ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA

XLIV (2001), 55–69

Person designations expressed by verbal mobile nouns (substantiva mobilia)

JUDITA DŽEŽULSKIENĖ

Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Kaunas

The article deals with Lithuanian motion nouns (substantiva mobilia) such as mokytojas, -a. They occur in pairs of related nouns sharing a similar stem and a similar formant but with different inflectional endings according to natural gender. Their gender is determined by their meaning (and redundantly by their morphology): they are masculine or feminine according to the sex of the referent. Motion nouns are one of the largest groups of nouns denoting human beings in Lithuanian. According to derivational meanings, underlying stems, formants and semantic factors, they can be divided into two subgroups: actors and possessors of verbal properties. Their ratio is 53,6% to 46,3%. Together they form a distinct category of human nouns, comparable to such categories as action nouns, names of instruments etc. The derivational model of motion nouns enables the creation of new units of this type in a quite regular way. As a result, this group is open and productive.

0. INTRODUCTION

0.1. One of the largest groups of person designations in Lithuanian consists of mobile nouns, or “substantiva mobilia” (hereafter SM), which denote persons and form gender pairs. They have the same lexical stem (but the same derivational formants), but different masculine and feminine gender endings that indicate referents of different sexes. Their lexical stem meaning does not differ, e.g., dažytojas, -a means ‘one who paints’; only the assignment of that meaning to different sexes varies: for instance, if the referent is male, the masculine ending is attached—dažytojas—whereas if the referent is a woman, the feminine ending is attached to the stem—dažytoja; cf.: bedarbis, bedarbė; drabužininkas, drabužininkė; juokdarys, juokdarė.

0.2. From the perspective of word formation, the SM group of person designations comprises simple, non-derived words of the našlys, -ė type and derivatives (e.g., mokytojas, -a, plepys, -ė, pameistrys, -ė, juodadarbis, -ė). There are very few non-derived SM designations. They make up 0.8% of all SM person designations¹. The remainder are derivatives, which are particularly numerous. Such person designations are formed from verbs and nominal words (or words related to them). All possible word-formation methods are used: suffixation, prefixation, ending-based derivation, and compounding-

¹ International words are not included.

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and blending. A considerable number of derivational formants are used to form them: 55 suffixes, 3 endings, and about 15 endings with consonantal formants (see 3.2.). Such noun pairs are possible from almost every verb with a particular suffix and ending. It may be said that the SM derivational class in Lithuanian is open. Moreover, SM nouns stand out from the entire lexical class of person designations for their diversity and breadth across the semantic scale encompassing human life and ways of life: they designate persons according to the activity they perform, their profession, affiliation, social status, qualities they possess, or other aspects².

0.3. Such mobile nouns are also used in other Indo-European languages, both ancient ones—for example, in Latin dominus ‘master’, domina ‘mistress’; Greek δοῦλος ‘slave’, δούλη ‘female slave’; Sanskrit dasā- ‘slave’, dasī- ‘female slave’; Gothic magus ‘servant’, mawi ‘maid’; Old Church Slavonic pabъ ‘slave’, paba ‘female slave’—and modern ones, for example, Spanish amigo ‘friend’, amiga ‘female friend’, hijo ‘son’, hija ‘daughter’; French cousin ‘male cousin’, cousine ‘female cousin’; German Lehrer ‘male teacher’, Lehrerin ‘female teacher’; Russian работник ‘male worker’, работница ‘female worker’; Latvian skolotājs ‘male teacher’, skolotāja ‘female teacher’. In comparison with other languages, however, this SM class in Lithuanian is particularly productive, numerous, and regular. It should also be noted that the grammatical gender of Lithuanian mobile nouns is consistently associated with the sex of the referents (a male referent is designated by a noun with a masculine ending, a female referent by a noun with an ending characteristic of the feminine gender), whereas in many Indo-European languages these associations are not constant (Corbett 1991: 57–68).

