, greater weight is given to the contemporary (synchronic) perspective than in A. Valeckienė’s description of adjective formation (see Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, p. 550 ff.). For example, words such as apvalus, keblus, stiprus are not derivationally associated with apvelti, kibti, stipti and are therefore not considered derived.

III lentelė

Base words | Number of derivatives in dictionaries | ATŽ | BŽ | ChŽ | EŽ | FŽ | GŽ | LŽ | MŽ | STŽ | SŽ | TŽ | Total distinct derivatives Base adjectives 1) disyllabic adjectives a) underived, | 6 | – | 8 | 10 | 10 | 13 | – | 5 | 5 | 21 | 7 | 50 b) among them, international | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | (1) b) derived, with suffixes and endings | 18 | 7 | 24 | 12 | 15 | 17 | – | 14 | 5 | 19 | 5 | 72 total | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 122 2) polysyllabic adjectives a) derivatives with the suffix -iškas | 1 | 20 | 19 | 29 | 3 | 9 | 29 | 5 | 33 | 2 | 17 | 154 b) derivatives with the suffix -ingas | 3 | 5 | 34 | 37 | 7 | 20 | 4 | 12 | 19 | 4 | 13 | 110 c) derivatives with the suffixes -uotas, -otas, -ėtas, -ytas, -imas, -inis (-ės) | 11 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 19 | – | 7 | 2 | – | 5 | 40 d) compounds and prefixed forms (ne-) | 1 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 1 | – | 1 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 32 e) derivatives with endings and non-assimilated forms, | 1 | 10 | 13 | 23 | 12 | 11 | 3 | 9 | 27 | – | 13 | 76 among them, international, | – | 6 | 11 | 11 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 15 | – | 9 | (47) total | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 412 Total distinct derivatives from adjectives | | | | | | | | | | | | 534 Base participles active present-tense participles | – | 3 | 22 | 15 | 3 | 17 | – | 7 | 44 | 3 | 18 | 110 passive past-tense participles | 1 | – | 1 | 14 | 4 | 2 | – | 1 | 8 | 3 | 7 | 34 necessity participles | – | – | – | 6 | 6 | – | – | – | 2 | 1 | 8 | 15 total | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 159 Other base words numerals | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | 1 | – | 1 | 2 nouns | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 3 Total derivatives with the suffix -umas | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | 698

Derivatives of this type are formed from gradable adjectives. Property names derived from non-gradable adjectives are rare exceptions, e.g.: artutinumas FŽ, niekinumas TŽ, sąlyginumas TŽ, tolyginumas EŽ, visuotinumas EŽ. A particularly unusual and derivationally distinct derivative is vyresnumas STŽ. There is neither purpose nor need to increase the number of such exceptions in terminology. When standardizing terminology in the relevant fields and preparing new terminological dictionaries, it would also be useful to abandon these terms currently in use.

Derivatives with the suffix -umas reveal a considerable tendency in terminology to draw on international words. Hybrids derived from adjectives with the suffix -umas make up somewhat more than one third (189 distinct derivatives out of 534, or 35%). There are particularly many hybrids among base adjectives with the suffix -iškas, -a (90 out of 154 distinct derivatives, or 58%).

More than one fifth of derivatives of this type are based on participles. Most are formed from passive present-tense participles. Derivatives are less often formed from passive past-tense participles, and comparatively few are derived from necessity participles. In most derivatives, the meaning of action time has faded considerably or is no longer perceived at all. Base participles have often already become adjectival; for example, some are gradable, e.g.: matomas (: matomumas GŽ, SŽ), pakankamas (: pakankamumas STŽ), paperkamas (: paperkamumas TŽ), pataisomas (: pataisomumas STŽ), praeinamas (: praeinamumas MŽ), priklausomas (: priklausomumas EŽ, TŽ), suprantamas (: suprantamumas STŽ), motyvuotas (: motyvuotumas TŽ), pagrįstas (: pagrįstumas STŽ, TŽ), raižytas (: raižytumas SŽ), rangytas (: rangytumas ATŽ), suinteresuotas (: suinteresuotumas EŽ, TŽ), treniruotas (: treniruotumas SŽ), užimtas (: užimtumas EŽ). Adverbs with -ai are derived from some such participles and are in use. These are very clear signs of the adjectivization of participles. However, property names are also formed from participles that cannot yet be regarded as adjectivized (their only possible sign of adjectivization would be the formation of abstract nouns from them, but that is not a valid basis in this case). Some derivatives with the suffix -umas, associated with necessity participles, can readily be explained otherwise as well, e.g.: atsitiktinumas STŽ, TŽ, priverstinumas TŽ, sutartinumas SŽ were most likely formed not from necessity participles but from adjectives (atsitiktinis, priverstinis, sutartinis). This type of formation is incorrect.

It is interesting to note that the Russian equivalents of approximately two thirds of the derivatives formed from participles are also derived from the corresponding tense participles. This shows that Russian terminology encourages the formation of Lithuanian terms from participles. There are also terms translated morpheme by morpheme, e.g.: išmirkstamumas — намокаемость ChŽ, nuginčijamumas — оспоримость TŽ, pasikartojamumas “repetition” — повторяемость GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, pritaikomumas — применимость STŽ, TŽ, sutankinamumas — уплотняемость GŽ, MŽ, sužadinamumas — возбудимость, возбуждаемость ChŽ, užsiliepsnojamumas — воспламеняемость ChŽ; prilip-tumas — прилиплость GŽ.

Only isolated derivatives are formed from other kinds of words. For example, the only forms derived from numerals are pirmumas STŽ, TŽ and vienumas LŽ, while those derived from nouns are atodangumas GŽ, invalidumas EŽ, TŽ and pamainumas EŽ.

-ystė

The suffix -ystė forms the second most productive type of formation of names of properties, but its derivatives are represented in terminological dictionaries 11 times less often than those of the most frequent suffix -umas type. Most derivatives are terms from the social sciences (economics, literature, and law).

Almost one third of the derivatives of this type serve as names of fields of science or other activity, or of the occupation of persons denoted by the corresponding base word, e.g.: amatininkystė EŽ, LŽ, avininkystė EŽ, bankininkystė EŽ, daržininkystė EŽ, dažininkystė ChŽ, dumblininkystė BŽ, durpininkystė MŽ, fermerytė EŽ, gyvulininkystė EŽ, laivininkystė EŽ, TŽ, medvilnininkystė EŽ, miškininkystė MŽ, piev ininkystė MŽ, sodininkystė BŽ, šilkininkystė EŽ, verslininkystė EŽ, žemdirbystė EŽ, žuvininkystė EŽ, MŽ. Related in meaning to these are derivatives of this type that denote the nature of a person’s occupation, e.g.: antrapareigystė EŽ, keliapareigystė EŽ, kišenvagystė TŽ, kyšininkystė TŽ, kustarininkystė “home production” EŽ, novatorystė EŽ, nuomininkystė EŽ, pusininkystė EŽ, streiklaužystė EŽ, vagystė TŽ. Most of these derivatives are formed from names of persons containing the suffix -ininkas. A few derivatives are names for various economic currents and types of social relations, e.g.: bajorystė EŽ, bevaldystė TŽ, dvivaldystė TŽ, friteraderystė EŽ, grunderystė EŽ, įpėdinystė TŽ, kontrahentystė EŽ, patvaldystė TŽ, pilnavaldystė TŽ, vergvaldystė EŽ, vienvaldystė EŽ, TŽ, visavaldystė EŽ.

The remaining derivatives name various personal qualities or, even more often, a condition or status. These qualities also follow directly from the descriptive name of the person serving as the base word, e.g.: autorystė LŽ, TŽ, bendraautorystė LŽ, TŽ, bendr are daktory stė LŽ, bėžemystė (lack of land) EŽ, brokd arystė EŽ, daugiažemystė EŽ, daugpatystė TŽ, dvipatystė TŽ, giminystė TŽ, ilgaamžystė EŽ, mažametystė EŽ, TŽ, nauj akurystė EŽ, narystė TŽ, nepilnametystė TŽ, svainystė TŽ, tėvystė TŽ, tolregystė FŽ, trumparegystė EŽ, vaikžudystė TŽ.

