LIETUVIŲ LEKSIKOS IR TERMINOLOGIJOS PROBLEMOS

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXIX (1991)

JONAS KLIMAVIČIUS

SEVERAL MICROSYSTEMS OF HYDROLOGY TERMS (WATER FLOW)

This examination, which is concrete and may prove useful for the practical standardization and use of terms, is connected in its theoretical assumptions, issues, and methodology with the earlier article “Land reclamation, drainage, irrigation: loan translations, synonyms and hyponyms (Historical, systemic and usage features)”¹.

The examination extends somewhat beyond the bounds of hydrological terminology and does not avoid systemic links with other terminologies (although, for the sake of coherent exposition, some of these had to be left aside). Hydrology is closely connected here with land reclamation, and in one or another instance the discussion also enters the terminology of geography.

The article examines not so much scientific concepts as the linguistic-semantic microsystems of terms, and does so not only terminologically but also lexicologically: it is not content with the existing realization alone, but regards it as one of several variants and explores broader semantic and nominative potential as well. It is not concerned solely with the standardization of terms, but also with how they function. We do not shy away even from instances of determinologization, which are considered to be connected with the semantics and stylistics of scientific language and even to influence them. Since science and its conceptual apparatus are international, it is appropriate not to overlook phenomena in the linguistic situation—borrowing and translation, correspondences and differences.

It is useful to begin examining the “water flow” system with the verb to flow—as the basis for the formation of various terms and as the core of the semantic field of “flowing.” Because this system is highly branched, each subsection draws on the meanings of to flow relevant to the topic, as well as on synonyms (to run, stream,...), a hypernym (to move), a causative (to make flow), antonyms (to let, lead, draw water), and some of their non-terminological derivatives, which reveal lexical-semantic potential more fully.

1. Flow and movement: semantics

In ordinary language, water both flows and runs; in dialects, even to flow into means “to flow into (of a river)”: Šunija flows into the Jūra below Mažintai Skdy (LKŽ D). In hydrology, water only flows. The adjective flowing, which in ordinary language means “swift-flowing” (and in physics “non-viscous, текучий, fluid”), is not used here. However, in the general physical sense, water can also move. The flow of water differs from movement (apart from the self-evident property of being fluid) in at least two respects: 1) broadly speaking, it is stream-like and channelled, so seas do not flow (some lakes are outflowing); 2) it is more or less continuous. Evidence for the movement of water is provided by dialects and even the language of old writings

¹ Lietuvių kalbos specialioji leksika // Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai. V., 1983. T. 22. P. 26–68.

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data: And this great disturbance befell the lagoons DP 78. Disturbance of the lagoons SD 171. The seas greatly stirred K II 272. The seas painfully (i.e. violently) stirred, risen K II 336. The lagoons churned, and a dragon with three heads comes sailing in BsP II 51 (Nm). The ever-restless waves of the lagoons surge V. Piet. The stirred-up ocean tossed and frightened the passenger P. Cvir. The second distinction is illustrated perhaps only by non-marine, i.e. flowing-water, hydronyms Judis, Judinys, Judra, Judrė, Judreika, Judriukė, Judrinas.

These two distinctions are also realized in hydrological terminology. There seem to be even more specific realizations of motion than necessary. This is determined not by linguistic factors or concepts, but by the classification itself: since there is rotational motion “such motion of fluid particles in which each particle not only moves forward but also rotates around itself” MelŽ and turbulent motion “such motion of a fluid in which the particles change their relative positions irregularly” MelŽ, then, for the sake of system, laminar is also motion “such motion of a fluid in which the particles do not mix with one another—their motion takes place along parallel straight or curved lines” MelŽ, and not flow; similarly, alongside non-uniform motion, whose “velocity is not uniform in the direction of motion,” there is also uniform motion MelŽ, alongside unsteady, i.e. “variable with respect to time”—steady water motion MelŽ. Such a mechanical leveling of terms according to classification, unsupported by semantics, is not a sound factor in standardization, since the terms could equally well be leveled in the opposite direction—according to flow. And in fact this has been done: laminar, rotational, turbulent flow MelŽ, uniform, non-uniform water flow MelŽ. In English, motion is used in all these cases, apparently reflecting the language’s greater preference for more general words. Russian differentiates течение and движение: fluid motion — течение жидкости: rotational fluid motion — вихревое течение жидкости, turbulent motion — турбулентное движение, laminar motion — ламинарное движение, ламинарное течение Гидр сл. Lithuanian terms should be standardized in a similar way: water/fluid flow: laminar flow, rotational motion/flow, turbulent motion/flow, uniform flow, non-uniform motion/flow, steady flow, unsteady motion/flow.

2. Flow, flux, current, stream

Although synonyms of flow are not established as terms in hydrology and are therefore not used, synonyms of the verb to flow are represented here in a different way—as the bases for derivatives. Flow, flux, current are not synonyms in hydrology. But the differentiation of their meanings in terminological and general dictionaries is very unclear: 1) tekmė — помок, течение — “the current of a river or other flowing liquid” MelŽ, 1. “a channel of flowing water; a current” DŽ₂; 2) srautas — помок — “a body of water flowing over or underground ⟨…⟩; current, flow” MelŽ, 1. “a current of liquids, flow” DŽ₂; 3) srovė — течение, помок — a mass of liquid moving in one direction, wholly or partly separated from its surroundings by solid surfaces; flow, current” MelŽ, 1. “water flow” DŽ₂. It is characteristic that Russian terminology here has only two names—помок and течение: помок — 1. current, flow, 2. flux, while течение — 1. current,

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2. flow, 3. 〈…〉 GeolŽ; поток — flux, о течение — 1. current, (atmospheric flow, 2. 〈…〉, 3. 〈…〉 MetŽ. Thus neither explanations of meanings nor equivalents in other languages provide any clarity.