0.4. SM nouns have been examined in various linguistic studies concerned with word formation and morphology in Lithuanian (and Baltic languages in general). From a historical perspective, Lithuanian mobile nouns were studied by A. Leskien (1891), P. Skardžius (1943), J. Otrębskis (1965), and S. Ambrazas (1993). Mobile nouns have also attracted the interest of other linguists (notably S. Keinys 1999, A. Valeckienė 1998). However, none of these authors examined SM nouns specifically or differentiated them. The most comprehensive and thorough synchronic description was provided by V. Urbutis (1965: 251–474). In his work, however, person designations are also discussed alongside other derivatives of a similar type, without taking into account that a single derivational category includes nouns denoting both animate and inanimate entities, e.g., sugyventinis, -ė and sumuštinis, turčiuolis, -ė and meduolis (see Urbutis 1965: 323, 346). Moreover, the derivational categories identified there as including SM person designations turn out to encompass derivatives formed in different ways: for example, labels for bearers of a verbal characteristic and for agents of an action are grouped together, e.g., vyšniautojas, -a and gydytojas, -a, apgavikas, -ė and nešikas, -ė (Urbutis 1965: 318, 320), although they are not uniform in terms of derivation or meaning. In addition, SM nouns are scattered across separate derivational categories (Urbutis, 1965: 317–414). Thus, it may be said that the class of persons as a separate group has not hitherto been brought into focus or specifically examined. This is naturally due to the different aims pursued by the researchers.

² Other person designations, e.g., suppletive designations of the tėvas – motina type, reflect only kinship relations, while so-called “common-gender” nouns designate persons, most often pejoratively—vėpla, kerėpla.

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0.5. The aim of our work is to present a working “category of persons,” which includes names of agents derived from verbs and names of possessors of a property derived from verbs and nouns. However, this article will be confined to verbal SM formations, which constitute 60.4% of all SM formations denoting persons. It will highlight the meanings, bases, and formatives of such names and provide statistical data.

1. DERIVATIONAL MEANINGS OF VERBAL SM FORMATIONS

1.1. In linguistics, word-formation meaning is defined as the meaning arising from the structural components of a derived word (the base word and formatives) and the relationship between them. In other words, it is based on a derivational opposition, that is, the relationship between a derived word and its base word (or words) (Urbutis 1978: 145). Thus, a derived word is related to its base word in both form and meaning. For instance, the derivative šlavėjas, -a ‘one who sweeps’ retains the meaning ‘to clean, brush with a broom’ and the past-tense stem of the base verb šluoti, šluoja, šlavė. The ending -as included in the derivational formative -ėjas, -a indicates that this noun denotes a male agent, while the ending -a denotes a female agent. The word’s derivational meaning is ‘one who sweeps’ (‘one who can only be a human being’). This is an individual (single-word) derivational meaning.

1.2. The same derivational meanings can be expressed by both suffixal and inflectional verbal derivatives (cf. knisėjas, -a, knisikas, -ė and knisius, -ė), as well as by formations with a second supporting verbal component (cf. py nėjas, -a and vainikpynis, -ė). The more general meaning of similar verbal formations differing in derivational type (e.g., gamintojas, -a, verpėjas, -a, sėjikas, -ė, žymininkas, -ė, sargas, -ė, duonkepys, -ė) is ‘one who performs the action denoted by the base verb’. Formations with this more abstract categorial meaning, created in various ways (and with different formatives), have the derivational meaning of agents.

1.3. Another group of verbal formations has a different, more abstract meaning: they have a descriptive meaning and indicate that the person denoted is characterized by a property arising from an action (or state). For instance, the derivative miegalius, -ė denotes not ‘one who sleeps’, but ‘one who likes to sleep for a long time, one who has the characteristic of sleeping’. The most general derivational meaning of this type of formation is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from an action (or state) performed or experienced by them (rarely, by someone else), as expressed by the base word’. Formations with this categorial derivational meaning, created in various ways (e.g., gy rūnas, -ė, murmėklis, -ė, įkaitas, -ė, terlius, -ė, pirmāgimis, -ė), have the derivational meaning of possessors of a verbal property.

Thus, according to the more abstract categorial derivational meaning arising from verbal formations created in various ways, SM names for persons can be of two kinds: some denote agents of the action expressed by the base word, while others denote those who possess, as their own characteristic, the action expressed by the base word (cf. conclusions).

2. DERIVATIONAL BASE

2.1. In linguistics, a base word is a word on which one relies when forming another word, or from which another word is derived. However, when discussing the base of a formation

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…that, it is viewed not as an isolated lexical part of a word (a stem), but as encompassing the entire base word, with its grammatical and lexical properties (Urbutis 1978: 152). They play a considerable role in the formation of derivational meaning in general. Therefore, when selecting verbal SM personal designations, the entire set of interrelated properties of the base verbs is important: semantic components, relationship to an object (transitivity), the type of process denoted, complexity of stem structure, and relationship to verbal tense.