All the terms are derived from nouns. Almost all the base nouns are names of persons. Names of fields of science and corresponding occupations are generally formed from occupational designations (most often they have the suffix -ininkas). At times, however, it is difficult to tell whether such a personal designation actually exists (e.g.: dumblininkas “a researcher or caretaker, cultivator of algae,” cf. dumblininkystė “the care of natural algae deposits or their cultivation for food, medicine, etc., practiced in some coastal regions” BŽ), or whether, by analogy with other similar derivatives, the compound suffix -inin-kystė is attached directly. The only term formed from a non-person designation is prabystė GŽ.

-ybė

In terms of the number of derivatives used in terminology, this is the third suffix after -umas and -ystė (41 derivatives). Most derivatives with the suffix -ybė are terms from economics, law, and literature. The fact that most derivatives are used in the terminology of the social sciences indicates that the qualities they name are associated with phenomena of social life.

Derivatives of this type denote qualities or a particular state or status, much like derivatives with the suffix -umas. However, the qualities named by derivatives in -ybė tend to be somewhat more intense and concrete, and often also carry a sense of belonging to someone or something. As a result, some derivatives of this type have acquired a wholly concrete meaning and can also designate things possessing the corresponding quality, e.g.: atstovybė EŽ, TŽ, nuosavybė EŽ, LŽ, TŽ, vadovybė EŽ, TŽ, vyresnybė TŽ, vyriausybė TŽ.

Derivatives with the suffix -ybė are formed from nouns, adjectives, and participles. A few words are derived from numerals, pronouns, and adverbs.

Denominal derivatives are also formed from names of persons, e.g.: asmenybė LŽ, atstovybė EŽ, TŽ, piktadarybė TŽ, pilietybė TŽ, vadovybė EŽ, TŽ, valdininkybė TŽ, and from other nouns (most often with abstract meanings), e.g.: aplinkybės LŽ, STŽ, aplinkybė TŽ, gerybė EŽ, kiekybė STŽ, pareigybė TŽ, savivaldybė EŽ, tautybė TŽ, valstybė EŽ, TŽ.

The adjectives serving as bases for derivatives with the suffix -ybė are usually gradable. E.g.: individualybė LŽ, ypatybė STŽ, lygybė EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, nelygybė EŽ, STŽ, TŽ, tapatybė STŽ, TŽ, teisybė STŽ, vertybė EŽ, TŽ, visagalybė EŽ. Also noteworthy for their suffixal formation are the legal terms bevaldininkybė and dv valdinybė. These are incorrectly formed derivatives and should not be used as models for creating further malformed forms.

The base words of about one fifth of the derivatives are participles. Almost all these names of properties are formed from present passive participles, e.g.: atsakomybė EŽ, TŽ, atskaitomybė EŽ, TŽ, galimybė STŽ, kilnojamybė (movable property) EŽ, neliečiamybė TŽ, nepriklausomybė EŽ, TŽ, priklausomybė EŽ, FŽ, STŽ, TŽ, tikimybė EŽ, MŽ, STŽ. Only būtinybė EŽ is derived from a necessitative participle. The derivation of skirtybė STŽ is less transparent; it may be derived from a past passive participle. The participles themselves have become adjectival to a greater or lesser extent.

The derivatives daugybė STŽ, kokybė ATŽ, EŽ, STŽ, savybė BŽ, EŽ, STŽ, SŽ, and vienybė TŽ have different base stems.

Other suffixes

With the 15 remaining suffixes, only one or a few names of properties have been formed, so their role in terminology is limited. In most of these types, the base words are adjectives, but derivatives with -yba, -urys, and some other suffixes are based on nouns. A few derivatives are derivationally related to numerals or pronouns. Altogether, 34 derivatives have been formed with these suffixes.

-ata: lengvata EŽ, TŽ, visata FŽ.

-ness: dryness MŽ, old age EŽ, TŽ.

-ness: preference EŽ, STŽ, SŽ, TŽ.

-iava: lygiava EŽ.

-yba: kalnakasyba EŽ, GŽ, laivyba EŽ, SŽ, TŽ, rašvedyba TŽ, sargyba TŽ, sąskait yba EŽ, STŽ, TŽ.

-ija: verгija EŽ.

-les: scabs “a plant disease in which the affected surface of fruits or tubers resembles scabbed skin” BŽ.

-mė: sausmė “drought, dry spell” MŽ.

-muo: lygmuo GŽ, MŽ, pradmuo EŽ, purmuo “friable rock; marl” MŽ, GŽ, skersmuo GŽ.

-ovė: bendrovė TŽ, gerovė EŽ, įvairovė STŽ, vergovė EŽ, vienovė LŽ.

-ra: sausra GŽ, MŽ.

-sė: spragsė “a defect in printed fabric; a dark spot with a light stripe through the middle, printed at the place on the printing roller where the doctor blade, bent by a hard particle that had accidentally become lodged there, failed to scrape off the ink” ATŽ. It seems that, in terms of derivation, this derivative is related to the noun spraga.

-uliai: juoduliai “a disease caused by the genus Rhytisma and other fungi” BŽ.

-uma: majority STŽ, TŽ, length SŽ, smallness TŽ, width SŽ, slipperiness MŽ, coolness GŽ, totality EŽ, STŽ.

-urys: vidurys SŽ.

The separate types of abstract nouns differ considerably in their derivational tendencies from the derivation of folk words, and therefore there are fewer terms here that were not specially coined but taken from non-terminological vocabulary. Such forms may, of course, occur among derivatives with all suffixes; this applies especially to derivatives of non-productive types -atis, -mė, -ra, -urys and some others.

NAMES OF HOLDERS OF PROPERTY CHARACTERISTICS AND PROFESSIONAL PERSONAL DESIGNATIONS

This derivational group consists of derivatives that designate persons according to their occupation or some other characteristic derived from a nominal base. Some derivatives serve as names for other animate and inanimate entities, whose nominal base expresses a feature characteristic of them. In current research on Lithuanian word formation, the derivatives examined here are customarily divided into two derivational groups: names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic and occupational designations¹¹. However, it seems preferable to treat both types of derivative as members of a single derivational group. They are closely connected by a common derivational structure (the nature of their base words and derivational affixes) and a common derivational meaning—a designation based on a characteristic feature (occupation, or activity, is also, after all, like a characteristic attribute of a person). Moreover, all occupational designations are derivatives of a single word-formation type in the literary language (the suffix -ininkas, -ė). The same suffix also forms the most productive word-formation type of names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic in the literary language. Often, the same derivative can designate both a person who regularly engages in a particular job or activity and someone who works at it incidentally or temporarily. Part of the derivatives of the most productive types of agent nouns and names of persons possessing a verbal characteristic exhibit the same kinds of differences in meaning. For this reason, this study examines occupational designations and names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic as a single derivational group. The derivatives in this group can be divided semantically as follows: 1) designations of persons by occupation, 2) other designations of persons, 3) names of animals, 4) names of inanimate entities (objects). As is customary in Lithuanian word formation, designations based on origin and affiliation, as well as place names, are not included here among names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic, although in their general semantic character they are not particularly distant from the group under examination.

¹¹ This is the classification used in V. Urbutis’s works. See Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, pp. 340 and 406.

This group includes 323 derivatives found in terminological dictionaries, formed with 46 suffixes. However, only 3 suffixal word-formation types are notably productive. These are the suffixes -ininkas, -ė, -inis, -ė, -ainis, -ė. Two thirds of all names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic and occupational designations are formed with these suffixes. The suffix -ininkas, -ė has the largest number of derivatives (about 40% of all the derivatives in this group).

-ininkas, -ė

Derivatives with this suffix form two semantic groups—designations of persons by occupation and other names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic.

Most of the derivatives are designations of persons by occupation, e.g.: amatininkas EŽ, apybraižininkas LŽ, apsakymininkas LŽ, brigadininkas EŽ, bujerininkas SŽ, dailininkas, -ė LŽ, darbininkas EŽ, GŽ, TŽ, desantininkas SŽ, didmenininkas EŽ, diskininkas SŽ, finansininkas EŽ, grandininkas EŽ, imtynininkas SŽ, įrankininkas EŽ, krepšininkas SŽ, kronikininkas LŽ, maratonininkas SŽ, muitininkas EŽ, parašiutininkas SŽ, pasakininkas LŽ, perforatorininkas EŽ, prekybininkas EŽ, prozininkas LŽ, remontininkas MŽ, rutulininkas SŽ, sandėlininkas EŽ, slalomininkas SŽ, slidininkas SŽ, startininkas SŽ, statybininkas EŽ, stendininkas SŽ, svarstininkas STŽ, šachtininkas GŽ, šuolininkas SŽ, tabelininkas MŽ, tinklininkas SŽ, verslininkas EŽ.