Only s r ū v i s “a part of a water flow” DŽ₂—mok GeolŽ, MetŽ—is clearly distinguished: water s r ū v i s — mok vody “a limited movement of a body of water, a part of a flow” MelŽ. But immediately s r ū v i s is synonymized with current: mok — current, s r ū v i s MelŽ: линия мока — line of s r ū v i s MelŽ and current line — линия мока—MelŽ, while the synonym of current in MelŽ is flux, flow. PolŽ₂ offers no clarification either: линия мока — 1. hydrol. flow line, 2. meteorol. line of s r ū v i s, 3. current line, линия потока — flux line, потоковая линия — current line. Thus s r ū v i s, too, is not clearly differentiated everywhere.

A similar undifferentiated jumble is found in the terminology of other languages. In Latvian, течение is rendered as straume, plūsma, tece, while ток is also strāva, plūsma Hidromet vard. The greatest variety is found in English. According to Гидр сл., the following equivalents are given: stream — 1. river; brook; flow; current; jet²; flow — 2. current; electric current; flow; jet; 〈…〉; streamflow — 2. river flow; current — current; flow; jet; torrent — flow; fluent — jet of water; flow; flux — flow; 〈…〉; pour — 1. flow, current; run — 2. current; squirt — jet; jet — 1. jet. Only filament is clearly differentiated—it is given not a one-word equivalent but precise phrases отдельный ток струи; небольшая струя.

In texts, flow, flux, current are used no differently. For example, when setting out the theoretical scheme of water filtration, one reads: 〈…〉 the filtration flow is schematized, and it is assumed that filtration takes place not through the pores of the rocks, but across the entire cross-section of the filtration flow Hidrogeol 217. Immediately, flow is replaced by flux: A part of a rock layer in which water flux filtration takes place is called a filtration zone Hidrogeol 218. Later, flow is used as a hyponym of flux: When mathematically analyzing filtration flux, smaller flux elements or flows are used, which correspond to the overall trajectory of the flux. For this purpose, so-called flow lines can be distinguished. Hidrogeol 218. Thereafter, only water flux is found, Hidrogeol 229 ff., and current line, Hidrogeol 233 ff. But neither s r ū v i s nor its flow line occurs here at all. Incidentally, the terms flux and flow are neither explained nor defined here. Elsewhere, current flow is used to mean “the movement of a current”: Oceanographers discovered a cold-water current 1,200 miles wide. Admittedly, the current’s flow is very slow: 〈…〉 MG 1975 10 36.

The failure to differentiate these terms is, of course, not a fatal flaw and may not cause serious confusion in the subject matter; nevertheless, it should be corrected. If (in the future) hydrology specialists establish a micro-system for these terms, we could define them more precisely in general and bilingual dictionaries and assess varied loose usage more clearly (e.g., The head current of the reduced pressure brought it back into the flow P 1980 9 37).

^² The dual meaning of stream—“current, flow” and “river”—apparently gives rise to a journalistic calque: Here is born the largest “river” in the World Ocean—the Gulf “Current” T 1976 291 2. The temperature of the Gulf “River” water ibid.

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3. To move and to flow: derivational productivity. Movement and circulation

As already noted, current is defined as “a mass of moving liquid” MelŽ, and flow as “the movement of a mass of water” MelŽ. In general terms, when discussing groundwater dynamics, the term water movement is also used: When water fills rock pores and does not move, the laws of hydrostatic equilibrium apply Hidrogeol 215. When water filling all the rock pores moves under the influence of various forces, hydrostatic equilibrium is disrupted and the laws of hydrodynamics take effect. The movement of water through rock pores and fissures is called filtration Hidrogeol 217. But the term flow is also used inconsistently (even turbulent!): Water flow in rocks may be laminar or turbulent Hidrogeol 224. “〈…〉” steady water flow or steady water filtration in sand Hidrogeol 224.

However, from to move we do not have a derivative comparable to those formed from to flow: flow, or from to stream: stream and current. Thus, the result of water movement is a flow: The groundwater surface may slope in one direction or another. Groundwater then moves, depending on the slope of the water-bearing layer or the land relief, forming a groundwater flow Hidrogeol 134. Of course, there may be vortical or turbulent water movement, filtration of water through pores and fissures, movement of water in soil MetŽ, although flow is also possible (and indeed occurs) here (but only movement of moisture in soil MetŽ, movement of water and water vapor Hidrolog 25). Sometimes, expressions combine the meanings of flow or current movement: Groundwater flow usually moves toward the lowest features of the terrain: rivers, streams, ditches, valleys, lakes, hollows, “〈…〉” Hidrogeol 134. In radial flow systems, river currents move radially, as if around some center, “〈…〉” Hidrolog 50. In ordinary language one should say not the flow moves, but the flow flows (and, indeed, alongside movement of a flow Hidrogeol 234, there is also flowing of a flow Hidrogeol 233); not currents move radially, but currents swirl and eddy.

