LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXVIII (1989)

KALBŲ RYŠIAI IR SĄVEIKOS

ALEKSANDRAS VANAGAS

LATVIAN SURNAMES IN LITHUANIA

There are relatively many Latvian surnames in Lithuania, but to date they have remained entirely unstudied. For this reason alone, it will not be possible to discuss all of them in detail. Therefore, this article will seek not so much to present every surname of Latvian origin as to discuss the criteria by which Latvian surnames can be distinguished from Lithuanian ones.

First, it should be emphasized that the discussion will concern only the present period, that is, contemporary Latvian surnames in present-day Lithuanian. It is important to stress this for many reasons, foremost among them the fact that the number of Latvian surnames in Lithuania has presumably fluctuated considerably over the course of history. Second, the specific nature of the development of Latvian surnames themselves (their relatively late legal recognition, etc.) requires emphasizing that the discussion will concern the period in the development of Latvian surnames when they had already taken shape and become established (Сталтмане 1981, 3—11).

There are numerous criteria for distinguishing Latvian surnames from others—in this case, most importantly, from Lithuanian surnames—but sometimes none of them taken individually, or even all of them together, can precisely answer the question of which surname is Latvian, which is Lithuanian, or which is of some other origin. Consequently, the total number of Latvian surnames in Lithuania is also quite difficult to state numerically. But this, of course, does not mean that the criteria for identifying Latvian surnames are excessively vague or that none exist at all.

The criteria for distinguishing them can be grouped into two categories: linguistic and non-linguistic (extralinguistic) criteria.

Linguistic criteria here means criteria that make it possible to distinguish Latvian surnames from others on the basis of linguistic facts alone. The criteria in this group are most often phonetic, lexical, and morphological (derivational).

The phonetic criterion applies when the phonetics of a word indicate that a surname is Latvian.

Let us take a few examples.

Bērzinis Lkv 3, Ppl (Latvian), Kdn 4 (Latvian), Slč (Latvian) (9)*. The consonant z is the primary indication that this surname is Latvian: Latvian Bērzinš (Salnajs, Maldups 1931, 150). In Lithuanian, ž occurs in place of z; cf. the Lithuanian surname Beržinis (in various parts of Lithuania).

Birzgālis Rz (lat.). Plg. lat. Birzgališ (Salnajs, Maldups 1931, 77 ir kt.), Birzgals (Ten pat, 22 ir kt.). Iš lat. birzs „beržynas“ ir gals „galas“. Lietuvių panašių pavardžių nėra.

* The number following the abbreviation for the name of a place of residence indicates how many families in the locality in question bear this surname, while the number in parentheses after the localization indicates the total number of families bearing this surname.

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Cėlinis Kri 5 (Latvian). From Latvian Celinš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 50): Latvian ceļš ‘road’ or perhaps celis ‘path, the knee’. The Lithuanian surname would be *Kėlinis or *Kelinīs. At present, there are no such Lithuanian surnames.

Celmas Krp 2 (Latvian). From Latvian Celms (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 75): Latvian celms ‘stump’. Cf. the Lithuanian surname Kėlmas.

Cėlminis Brž (Latvian), Krp 2 (Latvian), RdN 2 (Latvian) (5). From Latvian Celminš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 8 and Latvian): Latvian celms ‘stump’. A Lithuanian surname *Kelminis or the like is unknown, at least at present.

Cieminas Žml (lat.). Iš lat. Cieminš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 94 ir kt.): lat. ciems „kiemas“. Lietuviška pavardė *Kieminis ar pan. nežinoma.

Čersis Brž. Iš lat. Cers (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 89 ir kt.), plg. lat. cers „keras“. Žinoma ir gana dažna lietuviška pavardė Kėrs.

Daržinis RdN (lat.). Iš lat. Darzinš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 66 ir kt.): lat. dārzs „daržas“. Lietuvių pavardė Daržinis (Brž) greičiausiai yra vėliau pakitusi iš Daržinis < Darzinš.

Zvejnieks Brž. Iš lat. Zvejnieks (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 25 ir kt.): lat. zvejnieks „žvejys“. Žinomas ir lietuvių kalbos bendrinis žodis žvejūnininkas „žvejys“, bet dėl žodžio pradžios priebalsio ž pavardė Žvainikas iš jo kilti negalėjo.