The base words of occupational designations most often denote the object or product of the occupation, e.g.: augalininkas BŽ, boksininkas SŽ, futbolininkas SŽ, geonutraukininkas GŽ, geodezininkas MŽ, metraštininkas LŽ, sąskaitininkas EŽ, TŽ, teisininkas TŽ, vairininkas STŽ, SŽ. Less often, the base word denotes the place of work, e.g.: kasininkas EŽ, krautuvininkas EŽ, sandėlininkas EŽ, šachtininkas GŽ, vartininkas SŽ, or the nature of the occupation, e.g.: antraeilininkas EŽ, namudininkas EŽ, TŽ, pamainininkas EŽ, pusininkas EŽ, savaitininkas EŽ, vienetininkas EŽ, TŽ.

About a third of the derivatives are other names of persons possessing a nominal characteristic. Here too, most are designations of persons, but derivatives in this group generally do not indicate a person’s occupation; rather, they usually denote possession of something, affiliation with something, association with something, a propensity for something, and other such characteristics, e.g.: akcininkas EŽ, TŽ, artelininkas EŽ, bankininkas EŽ, baudžiauninkas EŽ, baudžiavininkas EŽ, bendrininkas TŽ, bendruomenininkas EŽ, biržininkas EŽ, bylininkas TŽ, činšininkas EŽ, TŽ, čyžininkas EŽ, dalininkas EŽ, dešimtininkas EŽ, duoklininkas EŽ, dvarininkas EŽ, įmonininkas EŽ, indėlininkas EŽ, TŽ, kaltininkas TŽ, kyšininkas TŽ, koncesininkas EŽ, TŽ, kontrabandininkas EŽ, kooperatininkas EŽ, lažininkas EŽ, nepriemokininkas EŽ, TŽ, nuomininkas EŽ, TŽ, pajininkas TŽ, pavienininkas EŽ, TŽ, pensininkas EŽ, TŽ, pravaikštininkas EŽ, TŽ, priešininkas TŽ, privatininkas EŽ, TŽ, prizininkas SŽ, rekordininkas SŽ, rentininkas EŽ, sąjungininkas TŽ, savininkas EŽ, TŽ, skolininkas EŽ, TŽ, smurtininkas TŽ, streikininkas EŽ, šeimininkas EŽ, tarpininkas EŽ, TŽ, viršininkas EŽ, STŽ, TŽ.

Only a few derivatives designate various objects, e.g.: laidininkas FŽ, STŽ, pažodinininkas LŽ, pėstininkas SŽ (chess, figurative meaning), posmininkas “a strong twisted or doubled thread that crosswise ties a parallel bundle of linen yarn into 10 posms, or a bundle of cotton yarn into 7 posms” ATŽ.

Most often, derivatives of this type are formed from nouns, but a few derivatives are based on adjectives, numerals, and pronouns, e.g.: bendrininkas TŽ, nelaidininkas FŽ, pavienininkas EŽ, TŽ, pažodinininkas LŽ, pėstininkas ŠŽ, privatininkas EŽ, TŽ; dešimtininkas EŽ, pirmiininkas ŠŽ, TŽ; savininkas EŽ, TŽ.

The base stems are more often identical to the roots of the base words, cf.: darbininkas EŽ, TŽ, matininkas MŽ, pievininkas MŽ, yrininkas ŠŽ, viršininkas EŽ, STŽ, TŽ. However, the stems of a considerable proportion of derivatives have prefixes or suffixes, and some are even compounds, e.g.: apžvalgininkas LŽ, pasakėtininkas LŽ, pernuomininkas TŽ, posėdininkas TŽ, pramonininkas EŽ, superlaidininkas FŽ; baudžiavininkas EŽ, krautuvininkas EŽ, lenktynininkas ŠŽ, statybininkas EŽ, vienetininkas EŽ, TŽ; dviratininkas ŠŽ, kirtavietininkas GŽ, laikraštininkas LŽ, tausosakininkas LŽ and so on.

Derivatives with the suffix -ininkas, -ė are most often based on purely Lithuanian words, but the suffix can easily be attached to international or otherwise foreign-origin words as well, cf.: barjerininkas ŠŽ, eksportininkas EŽ, frachtininkas EŽ, TŽ, importininkas EŽ, kalambūrininkas LŽ, spiningininkas ŠŽ and so on. In derivation, the ending -ija of the base word is dropped, e.g.: akcininkas EŽ, TŽ (: akc-ija), geodezininkas MŽ (: geodez-ija), koncesininkas EŽ, TŽ (: konces-ija), pensininkas EŽ, TŽ (: pens-ija), cf. also kooperatininkas EŽ (: kooperac-ija, kooperat-yvas).

Occasionally, derivatives have a shorter variant of the suffix -inkas, e.g.: šulininkai (of a mine) GŽ, or -ninkas, e.g.: baudžiauninkas EŽ. However, neologisms are generally formed with the full suffix variant -ininkas, cf.: didmenininkas EŽ, įmonininkas EŽ, lenktynininkas ŠŽ, pamainininkas EŽ, pavienininkas EŽ, TŽ, pramonininkas EŽ and so on.

Dictionaries of terms hardly provide any feminine derivatives, but this does not mean that only masculine derivatives are used in science and other fields. Thus, this practice in terminology dictionaries does not reflect the actual situation in the language. It is worth seriously questioning whether, in the future, it is appropriate to give terms only in the masculine gender in such cases.

-inis (-iai), -ė

Most derivatives of this type are masculine, and the majority are names used in the classification of various animals and plants. In terminology, all such derivatives are plural, and all those selected for this study were taken from V. Gudelis’s “Dictionary of Geology and Physical Geography Terms.” These are mainly paleontological terms. For example: apgaubtiniai (Tunicata), liežuvėliniai (Ligulatae), nuovaliniai, placentiniai (Eutheria), spyniniai (Articulata), stuomeniniai (Cormophyta), žiūželiniai (Flagellatae). Nouns are most often used as the base words for these terms. They denote either a more characteristic representative of the group, e.g.: arkiniai (Equidae), kiauliniai (Suina), pataisiniai (Lepidophyta); a more characteristic body part, e.g.: sterbliniai (Marsupialia), straubliniai (Proboscidea), stuburiniai (Vertebrata), šarviniai (Ostracodermi); or a familiar thing resembling a representative of that group, e.g.: gniužuliniai (Thallophyta), laivukiniai (Nautiloidea); or other characteristics, e.g.: nelygiaraumeniniai (and nelygiaraumeniai).

The base stems of nearly a third of the derivatives are of non-Lithuanian origin—various stems of international words serve as their bases, e.g.: chordiniai (Chordata), psilofitiniai (and psilofitai). A considerable proportion of such derivatives apparently have no base words used independently in Lithuanian terminology. In such cases, the derivatives are probably formed directly from the corresponding Latin terms, e.g.: anapsidiniai (Anapsida), baragvanatiniai (Baragwanathiales), benetitiniai (Bennettitales), diapsidiniai (Diapsida), euriapsidiniai (Euryapsida), kordaitiniai (Cordaitales), lepidodendriniai (Lepidodendrales), sinapsidiniai (Synapsida), terapsidiniai (Therapsida).

Among the derivatives examined, banginiai (Cetacea) stands out: although it has the same suffix, as a member of animal classification it is the plural form of the name of an individual animal. The word banginis itself is, of course, a derivative of this type.

A quarter of the derivatives of this type name various inanimate things; most are used in sports terminology, e.g.: akiniai, futboliniai, kampinis, krepšinis, rankinis, skersinis, tinklinis. Here, too, the base words of these derivatives are usually nouns. Only a few derivatives are formed from adjectives, e.g.: akuotinis “grafted wildling: a wildling with a grafted bud” BŽ, gulstinis GŽ, skersinis SŽ, šaltinis GŽ, MŽ, EŽ, FŽ, LŽ, STŽ.