Water movement is restricted not only by its limited derivational productivity, but also by the impossibility of forming prefixed forms. Only to flow, flowing has these: Groundwater inflow consists of the following elements: 1) water flowing in from other parts of the same aquifer; 2) water flowing in from other aquifers; 〈…〉. The outflow from an aquifer consists of the following elements: 1) outflow to other parts of the aquifer; 2) outflow to other aquifers; “〈…〉” Hidrogeol 211. First, we need to know how water fills the pores through which it flows, and under what conditions the volume of water that flows into a given part of the pores equals the volume flowing out Hidrogeol 222.

The use of “water movement” is also constrained by the water cycle, although, in addition to runoff, the concept comprises three further components—evaporation, precipitation, and their infiltration Hidrogeol 94—and therefore the cycle can only be described in terms of movement: Water in all of Earth’s spheres—the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere—is closely interconnected. Under specific conditions arising from changes in pressure and temperature and the effects of transpiration, dehydration, condensation, and infiltration, water changes its physical state as it passes from one sphere to another. Such continuous

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process of water moving from one sphere to another is called the water cycle Hidrogeol 94. The reverse is even stated: Because of the water cycle, water is in constant movement in the hydrosphere; some of it evaporates and is replenished again Hidrolog 26. Of course, cycle—круговорот, круговорот—“flowing around, circulation”—has an international synonym, circulation—циркуляция—“cycle, circular movement” MelŽ, but using circulation to describe the cycle instead of movement, although possible, would not displace movement at all here.

The water cycle is used consistently everywhere, though occasionally one finds water exchange Hidrogeol 166 (while in the same source water cycle Hidrogeol 165, 166), groundwater exchange Hidrogeol 136, closed water exchange Armand 62, although exchange is neither defined nor explained. This is simply terminological confusion. Water exchange between the Baltic and North Seas T 1982 53 4 is certainly possible, but it is not a “cycle.”

Thus, the derivational productivity of the verb to flow (inflow, outflow, inflow, runoff, flow, cycle), as well as current, stream, flow, restricts the use of the term water movement. It can be used only as the most general concept in hydrodynamics and must not suppress the use of specific verbs, which is highly characteristic of Lithuanian. For example: River runoff—1. movement of water (=flowing) in the natural cycle as it drains along a river channel MelŽ. 〈…〉 the speed of water movement (=flowing) varies from zero to certain maximum values Hidrogeol 217. 〈…〉 groundwater moves (=flows) at varying speeds or hardly moves at all (=does not flow, is stagnant) Hidrogeol 135.

It is difficult to recommend synonyms denoting flow speed, such as surges, streams, trickles/gushes, pours/seep.

4. To flow, to cause to flow, to release, to lead

Having established the semantic advantage of tekėti (“to flow”) over judėti (“to move”), one should not suppose that tekėti alone is quite sufficient in hydrology and the land reclamation based on it, as well as in hydraulic engineering and elsewhere. Quite the contrary. The limits of the semantics of Tekėti are aptly expressed in a riddle: — Which way do all waters flow? — Downward. Therefore, the following definitions may be regarded as somewhat pleonastic: A river is defined as a concentrated mass of water flowing in the direction of the gradient along a channel formed in a long depression Hydrolog 48. A riverbed is defined as the lowest part of a valley along which water flows in the direction of the gradient Hydrolog 54.

When water is standing, backed up, it must be drained; when there is no gradient or one cannot be created, it must be led away or discharged.

The causative tekinti is not used in hydrology. Tekinti can be used with sap, tar (“to let run”), beer, kvass, mash, wine (“to decant”), whey, curds (“to let drain”), milk (“to drain”), blood, saliva, tears (“to drip”), and spirits (“to distill”). Tekinti also means “to melt” (in the physical sense, “to smelt”): “So that the bright sun might shine, that it might melt the heap of ice” (red.) Ds. Water, if ever said to be tekinamas, is so only from a tap or through a sluice. Only the vivid-language writer J. Baltrušis and the stylistically accomplished Vaižgantas tekinti used it in a sense close to “to let flow”: And the rain poured, lashed, and splashed. The earth drank and could drink no more, so it crusted over black, no longer let water in, but sent it flowing downward into meadows, pools, and bogs, 〈…〉 J. Balt. In spring, the eastern hilltops their abundant moisture

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send flowing down that stream, flooding the meadows widely Vaižg. However, similar usage has no prospects in hydrology.

In hydrology, it is essential to distinguish tekėti (“to flow”) from leisti (“to let”), that is, “to let something flow,” and from vesti (“to lead”), that is, “to cause something to flow.” This is indeed the practice. We will briefly review the usage of the expressions to let water flow, to lead water (and their derivatives), while also pointing out various shortcomings and imperfections in their use.

Water is drained when there is a gradient but no force of attraction: the water has pooled or been dammed, shut off by some gate or tap, and cannot flow away along that gradient by itself; for example: water lowering — водопонижение — “lowering the water level (e.g., in a lake) using water-regulation structures” MelŽ, cf. water raising — водоподъём — “raising the water level for irrigation and other purposes” MelŽ; compare water rise — паводок, половодье — “a rise in the river’s water level when snow melts or after heavy rain; high water, flood” MelŽ. The main purpose of drainage is to drain groundwater, <…> Kel 127. <…> a structure that drains water — drainage Kel 129. There is rainwater drainage [conveyance] — отвод дождевых вод MetŽ, outlet sluice — выпускной шлюз MelŽ, drainage sluice — спускной шлюз MelŽ (a discharge sluice — сбросной шлюз is directed into it), repair outlet MelŽ, inlet channel — впускной шлюз MelŽ, ŽŪŽ, outlet channel MelŽ and water-discharge channel — водосбросный канал ŽŪŽ.