The lexical criterion is understood as one whereby the Latvian origin of a surname is shown by its lexeme, that is, when the surname derives from or is formed not from a Lithuanian, but from a Latvian common noun. Given that Lithuanian and Latvian share a substantial body of vocabulary, it is clear that this criterion can be sufficiently effective mainly in cases where the corresponding Latvian common nouns differ from Lithuanian ones.

Āpogas Skd (lat.). Iš lat. Apogs (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 264), plg. lat. vv. Apuogs, Apuogi k.: lat. apuōgs „apuokas“ (Endzelīns 1956, 41). Žinoma ir panaši lietuvių pavardė — Apūokas Ds 4, Kn, Ob 2 (7): liet. apūokas.

Āuzinis Brž 2, RdN (3). From Latvian Auzinš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 20 et al.): Latvian auza ‘oat’. Cf. the corresponding Lithuanian surname Avižinis Pgg, Vrn (2).

Bālodis Brž 3 (Latvian), Kri 10 (Latvian), Lnkv, Pbr (Latvian) (15). From Latvian Balodis (Сталтмане 1981, 140): Latvian balodis ‘pigeon’. Cf. Lithuanian Balandis—a common surname, borne by about 130 families.

Biezums Kri 5 (Latvian), Žml 3 (Latvian) (8). From Latvian Biezums (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 75): Latvian biezums ‘stubborn person; slow, sluggish person’, biezs ‘thick’.

Birznieks Kn 2. From Latvian Birznieks (Сталтмане 1981, 174): Latvian birznieks ‘someone who lives in a birch grove or a small birch forest’.

Būmanis Jnš 2. From Latvian Būmanis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 28 et al.); cf. Latvian place names Būmanis, Būmaņi, Būvmaņi: Latvian bū(v)manis ‘carpenter’ (Endzelīns 1956, 151) < Middle Low German būwman (Mülenbachs 1925, 360).

Būrgis Žr 4. Cf. Latvian Burgis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 266 et al.), Burga (Ibid., 79), Latvian place names Burgi, Burga: Latvian burgis ‘sorcerer, wizard’ (Endzelīns 1956, 147; Mülenbachs 1925, 353).

Burvys Kl, Kn, Pln 6, Plt 2 (10). From Latvian Burvis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 150 et al.), Burva (Ibid., 141), Latvian place names Burvji, Burvi: Latvian būrvis ‘sorcerer’ (Endzelīns

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1956, 148; Mülenbachs 1925, 335). The Prussian place name Burvite is also compared with Latvian būrvīs (Gerullis 1922, 24).

Cālytīs Pp 2 (Latvian). From Latvian Cālītis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 26 et al.), Cālīts (ibid., 61 et al.): Latvian cālis “chick.”

Cēplis Brž 5, Pbr, RdN 3, Všk (Latvian) (10). From Latvian Ceplis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 166 et al.): Latvian ceplis “stove, oven.”

Cīrulis Aln, Brž 5, Klp 2, RdN 9, Všk 2 (Latvian), Žg (20); Cīrulis Klp 2, Krč (Latvian), Šlu (4); Cyruļys Klp, Pgg 5, Šlu 10 (16). From Latvian Cīrulis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 18 et al.): Latvian cīrulis “skylark.”

Čākstas Šl. Plg. lat. Čakste (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 131 ir kt.), Čākstens (Ten pat, 513); Čakstiņš (Ten pat, 155 ir kt.), lat. vv. Čakstis, Čakste, Čakstes, Čaksti: lat. čakste „toks augalas (lanius excubitor, lanius minor, saxiola rubicola) ir „kas mažas“ (Mülenbachs 1925, 401, Endzelīns 1956, 176) arba lat. čākste „minkšta kopūsto galva; tinginė, mieste šlitinėjanti merga“ (Mülenbachs 1925, 408).

Čīkštas Brž. Plg. lat. Čīkste (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 472), lat. vv. Čīkstes, Čīks-ti: lat. čīkste „stuobrys, kerėpla, liurbis, lazda“ (Endzelīns 1956, 181).