Feminine derivatives name various inanimate things. Their base nouns denote a place characteristic of the thing named by the derivative, e.g.: krantinė MŽ, SŽ, kuprinėje SŽ, palapinę EŽ, SŽ, sostinę TŽ, žoninę GŽ; or the material from which it is made, or its component parts, e.g.: grandinė MŽ, GŽ, SŽ, ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, stiklinės “laboratory vessels of various sizes and glass-like shape” ChŽ; or its purpose, e.g.: dugninė “see fishing rod” SŽ, lopšinė LŽ, pirštinė SŽ, and so on.

Some derivatives used in botanical terminology serve as names for varieties of fruit trees or their fruits, e.g.: butelinės “an elongated pear with greenish-yellow or yellow skin, wholly or largely covered with dark or reddish-brown russeting <…>”, kiaušininės “plum varieties whose fruits taper markedly toward the stalk and have soft flesh”, kremzlinės “sweet-cherry varieties whose fruits have firm, dense flesh, while the seeds are colored or colorless”, muskatinės “small- or medium-sized summer or autumn pears of various, mostly elongated shapes, with a pronounced muscat aroma, e.g., September Muscat”, sviestinės (Berės) “pear varieties whose ripe fruit flesh resembles the consistency of butter”, širdinės “sweet-cherry varieties with soft fruit flesh and colored or colorless juice <…>”, taukinės “medium-sized or large pears, elongated or rounded in shape, with melting or semi-melting flesh”, vengrinės “plum varieties whose fruits are elongated, with tapered ends, firm, sugary flesh, and a flat stone with pointed ends”.

Most derivatives are formed from common nouns, e.g.: daržinė SŽ, kraštinė STŽ, rėtinė STŽ, stoginė SŽ, and so on; however, a few derivatives are based on derived nouns, e.g.: klostinė “fabric defect; an area of fabric left undivided because a fold formed (not patterned, not bleached, not singed, etc.)” ATŽ, pelėsinė “fabric defect; a gray area of fabric that has dyed poorly because the fabric being dyed lay wet for a long time and was damaged by mold” ATŽ.

Some derivatives are based on adjectives. They name various objects that have the properties expressed by the base adjectives, e.g.: gulstinė SŽ, įžambinė STŽ, palaidinė SŽ, statinė SŽ, šakotinė SŽ, nuolaidinė GŽ, skersinė GŽ. Only one term, dešimtinė EŽ, is formed from a numeral.

-ainis, -ė

This is the third derivational type, in terms of productivity, for names of bearers of a nominal characteristic, but there are 7 times fewer derivatives belonging to it than derivatives with the suffix -ininkas, -ė. The derivatives name kinds of natural materials (most often stones), e.g.: briaunainis GŽ, kriauklainis GŽ, paplokštainis GŽ, ragainis GŽ, smiltainis ChŽ, GŽ, a kind of upper layer of the earth, e.g.: šilainė MŽ, GŽ, žvirgždinė MŽ. A few derivatives serve as names in the systematics of animals and plants, e.g.: ginkainiai (Ginkgophyta) GŽ, maurabraginiai (Charophyta) GŽ, papartainiai (class Filicales) GŽ, sagainiiai (Cycadophyta) GŽ. The remaining derivatives name various concrete objects, e.g.: jėgainė EŽ, FŽ, MŽ, kampainis STŽ, SŽ, sniegalainė GŽ.

Most derivatives are formed from nouns. A quarter of the derivatives are based on adjectives, e.g.: gulstainis FŽ, įstrižainė SŽ, paplokštainis GŽ, pilkainis GŽ, skersainis GŽ.

Other suffixes

A whole set (43) of suffixes for names of bearers of a nominal characteristic forms relatively unproductive types. Only 1–2 derivatives are used with most of them (30). In total, 103 derivatives are formed with these suffixes.

-alas: baltalas ChŽ, niekalas STŽ, TŽ, riebalai BŽ, ChŽ, svambalas FŽ, MŽ, šlapalas BŽ, ChŽ, virbalas MŽ, SŽ.

-aras: žabaras GŽ, MŽ.

-eivis, -ė: oreivis SŽ. Although this suffix is not listed in works on Lithuanian word formation, it can nevertheless be identified synchronically. Only this one derivative is used in the terminology under consideration, but there are more in literary language. The derivatives belong to the group of names of persons according to occupation.

-eklis: tarpeklis GŽ.

-ena: galvena “flax fruit—a capsule” BŽ, kregždenos “leaf spotting caused by the fungus Corynespora melonis Lind” BŽ, rankena MŽ, STŽ, SŽ.

-ėčia: pasakėčia LŽ.

-iaga: material, -os BŽ, EŽ, FŽ, GŽ, LŽ, MŽ, STŽ, TŽ.

-(iau)jas: pusiauja SŽ.

-iava: raw material, -os ChŽ, EŽ.

-yba: sodyba EŽ.

-ienos: vegetable matter MŽ.

-ietis: kolkhoz member EŽ, Olympian SŽ, border guard SŽ, citizen TŽ, foreigner TŽ, peasant EŽ. A considerable proportion of derivatives of this type designate persons according to their place of origin and residence; however, derivatives such as Olympian and the like are closely related to designations for bearers of nominal characteristics.

-ikės: shorts SŽ.

-iklis: young animals SŽ, spacer GŽ, STŽ, denominator STŽ.

-ilas: ratilas (around the sun, the moon) GŽ.

-ilis: hydrogen ChŽ, GŽ, SŽ.

-imas: circumference SŽ, gluten BŽ, pulp BŽ, liquid ChŽ, thickenings ChŽ.

-ymas: protein, -ai BŽ, ChŽ, thrust ChŽ, GŽ.

-yna: shelf GŽ.

-inys: well GŽ, MŽ, valinys GŽ, žabinys MŽ, žirginys BŽ.

-iokas: average peasant (an average farmer) EŽ.

-(i)ukas: gulstinukas “a dwarf fruit tree with branches growing horizontally close to the ground <…>” BŽ, ketvertukas “a group of four chromosomes formed after two successive nuclear divisions during reductional division (meiosis)” BŽ,

lipniukas “part of the pollinarium <…> that secretes a sticky liquid, with the help of which the pollinarium attaches itself to an insect’s body” BŽ, laukinukas “a young, uncultivated fruit tree grown from seed or vegetatively <…>” BŽ, riestukas “a type of uniparous inflorescence in which branching occurs in a single plane and the branches are all oriented in the same direction—to the right or left <…>” BŽ, savaiminukas “a young tree that has grown from seed on its own, without forestry workers’ care” BŽ, sėjinukas “a young tree grown from seed that is later transplanted to a permanent location” BŽ, sėkliukas “a plant (beet, sugar beet) grown for seed while still young; it later grows into a seed plant” BŽ, sodinukas “a young tree (e.g., oak, walnut) transplanted from a nursery or grown from planted fruit” BŽ. The derivatives sėjinukas, sodinukas may also be derived from verbs. In that case, they would be derivatives with the suffix -inukas and belong to the group of names for bearers of a verbal property.

-kis: vidurkis EŽ, FŽ, STŽ.

-lys: dygliai BŽ.

-mė: kryžmė STŽ.

-mena: mažmenos EŽ, sausmena “an undrained area within a generally irrigated area <…>” MŽ.

-muo: lygmuo GŽ, MŽ, purmuo GŽ, MŽ, skaitmuo EŽ, skersmuo GŽ, STŽ.

-toed: ungulates (Ungulata) GŽ, ŠŽ.

-ojas(-us): durpojas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, filmojus “a film-forming substance” ChŽ, kaučiukojas ChŽ, sėklojas “a plant grown for seed” BŽ, uolojas GŽ.

-wetland: marshland ChŽ, peatland MŽ, ŠŽ.

-marsh: peat marsh GŽ.

-soil: turf soil EŽ, MŽ.

-orius: ūsorius ŠŽ.

-ovė: bendrovė EŽ, daržovės BŽ, rankovė STŽ, verslovė ChŽ, EŽ.

-tė: geležtė ŠŽ.

-uliai: livestock EŽ.

-umynai: cardamom groves BŽ.

-ūnas: gyvūnas GŽ, lapūnas BŽ, mišrūnas BŽ, pareigūnas EŽ, pirmūnas EŽ, TŽ, plėšrūnas ŠŽ, ristūnas ŠŽ, senūnas TŽ, skalūnas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, žymūnas ŠŽ.

-ūnė: galūnė STŽ, viršūnė BŽ, STŽ.

-uočiai: lapuočiai BŽ, spygliuočiai (Coniferae) BŽ, GŽ, spinduliuočiai GŽ, šarvuočiai (Dasypodidae) GŽ.