But the following is poorly phrased: <…>drainage of water from drainage ditches Kel 123. The opposite would be the only possibility. The sentence has the defect of inconsistent prefixes: Outlet ditches are intended to drain excess water Drėk 151.

Water can also be drained in an entirely different way—not along a gradient, but straight downward: vertical drainage — “a type of drainage in which dewatering is carried out by vertical pipes, through which water is either drained into permeable deeper layers (Dutch drainage), or raised to the ground surface (Californian drainage)” MelŽ.

The term runoff water — стекающая вода — “the portion of precipitation that runs over the ground surface in the direction of the gradient” MelŽ differs from sewer wastewater — сточные канализационные воды MelŽ. This term has two variants: 1) wastewater — domestic, industrial, rain, and snowmelt water contaminated with impurities. <…>. A distinction is made between domestic, industrial, and atmospheric wastewater LTE VIII. It also has a singular variant, wastewater PolŽ₂, M ir T 1975 3 43, VN 1983 214 2(nx). Sometimes both are even used side by side: wastewater Šv 1973 12 26(2x) and wastewater ibid. (7x); 2) sewage — сточная вода — “water used for domestic or industrial purposes, which is conveyed (=discharged) to treatment facilities and a receiving water body” or “water flowing out of sewerage facilities” MelŽ, or sewage waters (classified as a) domestic-household or household-fecal; b) industrial-enterprise wastewater; 3) atmospheric or rainwater) Vandentiek 207 (although an interview with the author of this book 20 years later states: At your initiative, a branch Wastewater Treatment Laboratory was established at KPI in 1962 M ir T 1976 7 29). A third variant is synonymous: wastewater [sewage] — сточная вода MetŽ.

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True oddities crop up from time to time: <...> new municipal wastewater-treatment facilities put into operation Šv 1977 1 25 (from uncorrected writing). The term is even confused with (industrial) waste: More than six million tonnes of waste are discharged each year into the country’s major rivers alone, <...>. In Marseille and other large cities, <...>, industrial waste is dumped directly into the sea T 1977 226 3. Also used are simply industrial effluents MG 1973 5 13, waters discharged by enterprises KV 1971 44 13, discharged water M ir T 1975 3 44, water discharged Šv 1973 12 26, sewage outflows MG 1977 2 7.

The established form is wastewater; the singular form wastewater may even be more promising. It is too late to debate why not water to be let down or water to be discharged. Both would mean roughly the same thing—that the water is discharged, and thus flows away; compare: <...> sewerage—a system of facilities through which used wastewater is drained Vand ū k. 6. <...> far fewer untreated wastewaters flow into the rivers and other water bodies of the above-mentioned basins T 1976 28 1. Indeed, it would be better and more precise to say wastewater is discharged, rather than drained. Moreover, the term water to be let down now means not continuous flow but discharge water in PolŽ₂ (MelŽ used to have water to be led away; see below for their meaning and appropriateness).

Where there is no gradient, water cannot be led away or brought in by mechanical means. There are mechanical drainage MelŽ, mechanical irrigation MelŽ (cf. English pumping irrigation), irrigation by mechanically lifting water MelŽ, ŽŪŽ, and even drainage by mechanically lifting water MelŽ.

But the derivative is often questionable or plainly unmotivated—it is used where (letting) down or discharging should be used. For example: water to be led away — сбросная вода— “water that is not used by agricultural crops and flows away from the irrigated area” MelŽ (PolŽ₂’s water to be let down is also insufficiently precise and clear); leading away — отвод— “removal (of water)” MelŽ; leading water away — отвод воды— “removal of water from land to be drained” MelŽ; the outlet section of a reclamation system — проводящая часть мелиоративной системы— “the set of outlet channels in a drainage system through which water collected by drains [!] is discharged into a receiving water body” MelŽ, and the outlet section of a drainage system — проводящая часть осушительной системы— “the part of a drainage system consisting of the main ditch and outlet ditches” MelŽ; outlet irrigation network — сбросная оросительная сеть— “a system of channels intended to remove excess water from an irrigated field, arising when water is discharged from irrigation channels, in emergencies, etc.” MelŽ; conveying irrigation network — проводящая оросительная сеть— “the part of an irrigation system intended to bring water from its source to irrigated fields” MelŽ; and water outlet (drainage) network — водоотводная (проводящая) сеть— “drainage channels through which water is led from drained land to a receiving water body” MelŽ; network of outlet ditches — водоотводная (водосборная) сеть каналов MelŽ; and network of conveying irrigation channels — сеть проводящих оросительных каналов— “irrigation channels that bring water from a water body to the irrigated area” MelŽ.

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Whether vesti (‘to lead’) is appropriate is not very clear in other cases either. For example: conveying channel — проводящий канал— “a channel through which water is conveyed to an irrigated area or another place of use” MelŽ; outlet channel — водоотводный канал— “a channel through which excess water is led away” (the drain-down channel and wastewater channel are directed into it) MelŽ; outlet/discharge channel — выводящий канал (and water outlet channel — водоотводный канал) ŽŪŽ; main outlet channel— “the main channel into which water discharged through secondary channels is led to a receiving water body” MelŽ; conveying ditch — проводящая канава— “a ditch through which water flows into an irrigated area” MelŽ; outlet (drainage) ditch — водоотводная канава— “a ditch that collects water from a drain [!] and leads it to a higher-order drainage channel or to a receiving water body” MelŽ; outlet furrow — выводная канавка— “a small channel through which water is led out of a higher-order irrigation ditch” MelŽ; inlet furrow — выводная борозда— “a furrow from which water is let into irrigation furrows” MelŽ; outlet furrow — сбросная борозда— “a furrow that collects water from several lateral furrows” MelŽ; conveying pipe — проводящая труба, подающая труба— MelŽ; outlet pipe — отводящая труба— “a pipe for conveying water away” MelŽ.