Dābuolds RdN (lat.). Iš lat. Dābols (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 45 ir kt.): lat. dābuols „dobilas“. Plg. liet. pvd. Dóbilas — dažna pvd., apie 60 šeimų.

Dābuolinis Brž. Iš lat. Dāboliņš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 18 ir kt.), plg. lat. vv. Dābuoliņi: lat. dābuols „dobilas“ (Endzelīns 1956, 200).

Daūdzvardas Imbr, Kn 2 (3). From Latvian Daudzvārds (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 528 et al.), Daudzvārdis (ibid., 546): Latvian daūdzvārdis “one with many names” (Mülenbachs 1925, 444).

Daūgavietis Brž, RdN 5 (6). From Latvian Daugavietis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 490 et al.), Daugaviets (ibid., 498 et al.): Latvian dāugavietis “inhabitant from the Daugava.” Other Lithuanian surnames, such as Daugovetas Kn, Daugvietis Brž, Kdn, Kn, Pn2 (5), Dūgavietis Brž 3, most likely also developed later or changed from Lithuanian Daūgavietis, Latvian Daugavietis, or the like.

Spruōģis Lnkv, RdN 3, Šs (5). From Latvian Sproģis (Статлмане 1981, 141): Latvian spruoģis “curly-headed person, curly-haired person.”

Zviēdras RdN. Iš lat. Zviedris (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 28 ir kt.): lat. zviēdris, zviēdrs „švedas“.

The morphological or, perhaps more precisely, derivational criterion—whether a surname is to be considered Lithuanian or Latvian—is determined by word formation and structure. This criterion is decisive in explaining surname origins much less often than, say, lexical or phonetic criteria. Most often, derivational features indicate a surname’s Latvian character only alongside other—linguistic and non-linguistic—factors. Among the clearer cases of derivation characteristic of Latvian, one may point, for example, to derivatives with the suffixes -niek- and especially -inis.

Āurenieks Skd (lat.) Plg. lat. vv. Auerenieks (Endzelīns 1956, 55). Galbūt toliau gretintina su lat. aūrnieks „medžioklės trimitininkas; trimituojantis medžiotojas“ (Mülenbachs 1925, 226).

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Bitiniekas Dr (lat.). Kontaminacinė pv. iš lat. Bitenieks (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 33 ir kt.) ir liet. Bitinas. Kad tai latviška pavardė, rodo latviška priesaga -niek-.

Latvian surnames are strongly characterized by the suffix -iņš. According to V. Staltmanė, Latvian surnames with -iņš are not only the most common, but also the most “Latvian” in the sense that most of them arose from Latvian common nouns. Lithuanian surnames with -inis are also relatively quite common, but their proportion in Lithuanian anthroponymy is much lower than in Latvian. Moreover, Lithuanian surnames with the suffix -inis are formed from a more limited range of common nouns than Latvian ones. Thus, for example, the surname Antinis Brž, Rk 3 (Latvian) is more likely Latvian than Lithuanian simply because of its suffix: apparently, no Lithuanian surnames derived from bird names with the suffix -inis are known—cf. Latvian Antiņš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 14 et al.) and Gulbiņš (Latvian gulbis), Strazdiņš (Latvian strazds), Vanadziņš (Latvian vanags), and so on (Сталтмане 1981, 219–226). The surname *Antinis is unknown in Lithuania.

For similar reasons, the surname Barzdinis Jnš (Latvian), Krp 2 (Latvian) (3) should be derived from Latvian Bārziņš (Сталтмане 1981, 220): Latvian bārzda ‘beard’. The surname *Barzdinis is unknown in Lithuania.

In this way, the Latvian origin of some other Lithuanian surnames with -inis can also be traced.

Among other linguistic criteria that can occasionally be relied upon when looking for Latvian surnames in Lithuania, the accentual criterion can also be mentioned. However, this criterion plays an independent role very rarely—it usually has to be combined with other (linguistic and non-linguistic) criteria. For instance, Dáržininkas Nj, Rz, Sml (3) may be considered Latvian, though later somewhat altered and Lithuanianized in Lithuanian, among other things, in terms of stress—the Lithuanian form would be *Daržininkas: daržininkas ‘one who tends a vegetable garden or orchard’. Cf. Latvian Dārznieks (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 57 et al.): Latvian dārznieks ‘gardener’.