-uolis: aistruolis „sporto entuziastas“ ŠŽ, atsparuolis GŽ, grynuolis ChŽ, GŽ, spart[u]olis EŽ, stipruolis ŠŽ, žieduolis GŽ.

-u onys: pirmuonys (Protozoa) GŽ.

-uotė: rainuotė ŠŽ, sparnuotė STŽ, vaškuotė STŽ.

Some of the derivatives with the suffixes mentioned here are taken from non-terminological vocabulary. This applies to derivatives with the suffixes -(i)aga, -aras, -inys, -yna, -orius, and some others. These word-formation types are not productive even in standard language. However, some other types, although represented by only a few derivatives, have nevertheless also yielded neologisms; cf. derivatives with the suffixes -ilis, -očiai, -ojas(-ojus), -(i)ukas, -uočiai, etc. Some terms have a figurative meaning, e.g., “vienuolis” MŽ, which denotes a hydraulic structure for regulating the outflow of water from ponds and other bodies of water. This is clearly a semantic calque of the corresponding Russian term “монах”.

DIMINUTIVES

There are 256 diminutives in the terminology of the fields under consideration. They have nominal base stems and most often denote the same thing as their base words. However, the things named by diminutive derivatives are generally smaller than things of the same kind denoted by the base nouns. Some of the derivatives

either have no diminutive meaning at all, or that meaning at least does not emerge as the most important meaning associated with word formation. Such derivatives usually name things different from those named by their base words, and constitute so-called special-meaning diminutives. In literary language, some diminutives also carry an evaluation of the thing denoted by the base word and foreground feelings associated with it. Terminology avoids emotionality and expressiveness, so diminutives are much less widespread here than in literary language in general. This is a medium-sized group of term-formation patterns, as measured by the number of derivatives.

Most (55%) Lithuanian diminutive terms are formed with the suffix -elis, -ė. Considerably fewer (27%) terms are formed with the suffix -ėlis, -ė. In the formation of diminutives, these suffixes complement one another, since only together can they cover the full range of base nouns. Diminutive terms are most often derivatives of these nouns (more than four fifths). Among the other suffixes, -(i)ukas and -utė stand out somewhat (about 15% of all derivatives). The other four suffixes each occur in only a few derivatives included in the dictionaries examined.

-elis, -ė

Most diminutives with the suffix -elis, -ė denote the same things as their base nouns. However, the things denoted by these diminutives are smaller, or even very small. Thus, the primary meaning of diminutive terms with the suffix -elis, -ė is diminutive. For example: akštelė STŽ, SŽ, aselė GŽ, banelis SŽ, bokštelis SŽ, borteliai SŽ, dangtelis BŽ, STŽ, dirželis SŽ, duobelė SŽ, durelės STŽ, gairelė SŽ, gaubtelis STŽ, gojelis SŽ, graibštelis SŽ, grąželis BŽ, grindelės SŽ, griovelis MŽ, grotelės MŽ, STŽ, gurbėlis SŽ, juostelė STŽ, SŽ, kaištelis STŽ, kartelė SŽ, knatelis ATŽ, knygelė EŽ, kotelis BŽ, SŽ, kryželis GŽ, kuodelis ATŽ, kuokštelis ATŽ, lakšteliai BŽ, lapelis BŽ, EŽ, LŽ, STŽ, lazdelė SŽ, lentelė SŽ, mazgeliai ATŽ, mentelė ChŽ, STŽ, SŽ, miestelis EŽ, miglelė SŽ, narvelis FŽ, GŽ, plėvelė ChŽ, FŽ, MŽ, STŽ, plokštelė ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, SŽ, plutelė GŽ, MŽ, rūkelis GŽ, šamtelis SŽ, skiautelės ATŽ, skylėlės BŽ, spyg lelis BŽ, stalelis GŽ, stovelis SŽ, šaknelė BŽ, upelis GŽ, MŽ, vamzdelis FŽ, STŽ, SŽ, vėjelis SŽ, vytelė BŽ.

Other derivatives of this type serve as names for distinctive things; their semantic connection with the base words is rather remote. In this case, the meaning of the derivatives is figurative. For example: barzdelė “a tuft of hairs on a corolla or calyx” BŽ, dalelė “the usual term for an elementary and colloidal particle” ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, gardelė “the smallest crystal; the arrangement of atoms in a crystal” ChŽ, FŽ, GŽ, STŽ, kuokeliai “the microsporophylls of flowering plants (< … >, which produce pollen” BŽ, laivelis (for heating) ChŽ, laukelis SŽ (a chessboard, draughts), mastelis “the ratio of the length of a line on a map, plan, or drawing to the actual length of the place or object represented” MŽ, SŽ, STŽ, piestelė “the female part of a flower, consisting of one or more fused carpels” BŽ, porėlė “a fabric defect; a strip formed by two threads not interlaced with threads of another system” ATŽ, skarelė “a flat covering over clusters of sporangia on the leaves of many ferns” BŽ, skiepelis “a young plant propagated and grown by grafting, intended for transplanting to its permanent growing site (planting material)” BŽ, sruogelės “production waste; lengths of yarn one hundred metres long, folded into hanks using laboratory folding equipment from test bobbins or reels and having passed the specified tests for count, strength, elongation, or other laboratory tests < … >”

ATŽ, šluotelė “a conical or pyramidal inflorescence whose main axis is very elongated and produces a series of branches, which in turn branch; the smallest branches are cluster-like, e.g., oats, reed grass, lilac” BŽ, tiltelis “a connecting atom, group, vessel” ChŽ, žvynelis “a small, flat, metamorphosed leaf within an inflorescence” BŽ.

The base words of derivatives of this type are disyllabic nouns. Most such nouns denote various objects, and only a few denote animals (musė, stinta, žirgas), natural phenomena (migla, rūkas, vėjas), or abstract concepts (dalis, mastas, vaizdas).

Derivatives are usually of the same gender as their base nouns; the sole exception is upelis¹² GŽ, MŽ.

-ėlis, -ė

Derivatives with the suffix -ėlis, -ė have the same meaning as derivatives with -elis, -ė, the most productive type in this group. However, there are half as many terms derived with it.

Most derivatives have a diminutive meaning. For example: ankštarėlė BŽ, apsakymėlis LŽ, atramėlė SŽ, bertuvėlė ChŽ, ežerėliai GŽ, gaubtuvėlis BŽ, STŽ, įlankelė GŽ, kaladėlė STŽ, kilimėlis SŽ, krautuvėlė EŽ, latakėlis MŽ, mėgintuvėlis ChŽ, pagalvėlė SŽ, pakopėlė MŽ, parašiutėlis SŽ, pylimėlis MŽ, pumpurėlis BŽ, rankenėlė STŽ, SŽ, riešutėlis BŽ, ritinėlis STŽ, sėdynėlė SŽ, šepetėlis STŽ, vagonėlis GŽ, MŽ, velenėlis MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, vėliavėlė STŽ, SŽ.

Other derivatives with this suffix name various specific, distinctive things. Their semantic relationships to the base words are not direct. For this reason, they do not have a diminutive meaning, but rather what is called a special meaning. For example: akmenėlis “an alloy of lanthanides and iron, used in lighters” ChŽ, ašarėlė “a small metal ball” ChŽ, gyvatėlė (a skiing figure) SŽ, kamuolėlis “a cyme-type inflorescence whose flowers are so densely clustered that they form a ball shape” BŽ, liežuvėlis “a translucent membrane found in the leaves of grasses and sedges at the boundary between the leaf blade and the sheath” BŽ, malūnėlis (gymnastics) SŽ, obuolėlis “a small, apple-shaped fruit, e.g. rowan” BŽ, veduoklelė “a type of one-sided inflorescence in which branching occurs in a single plane and the direction of the branches alternates from side to side, e.g., vilkdalgio (Iris)” BŽ.

The nouns serving as bases for derivatives with this suffix are polysyllabic (have more than two syllables), and all have concrete meanings. The derivatives have the same grammatical gender as their base words.

-(i)ukas, -ė

Derivatives with the suffix -(i)ukas, -ė have the same meanings as formations of the more productive types already discussed. However, only one fifth as many are used for terminological purposes as derivatives of the most productive diminutive type, -elis, -ė. Slightly more than half of the derivatives have a diminutive meaning. For example: batukai SŽ, kamuoliukas SŽ, kryžiukai STŽ, ratukas STŽ, rutuliukas SŽ, skrituliukas SŽ, staliukas GŽ, STŽ, šepetukas ChŽ, šuoliukas SŽ.