Sometimes leading is used quite unnecessarily, for example: Dutch drainage — <…> water is led deep underground MelŽ. Much better phrased is: vertical drainage — <…> water <…> is discharged into permeable deeper layers (Dutch drainage), <…> MelŽ.

There is no doubt about bypass channel — обводный канал— “a channel through which, to reduce flooding, part of a river’s discharge is diverted and returned to the river downstream of the protected area” MelŽ, or inlet colmatation channel — водопроводный кольматационный канал— “a channel through which water is brought to an area undergoing colmatage” MelŽ. Apparently differing from bypass channel is diversion channel — обходной канал— “a channel that bypasses a particular structure (e.g., a dam)” MelŽ.

Although there are specific doubts and ambiguities, even clear and, unfortunately, numerous errors, in general to convey water is not only permissible but necessary. This is supported by familiar expressions such as to bring water in/to a place, (i)nstall a water supply, and by the semantic correlation to run/flow ↔ to lead (similarly to to pull — to let). There are also plenty of international and foreign-language parallels with this meaning. For example: derivation channel— “a channel that conveys water to hydraulic turbines” MelŽ; aqueduct, inverted siphon <from Latin ducere ‘to lead’; compare also English duct — passage; channel, waterway; pipe Гидр сл, water conduct — водовод; водопровод Гидр сл, conduit — водоотводная канава Гидр сл, eduction — outflow; discharge; outlet; removal (of a liquid) Гидр сл, eduction pipe — discharge or outlet pipe, lead(er) — 1. channel; passage (among drifting ice); 3. gutter Гидр сл., Russian водовод, водопровод, водоотвод, German Wasserabführung, etc.

Water is also supplied, distributed, collected, captured, taken, and provided. For example: <…> an irrigation system with mechanical water supply Drėk 21; All larger irrigation systems are equipped with supply, distribution and discharge

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ditches Drėk 150; water-supply pipe MelŽ; water collector MelŽ; water distributor MelŽ; intercepting drain MelŽ; a complex of installations designed to collect, convey, and distribute water over a designated area is called an irrigation system Drėk 19. However, the element of an irrigation system from which water is drawn is called a water source (river, lake, pond) (see Drėk 19), whereas the element of a drainage system into which water is discharged is called a water receiver or receptacle (see MelŽ); cf. also water withdrawal MelŽ. In water supply, however, the term water intakes (водозабор) refers to water-collection facilities at enterprises (see Vandentiek 33, 35).

5. Gravity flow

Although flowing is opposite in the nature of its action to releasing, conducting (and drawing), in every case there is a certain movement of water, a certain flow. Thus, the need for the term gravity flow — самотёк is understandable: “a phenomenon in which water (a liquid) flows through channels or pipes, at an appropriate gradient, under the influence of its own weight; spontaneous flow” MelŽ. Without understanding this, the relationship between the components of gravity flow would seem pleonastic. But viewed so formally, one would also have to condemn self-propulsion, self-progression, self-rolling. That would not be sensible.

Gravity flow is also used adverbially (and in the variant by gravity flow): manure reaches the manure pit by gravity flow T 1977 70 1, water ⟨…⟩ returns to the aquariums by gravity flow M and G 1978 7 9, fuel flows by gravity VV I 31, 32, milk runs out by gravity VV I 205.

However, water, admittedly somewhat different but nevertheless similar in nature, is not gravity-flow (or gravity-fed), but gravitational: Gravitational water is a type of free water that moves freely in rock pores and fissures [!], under the force of gravity= (acted upon by gravity) and in the presence of a pressure difference Hidrogeol 102 (similarly in MelŽ). Other languages also have gravitational flow, current, runoff, even gravity-fed water supply, for example: English gravity flow — 1. безнапорный поток, самотёк; 2. гравитационное течение (ледника) Гидр сл, gravity current — гравитационное течение ⟨…⟩ Гидр сл, gravity drain — сток самотёком Гидр сл, Russian самотёчное орошение — Polish nawadnienie grawitacyjne Słow tech, гравитационный водопровод — wodociąg grawitacyjny Słow tech. Lithuanian also uses gravity-flow (gravity-fed, gravity-flowing) and gravitational water supply: free-flow (gravity-fed) water supply — самотечное водоснабжение PolŽ₂, gravity-fed water supply — самотечный водопровод PolŽ₂, gravity-fed water supply L ir M 1983 47 8, gravity-flow water supply Vandentiek 7, gravitational (gravity-flow) water supplies Vandentiek 16, gravitational water supplies Vandentiek 16, gravitational water supply — гравитационный водопровод _PolŽ₂.

The opposite of gravity-fed water supply is mechanically pressurized water supply: water-supply systems in which water is delivered to the supply network by pumps are called mechanically pressurized; in gravity-fed systems, by contrast, water enters the supply network by gravity, ⟨…⟩ Vandentiek 16. However, these terms are not established; others are also used — pressurized and unpressurized water supply:

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Water-supply systems may be unpressurized or pressurized ŽŪVand 175; pressurized water supply with mechanical water lifting ŽŪVand 6; pressurized water supply with a tower ŽŪVand 6; high-pressure water supply ŽŪVand 7.