That the aforementioned surname Antinis is indeed Latvian is also indicated by its stress—the Lithuanian form would probably be *Antinis. Incidentally, the surname of the well-known Lithuanian sculptor Antinis is now also most often stressed as Antinis. With this incorrect stress, it even made its way into scholarly literature (Skardžius 1941, 258).

Of the non-linguistic (extralinguistic) criteria, the two most important are ethnicity and the areal (geographical) criterion. Although both are very important, neither is absolute, since there are many known cases in which people of Latvian origin, or those who consider or have considered themselves Latvian, have surnames of Lithuanian origin. For example, the owners of the surname Buividýs Grz 2 registered themselves as Latvians in the late 1930s, although their surname is undoubtedly Lithuanian—cf. Lithuanian Buivídas (about 80 families), Bùivydas (about 230 families), Buivýdis (10 families), and others. It goes without saying that most Lithuanians living along the Lithuanian-Latvian border have Lithuanian surnames. Therefore, the geographical criterion can be effective only in certain cases.

These two non-linguistic criteria become important primarily when, in theory, a surname could more or less equally be considered Latvian or Lithuanian—that is, when the linguistic criteria for explaining its origin are not sufficiently effective.

5. 678

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Bālinis Žml 4 (Latvian). From Latvian Bālinš (Endzelīns 1956, 91). A Lithuanian surname *Bālinis or *Balinis is theoretically possible (cf. Lithuanian Šilinis, Miškinis, etc.), but, first, no such surname exists in Lithuania at all, and second, most importantly, the surname’s geographical distribution (the area adjoining Latvia) and its bearer’s ethnicity (Latvian) unequivocally show that Bālinis is Latvian.

Báltinas Mžk 3 (Latvian), Trk (4). From Latvian Baltins (Rīgas un Jūrmalas… 1971, 66), Baltinš (Сталтмане 1981, 224): Latvian bálts ‘white’. In this case, the surname Báltinas should be considered Latvian for the two most important reasons: geography and ethnicity (Mažeikiai area). There is reason to suppose that other surnames from northern Lithuania—Báltynas Yl 3, Ms 2, Skd 4 (9) and Báltinis RdN 9, Baltinis Sd—may also be later altered forms of Latvian Baltins or Baltinš. The Lithuanian surname *Baltinis or the like is unknown. In general, Lithuanian surnames derived from adjectives with the suffix -inis are very rare.

Būlderis Ob (Latvian), Pn, Ppl, Rk (Latvian) (4). From Latvian Bulders (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 97 et al.), Buldurs (ibid., 265 et al.); cf. Latvian personal names Bulderes, Buldūrs, Buldūri (Endzelīns 1956, 142). The Latvian surnames and place names may be connected with Latvian būldūrs ‘chatterbox, mumble, loudmouth’. For bulður-: bulder-, cf. Latvian būlderēt: bùlderēt (Mühlenbachs 1925, 348). The surname Būlderis cannot be derived from the Lithuanian borrowing (known only from A. Juška’s dictionary) bulderis ‘a fat person, a chubby fellow, an obese person’, as shown by its geographical distribution and, above all, by ethnicity (until quite recently, two of its four bearers considered themselves Latvian).

Dievinas Plng 6 (Latvian). From Latvian Dieviņš (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 291; Сталтмане 1981, 225): Latvian dievs. The Lithuanian surname *Dievinis or the like is unknown.

When analyzing surname origins, it is usually possible to rely not on just one of the criteria mentioned here, but on two or even several. This makes explanations of origin considerably more convincing. For example, in explaining the origin of the surname Bērziņis, not only the phonetic criterion (z instead of ž) is important, but also ethnicity (almost all people bearing this surname are or were Latvian) and geography (this surname is known mainly in the area adjoining Latvia). The Latvian origin of the surname Bitiniekas is indicated not only by the derivational criterion (the suffix -niek-) but also by the criterion of ethnicity (its bearer was Latvian). Most cases are of this kind or similar.