¹² This derivative may be morphologically related to the dialect word upis, in which case it would not be an exception either.

The meaning of other derivatives is not directly related to their base words. They denote distinctive inanimate things. E.g.: gaidukas (of a firearm) ŠŽ, garbanukai (clouds) GŽ, gyvatukas “a coiled pipe; a spiral drill” MŽ, GŽ, ChŽ, kačiukas “a catkin, a spike of pistillate flowers, fluffy during seed dispersal, like a kitten, e.g. of willow or poplar” BŽ, startukai (light athletic shoes) ŠŽ, stepukas (Apocynum Sibiricum) “a perennial fibrous plant < … >” ATŽ, vaisiukas “a small constituent of an aggregate or multiple fruit” BŽ.

The derivatives are derivationally related both to disyllabic and to polysyllabic nouns. The base words most often denote various inanimate things, although there are also derivatives whose base nouns are names of animals or even abstract concepts. Most derivatives are of the same gender as their base words, but some derivatives differ in gender from their base nouns (e.g.: garbanukai GŽ, gyvatukas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, kačiukas BŽ, stepukas ATŽ). This is characteristic of diminutives with a specialized meaning. It is noteworthy that nearly all derivatives of this type used in terminology are masculine (the exception is one derivative, raginukė ChŽ, GŽ, though it too may be regarded as a designation for a bearer of a nominal characteristic).

Terminological dictionaries list only 28 derivatives with this suffix. According to whether the final consonant of the base stem is hard or soft, they are distributed as follows: in 14 derivatives and their base words, the final stem consonants are soft (e.g.: dvīkeliukas ŠŽ, elniukai GŽ, kapliukas ŠŽ, nuliukai STŽ, trikeliukas ŠŽ); 4 derivatives, like their base words, have a hard final stem consonant (e.g.: batukai ŠŽ, garbanukai GŽ, ratukas STŽ, startukai ŠŽ); in 7 derivatives, the final stem consonant is hard, whereas that of their base words is soft (e.g.: gaidukas ŠŽ, gyvatukas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ, rėtukas ŠŽ, skėtukas BŽ); and in 3 derivatives, the soft final stem consonant corresponds to the hard consonant in the base words (e.g.: kakliukas STŽ, kauliukas BŽ, STŽ, staliukas GŽ, STŽ). No clearer derivational tendencies can be inferred from the data presented. There is no complete regularity in the derivation of this type of derivative in the literary language either, although clearer tendencies are observable there¹³.

-utė

Derivatives of this type are even rarer in terminology—only 10 are listed in the dictionaries examined. They more often have a specialized meaning, e.g.: akutės “small cavities in a solid material” ChŽ, akutė “1. a young, developing bud in the axil of a shoot leaf, used for grafting; 2. a sunken bud on the surface of a tuber (e.g. a potato)” BŽ, (synonym taškas) STŽ, eglutė “a defect in twill fabric; a zigzag break in the ribs running lengthwise along the fabric, beyond which the ribs resume their regular direction < … >” ATŽ, galvutė “1. a racemose inflorescence < … > with a short axis, at whose tip sessile or very short-stalked flowers are densely clustered, e.g. in clover; 2. when referring to a mushroom, =cap” BŽ, šakutė “1. a rod with several (mostly equal-bristled) branches; 2. a group of contact rods for switching on electric current” MŽ, STŽ, “a tool of this kind attached to a tripod” ChŽ. Some derivatives denote the same things as their base words, but are smaller, e.g.: skylutė STŽ, šakutė “a small vegetative or fruit-bearing branch of a tree or shrub of the second or a still higher order” BŽ.

¹³ See Lithuanian Grammar, I, pp. 268–269.

4. Lietuvių terminologija

All derivatives are formed from feminine disyllabic nouns, and all are themselves feminine. In the literary language, diminutives with this suffix are also more often formed from feminine nouns¹⁴.

Other suffixes

Diminutive terms have also been formed with 4 other suffixes (8 derivatives in total), but because there are so few derivatives, these suffixes play no significant role in terminology.

-aitis, -ė: short-story diminutive LŽ, relative TŽ, little hat ChŽ, SŽ.

-ytė: ausytė SŽ.

-okšnis: shrublet BŽ, meadowlet MŽ, riverlet GŽ, MŽ.

-uška: little song LŽ.

PLACE NAMES

Place names are derived from nouns and adjectives more often than from verbs. However, relatively few denominal derivatives of this group are included in terminological dictionaries. Derivatives based morphologically on nouns and adjectives name places according to the objects found there or according to certain characteristics that distinguish the named place from others. Thus, differences in the derivational meanings of derivatives depend on the base words belonging to different parts of speech and on the different real-world entities they denote. The nature of the base words also affects other derivational tendencies.

Most denominal place names are morphologically based on nouns (68 of 99, or more than two thirds of the derivatives). Among nouns, derivatives of this group are most often formed with the suffix -ynas. Other suffixes, e.g., -inė, -ynė, -ija, are less productive. The most productive type of adjectival place names is formed with the suffix -uma.

-ynas

The suffix -ynas is used to form derivatives belonging to two derivational groups—collective names and place names. A collective sense is often also characteristic of derivatives classified as place names. After all, for example, places where there is more than one field, hill, or marsh are called aikštynu, kalvynu or pelkynu. Such derivatives denote both clusters of the relevant entities and the places where those clusters are found. Thus, essentially, both of the aforementioned derivational meanings are characteristic of these derivatives. Each individual derivative is assigned to one group or the other, taking into account its lexical meaning and which meaning is more prominent in it.

The derivatives examined here have a clearer locative meaning, and are therefore classified as place names. Places are named after the characteristic objects found in them and clusters of those objects, which distinguish a particular area—usually of the earth’s surface—from other areas that have different characteristic objects. Derivatives naming places where particular kinds of plants grow or animals are raised or kept have the same meaning. E.g.: aikštynas SŽ, brūzgynas BŽ, daigynas BŽ, drumlynas GŽ, durpynas EŽ, GŽ, MŽ, firnynas GŽ, gargždynas GŽ, MŽ, kalvynas GŽ, kalvynas GŽ, MŽ, kauburynas GŽ, kupstynas MŽ, ledynas GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, medynas BŽ, molynas ChŽ, GŽ, MŽ,

¹⁴ See Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, I, pp. 270–271.

coppices GŽ, marshland MŽ, bog MŽ, ore deposit GŽ, sandy area MŽ, berry patch BŽ, riverine area GŽ, MŽ, ocean GŽ, spring area MŽ, continent GŽ, stud farm EŽ, gravelly area GŽ, MŽ.

A small proportion of the terms name various objects that may be understood as place names, e.g.: dainynas LŽ, giesmynas LŽ, kainynas EŽ, psalmynas LŽ, talpumynas STŽ, teisynas TŽ, varžynas ChŽ, FŽ, STŽ, žinynas EŽ, STŽ, žodynas LŽ, STŽ. Somewhat unusual derivatives are ežerynas GŽ and vasarynas (in a lake, a synonym of propersą) GŽ, whose base words do not denote entities found in the derived word.

All the derivatives are formed from nouns. The base nouns are more often morphologically unanalyzable words or highly lexicalized derivatives, i.e., more or less semantically distant from the words with which they would be morphologically related. Derivatives from nouns bearing clearly identifiable affixes from various derivational levels are rare, e.g.: medelynas BŽ, sąvartynas GŽ, talpumynas STŽ. Derivatives from compound words are an exception, e.g.: rankrašt ynas LŽ.

-uma

The -uma suffixal formation type is the most productive in deriving adjective-based place names. Derivatives of this type name places according to the properties denoted by the base adjectives, which distinguish them from other places with different properties. Nearly all the derivatives are names of various landforms. For example: aukštuma GŽ, MŽ, dykuma GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, dubuma GŽ, MŽ, ilguma SŽ, iškiluma GŽ, MŽ, kalvotuma GŽ, lyguma GŽ, MŽ, nuolaiduma MŽ, nuotakuma MŽ, nuožulnuma GŽ, pakiluma GŽ, MŽ, platuma SŽ, plokštuma GŽ, MŽ, STŽ, SŽ, sausuma GŽ, MŽ, sekluma GŽ, MŽ, SŽ, slėsuma MŽ, smailuma FŽ, statuma GŽ, MŽ, šlapuma MŽ, žemuma GŽ, MŽ.