Choosing among these non-established names for water-supply systems is largely a matter for specialists. Only in the case of gravity-fed water supply can linguistic arguments also be offered. It, as well as gravity-fed water delivery MelŽ, seems to have a greater defect than gravity flow itself: the mismatching of the components denoting spontaneity (to flow) and purposeful action (to supply). Of course, a water-supply system is not a river: it has valves and taps, and if they are not opened, the water supply will not cease to exist, but neither will there be flow or gravity flow. Nevertheless, to discharge by gravity Vandentiek 307 is least jarring, milk is poured from the tanks by gravity VV II 253 is more so, water is supplied by gravity Vandentiek 30, water is conveyed from the source to the irrigated area and distributed within it by gravity Drėk 21 is more so still, and water was brought to the city center from the Vingriai springs by gravity Vandentiek 7 is most so.

Less problematic in this respect are gravity-flow drainage MelŽ, gravity-flow dewatering MelŽ, gravity-flow irrigation MelŽ, ŽŪŽ, irrigation by gravity MelŽ, gravity-fed irrigation system Drėk 21, gravity-flow channel MelŽ, gravity-flow pipe MelŽ.

6. Suffixal derivatives of prefixed verbs meaning ‘flow’, ‘let’, ‘lead’

There are quite a few suffixal derivatives of prefixed forms of the verb tekėti ‘to flow’ in the terminology of hydrology, geography, land reclamation, and meteorology: intakas ‘tributary’ and the less common ištakas ‘outflow’ (e.g.: The Pisos outflow from Lake Vištytis. Turist 206. Rakyte flows out from the southeastern edge of Rakas. The outflow itself is hidden in dense bulrushes, ‹…› MG 1973 7 34. ‹…› a natural outlet through which the excess water [from the lake] would drain MG 1977 5 16), vandens įtekis — nпумок воды — ‘water flowing into an area’ MelŽ, nuotakas, nuotakis, nuotėkis, protaka, protakas, protakis, protėkis, pertaka, pertakas, prietaka — nпумок — ‘inflow (influx) of water’ MelŽ (and vandens prietaka — nпумок воды ‘inflow of water’ MelŽ, as well as oro prietaka — nпумок воздуха MetŽ, šilumos prietaka — nпумок тепла MetŽ), prietėkis (e.g.: ‹…› inflow of surface and groundwater into the Aral Sea T 1981 70 4), santaka ‘confluence’, užtaka ‘incursion’ (an incursion of cold air in the rear [rearward] of a cyclone) MetŽ), užtakis, užutekis. Thus, almost all the possibilities have been realized. Dialects have several more similar derivatives: aptaka ‘river overflow’, attaka(s) ‘bay; backwater’, atotekis ‘flowing back’.

The key point here is simply the abundance of derivatives and their status as terms. Some are outside the scope of this article. The subject of this subsection calls for a fuller discussion of only a few.

First of all, these are nuotakis and nuotėkis. Sometimes they are treated as variants of a single term, sometimes as two different terms. DŽ₂ gives the second as the main variant: nuotakis see nuotėkis 1. ‘draining, running off: of water, gas, electric current’; 2. spec. ‘quantity of water draining away over a given period’. The second meaning is merely a narrowing (with respect to the objects and quantity) of the first. LKŽ VIII equates them only in part: nuotėkio general meaning ‘draining, running off, current (of water, ga-

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ses, electricity)’ has a narrowed variant (with respect to the objects), ‘water draining over the surface or through the subsoil under the force of gravity’, expressed by the word nuotakis 1; the second meaning of this word is narrowed still further (with respect to quantity)—geogr. ‘quantity of water draining away over a given period’. The same meaning is also given for nuotėkis 2. (while nuotėkis 3. ‘drainage ditch or pipe’, though not explicitly stated, is equivalent to nuotakas 3). The same is true of MelŽ: nuotėkis see nuotakis – сток – 1. ‘quantity of water flowing through a river (or canal) over a given period (day, month, year)’; 2. ‘water draining over the surface or through the subsoil under the effect of gravity’. Nuotakis is also used in PolŽ₁ and ŽŪŽ. It was also more common in land-reclamation literature, e.g.: Some of the precipitation that falls on land runs off over the surface and forms surface water, or surface runoff (rivers, streams, lakes); some seeps into the ground and forms groundwater, or subsurface runoff; some evaporates again Mel 14. The amount of water running off over the surface per unit of time from a given catchment area is called surface runoff Mel 18. But GeolŽ, GeogrŽ, PolŽ₂, and LTE VIII use nuotėkis. It also predominates in more recent land-reclamation literature: Runoff is defined as the quantity of water draining ⟨…⟩ over a given period (hour, day, week, month, year, or many years) Hidrolog 79.

Why did usage fluctuate in this way—GeolŽ used nuotėkis, then nuotakis predominated in many places, and now nuotėkis has once again become established? Apparently, people were wary of ambiguity: nuotėkis is another term—утечка: leakage of gas or heat, leakage of radioactivity FTŽ, PolŽ₂, etc. But there is in fact no ambiguity here, since утечка and сток are concepts from entirely different fields. If they are expressed by the same Lithuanian word, nuotėkis, no one will confuse concepts from the two fields. A third field may have yet a third nuotėkis, e.g.: When sugar is produced according to the two-product scheme, the boiled first massecuite is centrifuged: first green molasses (syrup) is separated from the sugar crystals, and the second massecuite is boiled from it; ⟨…⟩. In the centrifuge, the sugar crystals remaining after centrifugation of the first massecuite are washed with hot water (75–80 °C) or superheated steam. The resulting white molasses is returned for boiling the first massecuite LTE II 448.