These criteria most often make it possible to identify surnames that are Latvian and generally Baltic in origin, that is, formed from common words in Latvian (native ones, or sometimes borrowed ones). Surnames of this kind appeared in Latvian relatively late, not always through the natural development of personal names, but very often by artificial means. These are most often surnames that became widespread in Latvia in the first decades of the 19th century (Сталтмане 1981, 8).

The situation is much more complicated with surnames that may have arisen earlier in Latvia and are generally non-Latvian in origin (usually German). They are more difficult to distinguish from similar Lithuanian surnames because most linguistic criteria (phonetic, lexical, derivational) often lose their effectiveness: surnames of this type lack the linguistic distinguishing features characteristic of these two Baltic languages. In such cases one must rely more on non-linguistic criteria—ethnicity, geography, or the like.

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Bēikmanas Dr 2. Most likely not directly from German Beukmann (Gottschald 1954, 213) or the like, but from the Latvian surname of German origin Beikmanis (Rīgas un Jūrmalas… 1971, 70).

Bidermanas Slč (lat.) Greičiausiai iš lat. Bidermanis (Rīgas un Jūrmalas 1971, 76), Bidermanis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 220 ir kt.), kurios savo ruožtu yra iš vok. Biedermann (Gottschald 1954, 192).

Bridagas Žml (lat.). Plg. lat. pvd. Bridags (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 8 ir kt.), Brī-dags (Ten pat, 424 ir kt.), Brīdāgs (Ten pat, 420), lat. vv. Brīdāgi, Brīdāgi, Brīdēgi ir kt., kuriuos J. Endzelynas kildina iš vok. vid. žem. vridg? (Endzelīns 1956, 130–131).

Bulverkis Brž. Iš lat. Bulverks (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 34 ir kt.), o ši — greičiausiai iš vok. Bollverk (Gottschald 1954, 201) ar pan.

Danenbergas Krp (lat.). Iš lat. Danenbergs (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 138 ir kt.), o latvių pvd. yra iš vok. Dannenberg (Gottschald 1954, 566).

There are also cases in which a surname of Slavic origin by descent may have come to Lithuania from Latvia. One such surname could be Brūnovas Ppl (Latvian), Rim, Smal 4 (6). Perhaps from Latvian Brūnovs (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 24 et al.), Brunavs (ibid., 378), Brūnavs (ibid., 319). Latvian surnames may be Slavic borrowings; cf. Polish Brunow (Słownik… 1967, 258), Brunoff (Bystroń 1936, 283), German < sl. Bru now (Gottschald 1954, 211). Such cases are quite rare.

Sometimes a surname of non-Baltic origin may be considered Latvian because it has developed from some other personal name (usually a Christian name) in Latvian.

Anšencas Brž. This is a certain adaptation of Latvian Jančēns, and this personal name derives from the baptismal name Jānis (Rūķe-Draviņa 1959, 59).

Daūkas Kp 6, Skp 3, Šmn 13, Všn (23). Most likely from Latvian Dauka or the like, which is a shortened form of the baptismal name Dāvīds (Rūķe-Draviņa 1959, 59).

The surnames (at least some of them) Brenčis Klp 2, Žml (3), Brencys Klp 2, Brenčius Ms 5, Nv, Pln 2, Plt 11, Sk, Slnt 8 (28), Brenčis Brž, Brenčūs Kn, Rk 2 (3), Brenčius Klp may also have come from Latvia. They should primarily be associated with the common Latvian surname Brencis (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 82 et al.), derived from Laurentius (Mühlenbachs 1925, 330). In Lithuanian, the baptismal name is not shortened in this way.

Sometimes a surname can be considered Latvian only because its bearer is of Latvian origin. Otherwise, such a surname could just as well be Lithuanian. For example, Čigōnas Šl (Latvian)—from Latvian Čigāns (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 213 et al.): Latvian čigāns (cf. Lithuanian čigōnas). There are no other Lithuanian surnames Čigōnas.