The derivatives are formed from qualitative gradable adjectives. Only the term aplinkuma STŽ is derived from a noun.

The -uma suffix is also used to form names of properties, so some derivatives can have the meaning of nominal abstract nouns. Such derivatives are ambiguous, for example: šlapuma “1. wet, rainy weather; 2. a wet place” MŽ. The terms ilguma SŽ, platuma SŽ. are also close to abstract nouns.

-inė

Place names with the -inė suffix are derived from nouns, but terminology dictionaries list half as many of these derivatives as of the most productive -ynas type. Derivatives of this type name various premises or other places where what the base noun denotes is done, produced, or stored. The base word can often also denote the purpose of the premises. For example: aparat inė STŽ, areštinė TŽ, durpinė MŽ, elektrinė FŽ, išdinė EŽ, muitinė EŽ, TŽ, siurblinė GŽ, MŽ, užkandinė EŽ. The remaining derivatives name certain objects intended for placing and storing things denoted by the base nouns. For example: parakinė SŽ, šovininė SŽ, šratinė SŽ, tepalinė SŽ, triukšlinė SŽ. Names of plant parts are also related to these derivatives, for example: dulkine “a small case at the tip of the stamen in which pollen is produced” BŽ, mezginė “the lower part of the pistil, from which the fruit develops” BŽ, nektarinė “a flower gland that secretes a sweet liquid—nectar” BŽ, sporinė “an organ shaped like a capsule, pitcher, or bladder, inside which spores form” BŽ.

The base nouns of derivatives formed with the suffix -inė have varied structures—they may be simple or derived. The botanical term mezginė BŽ is derivationally distinctive, as it is derived from a verb. This type of formation is uncharacteristic of Lithuanian.

Other suffixes

Place names derived from nouns are also formed with 7 other suffixes. All these types have low productivity in terminology (21 derivatives in total).

-idė: aukšlidė BŽ.

-ija: naujasėdija EŽ, seniūnija TŽ, tėvonija EŽ.

-ymė: kiaurymė STŽ, siaurymė GŽ, sraujymė GŽ, MŽ, stormė GŽ, MŽ.

-ynė: akmenynė GŽ, saman ynė MŽ, šlynynė MŽ, žvyr ynė MŽ; klampynė GŽ, MŽ, sausynė MŽ, slaptynė TŽ, šlapynė MŽ.

-mė: gelmė GŽ, tankmė SŽ.

-ūnė: viršūnė GŽ, SŽ.

-uva: rag uva GŽ, MŽ, sietuva GŽ, SŽ.

Derivatives with the suffixes -idė, -ija, -ūnė, -uva are formed from nouns, while those with -ymė, -mė are formed from adjectives. Derivatives with the suffix -ynė are formed from both nouns and adjectives. Derivatives of some suffixes are old words; undoubtedly, they have been taken from non-terminological vocabulary. This applies above all to derivatives with the suffixes -mė, -ūnė, -uva.

OTHER DERIVATIONAL GROUPS

Very few terms belonging to other derivational groups are included in terminology dictionaries. Of these, somewhat more derivatives belong to the collective names group. The share of derivatives with a collective meaning is close to that of place names. For example, the derivational meaning of a considerable number of derivatives with the suffix -ynas can be both collective and locative. Some derivatives with the suffix -ija can also have both meanings, e.g., seniūnija and the like. Only derivatives with suffixes that do not have a locative meaning are examined here. They denote a particular group or whole made up of persons, animals, or things referred to by the base words (noun derivatives), or a group or whole of persons possessing a certain shared characteristic (adjective derivatives).

The most productive type of collective name is -ija. Derivatives with this suffix are generally formed from nouns, e.g.: augalija BŽ, GŽ, MŽ, augmenija MŽ, bajorija EŽ, buožija EŽ, gyvūnija GŽ, lapija BŽ, pirk lija EŽ, raštija LŽ, terminija STŽ, valstietija EŽ. In meaning, bendrija BŽ, GŽ, TŽ, draugija EŽ, SŽ, TŽ, and valstija TŽ differ; moreover, bendrija is derivationally based on an adjective.

The suffix -ynas yields fewer collective names. These, too, are formed from nouns, e.g.: kuokelynas “the whole set of stamens in one flower” BŽ, lapvaisynas “an aggregate fruit composed of a greater or smaller number of one-seeded fruitlets—leaf-fruits (e.g., in the buttercup)” BŽ, nuobirynas (synonym nuobirų kūgis) GŽ, sąnašynas “loose deposits” ChŽ, “an accumulation of deposits from a river, glacier, sea, or wind” MŽ, GŽ, sąžalynas “a group of densely grown herbaceous or aquatic plants” BŽ, sluoksnynas GŽ, vaisynas “a fruit developed from the ovaries of many flowers, e.g., mulberry” BŽ, vaislapynas “the whole set of carpels in one flower, forming one or more pistils” BŽ, vamzdynas “a system of pipes for transporting water, gas,

oil, or other products” MŽ, GŽ, (synonym vamzdžių tinklas) STŽ, žiedynas “a collection of flowers concentrated on a specialized shoot or a complex of shoots that lacks true leaves and bears only bracts or floral leaves” BŽ.

Several collective names are derived with the suffix -uomenė, e.g.: bendruomenė EŽ, TŽ, prastuomenė EŽ, varguomenė EŽ, visuomenė EŽ, TŽ.

There are also few terms that derivationally belong to the names denoting origin and affiliation group.

Derivatives formed with the suffix -iena name particular materials from which the things denoted by the base noun are made, e.g.: grybiena “a network of hyphae forming the vegetative structure of fungi” BŽ, karniena “a complex tissue in higher plants through which organic substances are distributed throughout the plant ⟨ … ⟩” BŽ, ląsteliena (cellulose) ChŽ, mediena “a complex tissue that serves to distribute water throughout the plant, composed of cells with lignified walls ⟨ … ⟩” BŽ, “the woody part of a plant” ChŽ, narveliena (cellulose) ChŽ, uoliena “a natural mineral mass of a particular composition” ChŽ, MŽ. Derivationally distinct is the name for meat skeriena SŽ, which is based on a verb.

Derivatives formed with the suffix -ena are names for hides and furs. They denote the body covering material of various animals, e.g.: bulena “the hide of a young bull or heifer” ChŽ, karvena ChŽ, pūkена “the fur of fur-bearing animals” ChŽ.

Derivatives with the suffixes -ienojai and -ojai serve as names for plant stems, e.g.: bulvienojai “potato stems” BŽ, uogienojai “stems of berry plants (e.g., lingonberries, bilberries, bog bilberries)” BŽ; apynojai “hop stems” BŽ.

Names for words and expressions are formed with the suffix -ybė. The base word usually indicates the source from which the linguistic feature being named originates, e.g.: svetimybė LŽ, tarmybė LŽ, žargonybė LŽ.

CONCLUSIONS

1. In the formation of Lithuanian one-word nominal terms, the most important role is played by derivation with suffixes. More than two thirds of all derivatives included in the terminology dictionaries of law, geology and physical geography, physics, sports, land reclamation, chemistry, textiles, literature, botany, economics, and computing are derived with suffixes.

2. Terms with suffixes are more often derived from verbs. Fewer than one third of the terms examined in this study are derived from nominals (this category also includes participles, pronouns, and adverbs).