The deverbal abstract noun nuotakas is also used. Its system of meanings is broad and contradictory. In DŽ₂ it means 1. ‘river basin’; 2. ‘drainage ditch or pipe’; in LKŽ VIII—1. geogr. ‘drainage area or basin of a river and its tributaries, a lake, or a sea’ (and nuoteka); 2. ‘drainage’ (and nuotaka 1. ‘draining, drainage, running off’); 3. ‘drainage ditch or pipe’; MelŽ—водоотвод ‘drainage ditch or pipe’, but vandens nuotakas – водосток — ‘place where water drains away’ MelŽ, while водоотвод is ‘drain, water conduit’ (and vandens nuvestuvas MelŽ—водоотвод—‘structure for diverting water’, nuvestuvas – водоотводный канал – cf. diversion channel) and водосток—‘water drain’; PolŽ₂ водоотвод—1. water diversion; 2. drain; водосток—1. water drain; 2. storm sewer (PolŽ₂—only storm sewer); водоотводная and отводная, водосточная and сточная канава—drainage ditch, drain (PolŽ₂ водосточная канава—water drainage ditch, отводная канава—drainage ditch); водоотводная труба—drain, drainpipe; отводная труба—drain (PolŽ₂—branch pipe), от-

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vandenų truba – nuotakas (PolŽ₂—drainage, drainage pipe, diversion pipe).

Thus, nuotakas denotes both drainage (natural, directed, diversion) and the corresponding watercourse or conduit (ditch, drain, pipe). In the second meaning, nuotakas is more useful; in the first, nuotaka would be more suitable (2. ‘drainage, running off, drainage flow’: vandens nuotaka DŽ₂), whereas nuotakas (or nuoteka) in the sense of ‘basin’ is obsolete and unnecessary.

Incidentally, nuotakas is used similarly in anatomical nomenclature, e.g.: Veins pass through certain openings in the cranial bones, connecting the sinuses of the dura mater with the veins outside the skull. These are emissary veins, emissaria. They contain emissary veins, venae emissaria. Žmog anat 460. Parietal emissary vein. Mastoid emissary vein. Condylar emissary vein. Occipital emissary vein. Žmog anat 460. Mastoid emissary vein Žmog anat 120.

There is also the adjective nuotakinis, -ė ‘drainage-related’ LKŽ VIII, but for some reason it is hardly used. And the noun nuotakinė, used around Pilviškiai and elsewhere in Suvalkija to mean ‘main drainage ditch’, is not even included in LKŽ.

A look at vernacular speech also reveals suffixal derivatives of the verbs nutraukti, nuleisti ‘to drain off, let down’—nuotrauka: After digging a ditch in the field, a nuotrauka forms anyway Salamiestis. Look how poor the rye is: there was no drainage at all—the water lay stagnant Dovilai; and nuotraukis: There is a lot of water drainage here Ėriškiai; nuolaida ‘a sloping place’: Dig through it—the water is like in a bowl (basin), without any nuolaida Juodaičiai. Water breaking through from the slopes something Piniava, and ‘a small ditch for draining water’: Along the field edge they dig a drainage furrow after sowing the rye A. Juškos žodynas. (The intransitive sense is beginning to be used in nuolyda: Here one can admire both shady Carpathian spruce forests and the spacious slopes of alpine meadows M ir G 1977 4 22.) It is true that MelŽ has nuolaiduma, nuolaida, but they are used only in the sense покатное место, скат—‘sloping place, hillside’. The second meaning is more important for hydrology. In the first meaning, MelŽ has nuolydis—slope of a hillside, bottom, riverbed, water surface; mean flow (perhaps it should be retained only for the pleonastic terms natural and direct gradient, whose meaning correlates with nuotakas and nuotėkis; cf.: The most important morphometric indicator of relief, on which the magnitude of surface runoff largely depends, is slope MG 1977 6 18), replacing the oxymoronic terms artificial slope with the productive term nuolaidis, and reverse slope with pokylis).

In some older bilingual dictionaries, nuovada and nuovadas were also used in the sense ‘diversion pipe’ LKŽ VIII.

By incorporating these words into hydrological terminology, it would be possible to form two microsystems: 1) nuotaka — nuolaida nuovada — nuotrauka and 2) nuotakas — nuolaidas — nuovadas — nuotr aukas. Specialists should decide for themselves whether nuotakui, nuolaidui, nuovadui, nuotr aukui should denote just one kind of watercourse, for example a ditch, or several kinds, such as both a ditch and a pipe; alternatively, they might adopt a different approach—assign these words the general meaning of a related watercourse, and designate the specific types using adjectives derived from them: nuotakinis griovys, nuotakinis ka-

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nalas, drainage drain, drainage pipe and, correspondingly, drainage, outlet, drainage-related, distinguishing them from the corresponding participles – drained, discharged, diverted, withdrawn water.