Cases are quite common in which a similar surname of non-Baltic (usually German) origin is found in both Lithuania and Latvia, but, because its bearer is sometimes Latvian, it can be treated as Latvian only in that particular instance. For example: Bliumbergas Klp 3, Kn 15, Šlu 3, Trgn, Trš (Latvian) (23). Apparently, only the surname from Tryškiai should be considered Latvian, owing to the bearer’s nationality, and derived from Latvian Blumbergs (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 49 et al.). In other cases, the Lithuanian surname Bliumbergas may also derive directly from German Blumberg (Gottschald 1954, 198).

^5*

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It can often be suspected that a surname is Latvian because a similar surname (or place name) occurs in Latvia, or because there are more of them in Latvia than in Lithuania, although the origin of the latter is not entirely clear for the time being.

Bratēns Brž 3, Pnd, Vb 5 (9). Cf. Latvian surname Bratenis (Rīgas un Jūrmalas 1971, 84), Latvian place names Brātene, Brātini (Endzelīns 1956, 126).

Būjāns Všk. Plg. lat. pvd. Bujāns (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 110 ir kt.), lat. vv. Bujāni, Bujan, Bujēni (Endzelīns 1956, 140), Būjēns (Ten pat, 151).

Daukšta Rs. Plg. lat. pvd. Daukste, Dauksts, Daukšta (Rīgas un Jūrmalas 1971, 101), lat. vv. Daukstes, Daukste, Dauksti, Dauksten (Endzelīns 1956, 199).

Dējus Graž, Klp 2, Plng 13 (Latvian) Šlu, V (18). Cf. Latvian surname Dejus (Salnais, Maldups 1931, 248), Latvian place names Dejus, Deji (Endzelīns 1956, 208).

There are also many other unclear, doubtful, and transitional cases.

Thus, the overall picture of Latvian surnames in Lithuania is extremely varied and complex. Therefore, it is practically impossible to say how many Latvian surnames there are in Lithuania.

The geographical distribution of Latvian surnames, as might be expected, is not extensive—it is mostly Palatvė and Lithuania’s western borderland. Exceptions can usually be explained by population migration.

LITERATŪRA

Bystroń J. Nazwiska polskie. Lwów; Warszawa, 1936.

Endzelīns J. Latvijas PSR vietvārdi. Rīga, 1956. I daļa, 1. sējums. A—J. 425 lpp.; Rīga, 1961. I daļa. 2. sējums. K—Ō. 505 lpp.

Gerullis G. Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen. Berlin; Leipzig, 1922. 280 S.

Gottschald M. Deutsche Namenkunde. Berlin, 1954. 630 S.

Lauksaimnieku un citu zemes īpašnieku adresu grāmata / Red. Salnais V., Maldups A. Rīga. 1931, 1131 lpp.

Mü̈lenbachs K. Latviešu valodas vārdnīca / Rediģējis, papildinājis, turpinājis Endzelīns J. Rīga, 1923—1925. T. 1. 839 lpp.

Rīgas un Jūrmalas pilsētu telefona tīklu dzīvojokļu telefonu abonentu saraksts. Rīga, 1971. 416 lpp.

Rūķe-Draviņa V. Diminutive im Lettischen. Lund, 1959.

Salnais V. un Maldups A. Latvijas ciemi. Rīga, 1936.

Skardžius P. Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba. V., 1941, 768 p.

Słownik staropolskich nazw osobowych. Wrocław; Warszawa; Kraków, 1965—1967. T. 1. A—D. 580 s.

Сталтмане Б. Э. Латышская антропонимия: Фамилии. М., 1981. 228 с.

ЛАТЫШСКИЕ ФАМИЛИИ В ЛИТВЕ

Резюме

Латышские фамилии в Литве встречаются достаточно часто. Распространены они главным образом в северной Литве.

Основными лингвистическими критериями выделения латышских фамилий считаются фонетический (Celmas: лтш. cēlms, лит. kélmas), лексический (Ārogas: лтш. apuōgs ‘Филин’, лит. arūokas), морфологический (Āureniekas — ср. лтш. āurnieks ‘трубач на охоте’). К нелингвистическим критериям можно отнести географический (ареальный) и национальный (национальная принадлежность).

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