3. A characteristic feature of terminology is the abundance of abstract nouns. Action names alone make up more than half of all suffixal derivatives. The second-largest group of derivatives consists of names of properties (one sixth of all suffixal derivatives). In total, verbal and nominal abstract nouns are 2.24 times more numerous than derivatives in all the remaining derivational groups. The derivational groups are ranked by number of derivatives as follows:

1. names of actions — 2592

2. names of properties — 834

3. names of bearers of nominal properties and professional designations for persons — 323

4. names of instruments — 299

5. diminutives

— 256

6. names of agents and bearers of verbal properties

— 248

7. names of action results

— 224

8. names of places: nominal, verbal

— 99 — 36

9. collective names

— 27

10. names based on origin and affiliation

— 16

11. names of holidays and rituals

— 1

total —4955

4. All terms derived with suffixes belong to 245 word-formation types, but only 33 term-formation types have more than 10 derivatives each. These are the most productive types, also found in the formation of nouns in the standard language, for example, action names -imas / -ymas, -tis, -yba, names of properties -umas, -ybė, -ystė, names of bearers of nominal properties and persons by profession -ininkas, -ė, -inis, -ė, names of agents and bearers of verbal properties -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -a, -tinis, -ė, names of action results -inys, -alas, -muo, names of instruments -tuvas, -iklis, -tukas, diminutives -elis, -ė / -ėlis, -ė, names of places -ynas, -uma, -inė, -ykla, collective names -ija, and so on. These more frequent types account for 4,415 derivatives, or 89.1% of all the formations examined. The action-naming suffixes -imas and -ymas stand out for the especially large number of derivatives formed with them; they account for almost half of all the terms examined (48.6%). The second-largest type in terms of the number of derivatives is the formation of names of properties with -umas (14% of derivatives). Next come the diminutive suffixes -elis, -ė, -ėlis, -ė (210 derivatives in all); the suffixes for names of agents and bearers of verbal properties -tojas, -a and -ėjas, -a (148 derivatives); the suffix for names of bearers of nominal properties and persons by profession -ininkas, -ė (129 derivatives); the suffix for names of instruments -tuvas (119 derivatives); the suffix for names of action results -inys (77 derivatives); the suffix for names of bearers of nominal properties -inis, -ė (73 derivatives); the suffix for names of properties -ystė (61 derivatives); and the suffix for names of instruments -iklis (54 derivatives). These suffixes (each of which has at least 50 derivatives) account for 17.6% of all the derivatives examined. Twenty suffixal types have 11–50 derivatives, while 212 word-formation types have no more than 10. This indicates uniformity in the formation of most terms. The standard language has more productive suffixal types of noun formation. Moreover, in more than one group, the most productive types are those represented by only 1–2 terms.

5. Terminology avoids those word-formation types of the standard language that have emotional and expressive nuances of meaning. For example, diminutives are the most numerous group among suffixal nouns in the standard language, whereas in terminology they form only a medium-sized group, since they are used here only with diminutive and specialized meanings. The numerous standard-language types for forming names of bearers of verbal properties are almost entirely absent from terminology; their derivatives name persons with a pejorative nuance of meaning.

6. Term formation has other characteristic features as well, for example: a) specialization of word-formation types (this is insufficiently developed in Lithuanian terminology), b) expansion of the word-formation boundaries of particular types compared with the standard language, c) more extensive use than in the language generally of li-

in literary language, the use of words with derivationally analyzable stems, d) the abundance of hybrids in individual derivational types (with international base stems), e) the greater prevalence of calques than in literary language in general.

7. Most terms are well-formed derivatives. The occasional misfits are usually blind morphemic calques from other languages. Defective terms occur more often as a result of choosing an unsuitable base word and less often because of unsuccessful use of suffixes.

Abbreviations

ATŽ — A. Jurevičius, A. Čižas, Aiškinamasis tekstilės terminų žodynas, I, Vilnius, 1962.

BŽ — Botanikos terminų žodynas, sudarė Botanikos žodyno komisija, redagavo prof. dr. J. Dagys (vyr. redaktorius), biol. m. k. A. Lekavičius ir j. m. b. V. Mališauskienė, Vilnius, 1965.

ChŽ — K. Daukšas, Chemijos žodynas, Vilnius, 1960.

DŽ — Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, II papildytas leidimas, redakcinė kolegija: J. Kruopas (atsak. redaktorius), A. Lyberis, D. Lukšys, J. Paulauskas, J. Senkus, K. Ulvydas, Vilnius, 1972.

EŽ — Rusiškai lietuviškas ekonomikos terminų žodynas, redakcinė kolegija: Lietuvos TSR MA akademikas K. Meškauskas (ats. red.), A. Poviliūnas, V. Puronas, A. Skupeika, Vilnius, 1966.

FŽ — Fizikos terminų žodynas, redaktorius Lietuvos TSR MA akad. P. Brazdžiūnas, Vilnius, 1958.

GŽ — V. Gudelis, Geologijos ir fizinės geografijos terminų žodynas, Vilnius, 1956.

LŽ — Literatūros terminų žodynas (sudarė J. Petronis, V. Vanagas, A. Zalatorius), Vilnius, 1962.

MŽ — J. Čeičys, Melioracijos terminų žodynas, Vilnius, 1960.

STŽ — V. Kairys, A. Kaminskas, Z. Kudirka, R. Kundrotienė, M. Lipšicas, A. Mačernius, J. Norkus, J. Riaubūnas, J. Stanaitytis, B. Stulpinas, A. Šliavas, Rusų–lietuvių–anglų kalbų skaičiavimo technikos terminų žodynas, Vilnius, 1971.

SŽ — Sportinių terminų žodynas (redakcinė kolegija: Z. Gobikas, V. Kazlauskas, TSRS nusipelnęs sporto meistras J. Lagunavičius, ped. m. kand. P. Normantas, biol. m. kand. V. Petkus, P. Rimša, V. Steponaitis (atsak. sudarytojas), Vilnius, 1959.

TŽ — Teisinių terminų žodynas, sudarė A. Žiurlys, redakcinė kolegija: Lietuvos TSR MA narys-koresp. J. Bulavas, prof. K. Jablonskis (atsak. redaktorius), Lietuvos TSR MA tikrasis narys J. Žiugžda, A. Žiurlys, Vilnius, 1954.

С. КЕЙНИС

SUFFIXAL FORMATION OF LITHUANIAN TERMS

Summary

The paper investigates the suffixal formation of Lithuanian one-word noun terms, drawing on material from physical, chemical, geological and physical-geographical, botanical, land-reclamation, textile, computing and engineering, legal, literary-studies, economic, and sports terminology in terminological dictionaries published in Soviet Lithuania.

Suffixal term formation is the most important means of expanding terminology—more than two thirds of all formations are derived with suffixes. The object of the stu-

dy comprises 4,955 suffixal derivatives, most of which (more than two thirds) are formed from verbs. On the basis of derivational meaning and the nature of the base words, the following classes of derivatives are distinguished: a) deverbal—names of actions, names of instruments of action, names of agents and bearers of a verbal feature, names of results of action, names of places; b) denominal—names of nominal features, names of bearers of nominal features and persons by profession, diminutives, names of places, collective names, and names denoting origin and belonging. Types of term formation are considered in each class (245 in total).

Term formation is characterized by: 1) the widespread use of derivatives with abstract meanings (more than half of all the derivatives examined are names of actions, and one sixth of all derivatives are names of nominal features); 2) the marked dominance in productivity of one or two word-formation types in each class; 3) the limited use, compared with literary language, of types with emotional and expressive meanings; 4) specialization (which is insufficient) and standardization of word-formation resources; 5) the expansion of the word-formation potential of certain productive types; 6) the extensive use of international base words; 7) the more widespread use of calques than in general literary language.

Incorrect term formation most often results from morpheme-by-morpheme calquing.

SUFFIXAL FORMATION OF LITHUANIAN TERMS

VERB DERIVATIVES

ACTION NOUNS

-imas

-ymas

-tis

-yba (-os)

-tė [-(i)uotė]

-mė

Other suffixes

TOOL NAMES

-tuvas

-iklis

-tuk

-er

-alas

Other suffixes

Incorrect use of the suffixes -tojas and -ėjas

NAMES OF AGENTS AND POSSESSORS OF VERBAL CHARACTERISTICS

-tojas, -a

-ėjas, -a

-tinis, -ė

Other suffixes

NAMES OF ACTION RESULTS

-inys

-muo (-menys)

-alas

-tis

Other suffixes

PLACE NAMES

Other suffixes

NOMINAL DERIVATIVES

NAMES OF PROPERTIES

-umas

-ystė

-ybė

Other suffixes

NAMES OF HOLDERS OF PROPERTY CHARACTERISTICS AND PROFESSIONAL PERSONAL DESIGNATIONS

-ininkas, -ė

-inis (-iai), -ė

Other suffixes

DIMINUTIVES

-elis, -ė

-ėlis, -ė

-(i)ukas, -ė

-utė

Other suffixes

PLACE NAMES

-ynas

-uma

-inė

Other suffixes

OTHER DERIVATIONAL GROUPS

CONCLUSIONS

Abbreviations

SUFFIXAL FORMATION OF LITHUANIAN TERMS

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