It is also for specialists to decide whether derivatives from the verbs flow, let, lead with other prefixes are needed, and if so, which ones; for example: inlet, inlet structure, outlet structure, supply inlet, supply pipe, outlet, and so on. Some of these words already exist or have existed in the language; those that do not are easy to coin. Incidentally, some are already used in hydraulic engineering, for example: An inlet is the pipeline installed between the outdoor water-supply network and the water-meter assembly located in a building ŽŪVand 233.

The fact that some of these words (drainage outlet, photograph, outlet structure, inlet, inlet structure, etc.) are already terms in other fields or words in general usage does not prevent them from also becoming terms in hydrology, hydraulic engineering, or land reclamation. The case of runoff examined earlier proves this perfectly. In general, such lexical phenomena are a sign of a developed language.

BRIEF CONCLUSIONS

1. The examination of the terminological linguistic-semantic system “water flow” encompasses several microsystems of realized derivatives (and their naming potential) of the verb flow, its synonyms, hyperonym, causative, and antonyms.

2. Water movement and flow are related as hyperonym and hyponym. The distinguishing components of the meaning of flow are: 1) “current-like, channelled”; 2) “more or less steady”; although it can also be swirling (turbulent), in which case movement (also the movement of vapour) is generally used. Replacing all types—both steady and laminar—with the hyperonym movement is undesirable.

3. Flow, current, flux are not clearly differentiated. Although this does not cause any subject-matter confusion, it is nevertheless an imperfection. A more serious, correctable flaw is the interchangeable use of current (even flow and flux) with srūvis, meaning “part of a flow.”

4. The use of movement for water is limited not only by its semantics and the low derivational productivity of the verb move, but also by the impossibility of forming its prefixed forms. Such forms are available for flow, flowing – inflow, influx, outflow, efflux; circulation, inflow, and many others.

5. Hydrology can hardly be said to lack synonyms expressing the speed and nature of flow: surge, stream, run/ gush, trickle/seep.

6. The causative tekinti is not used in hydrology. In the sense “to let flow,” let is used (as are its prefixed forms release, lower, let in); in the sense “to cause to flow (usually by mechanical means),” lead is used (apparently also divert). The prefixed forms bring to, route around and their derivatives are particularly needed, for example: feeder channel, bypass channel. This is also consistent with the usual expressions bring water in, bring water, (lay) a water supply system. However, leading, most often diverting is often questionable or even unjustified—it is used where (out)letting should be used, for example: drainage water, “water not used for agricultural crops that drains from an irrigated area” Melž.

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7. Whether it flows by itself, is released, or is conducted, water flows all the same. Therefore, to express that it flows by itself, the term savitaka is needed. The adverb savitaka and the adjective savitakis: sausinimas, drėkinimas, kanalas, vamzdis; vandentiekis yra savitakis/gravitacinis (pršng. slėginis), o vanduo – tik gravitacinis (vartojamas gal tik teorijoje – hidrogeologijoje). are also used.

8. To distinguish more strictly among derivatives formed from the endings of prefixed forms of the verb tekėti, derivatives of nutekėti are needed. In keeping with usage that is more or less predominant, the following distinctions are proposed: 1) nuotekis “the quantity of water flowing away over a given period” (obsolete nuotakis), 2) nuotaka “flowing away, drainability” (obsolete nuotakis), 3) nuotakas “an outlet watercourse (ditch, drain, pipe)” (obsolete “river basin”). By incorporating derivatives from the terms and similar forms in older dictionaries—nuleisti, nuvesti, nutraukti—two hydrology microsystems could be formed: 1) nuotaka – nuolaida – nuovada – nuotrauka and 2) watercourses: nuotakas – nuolaidas – nuovadas – nuotraukas, with the corresponding specific forms: nuotakinis – nuolaidinis – nuovadinis – nuotraukinis ditch, canal, pipe (only the water itself should be called nutekamasis – nuleidžiamasis – nuvedamasis – nutraukiamasis). If needed, similar derivatives can also be formed from other similar prefixed verbs: įlaida, išlaida, įlaidas, išlaidas, įvada, išvada, įvadas, išvadas, … The fact that some of these—nuotaka, nuotrauka, nuovadas, įlaidas, įvadas, among others—are already terms in other fields or words in general use does not prevent them from also becoming terms in hydrology, hydraulic engineering, and land reclamation. Such lexical phenomena are a sign of a developed language.

ABBREVIATIONS

The same abbreviations are used here as in the author’s article “Land Reclamation, Drainage, Irrigation,” cited in footnote 1.

PolŽ is denoted here as PolŽ₁.

Additionally used:

FTŽ – Fizikos terminų žodynas / Red. P. Brazdžiūnas. V., 1980.

PolŽ₂ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechnikos žodynas / Sudarė G. Daugėla. V., 1984.

Vandentiek – Vabaliečius S. Vandentiekis ir kanalizacija. V., 1954.

VN – Evening News.

VV I – Klenikovas V., Iljinas N. Automobile / First-Class Driver’s Manual. V., 1976.

VV II – Sabininas A., Plechanovas I., Černiaikinas V. Automobile / Second-Class Driver’s Manual. V., 1973.

Й. КЛИМАВИЧЮС

SOME MICROSYSTEMS OF HYDROLOGICAL TERMS

(Water flow)

Abstract

The study of the linguistic term system “water flow” draws on the semantics and word-formation realizations and potential of the verb tekėti “to flow” and encompasses several microsystems that also employ derivatives of its synonyms, hyperonym, causative, and antonyms. Existing shortcomings, fluctuations, and imperfections are identified, along with their causes, and specific measures for eliminating them are proposed.