2.2. DETERMINING WORD CLASS. When identifying the base words for designations of agents, there is no doubt: they are all verbs. The second, head constituent of compound words is also always verbal. Thus, the derivative mokytojas, -a is formed from mokyti, kūrėjas, -a from kurti, prausikas, -ė from prausti. However, when determining the base words for designations of bearers of a property, it is sometimes difficult to say which word class—a verb or an adjective—should be considered the head. For example, the derivative in the ending -ius, -ė žabalius, -ė may be based on either the verb žabalti or the adjective žabalas, -a. Cf.: vizgis, -ė (: vizgūs, vizgėti), vingilis, -ė (: vingūs, vingiuoti), tylėnis, -ė (: tylūs, tylėti). Of course, it is sometimes useful to draw on other derivatives with analogous semantics and form that may help identify the base word or determine which word should be given priority. For instance, the derivative in the ending -ys, -ė nebylys, -ė may be based on both nebilti and nebylūs, but comparison with a derivative in the same ending, neregys, -ė: neregėti, neregì, suggests that it is a verbal derivative. Alternatively, it is sometimes useful to consider what is used to explain the derivative’s meaning. For example, pliuškis, -ė, pejorative: 1. ‘someone who likes to dress up too much’, 2. ‘a frivolous, flighty person’, would appear to be based on the adjective pliuškus, -i, 1. ‘one who dresses up too much’, 2. ‘frivolous, flighty’, whereas pliuškis, -ė, 3. ‘a chatterbox, prattler’, is based on the verb pliuškėti, 3. ‘to talk nonsense’. Sometimes, however, it is more appropriate to indicate both base words. The uncertain status of the base word for some designations of bearers of properties is probably due to the derivative’s pronounced descriptive meaning, which is more closely associated with the adjective naming the property than with the state from which that descriptive property arises. It should be added, however, that difficulty in determining the direction of derivation is common in linguistics (Zverev 1972: 75–76; Urbutis 1978: 73–78).

2.3. SEMANTIC COMPONENTS ‘ACTIVE’: ‘NON-ACTIVE’. For verbal derivatives, reliance on the categorical semantic components ‘active’: ‘non-active’ of base verbs is very important; these components provide the basis for dividing verbs into words denoting volitional action and involuntary state (Servaitė 1984: 77–85). Designations of agents are never derived from verbs of state. For example, from the verbs miegóti, sirgti, tingėti, only designations of bearers of properties are possible: miegalius, -ė, sirgalius, -ė, tinginys, -ė. For example, from the polysemous verb išdirbti, in the sense ‘spend time working, e.g., išdirbti aštuonias valandas’, we cannot derive an agent designation *aštuonių valandų išdirbėjas, -a, because this sense denotes a state. But from another sense of the same verb, ‘to make suitable’, an agent designation with the suffix -ėjas, -a is possible, e.g., odos išdirbėjas, -a ‘leather tanner’, since in this sense the base verb denotes an active action dependent on the agent’s will. Thus, this phenomenon is clearly determined by the word-formation system.

2.4. ACTION’S RELATIONSHIP TO THE OBJECT. The action’s relationship to the object is a fairly important semantic property of the base verbs for personal designations. The SM agent designations

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(with the exception of designations for bearers of dynamic states) are derived only from active, volitional actions that have a relationship to an object. This relationship is twofold: an action may be directed toward an object or associated with an object. The object toward which an action is directed functions as the result of the action (e.g., nerti pirštines ‘knit gloves’) or as the patient (e.g., mindyti žolę ‘trample grass’), whereas an object associated with an action functions as the content (e.g., aiškinti pamoką ‘explain a lesson’) or beneficiary (e.g., pagelbėti draugui ‘help a friend’) (Jakaitienė 1988: 59–64; Sližienė 1994: 19–25; Valeckienė 1998: 35–37). The meanings of agent designations are likewise based on meanings of the base words that arise from the relationship between the action performed by a person and the action’s object, e.g.: gamintojas, -a, pilstytojas, -a, vežikas, -ė, dėstytojas, -a, pasakotojas, -a, sveikintojas, -a. Naming a specific object is not necessary for the meaning of a derivative: it does not matter what nešikas, -ė carries or what vežėjas, -a transports. Only in personal designations formed by compounding does the first constituent specify the object toward which the person’s action, expressed by the head constituent, is directed. This narrows the meaning of that action; cf. nešėjas, -a, nešikas, -ė and knygnešys, -ė; vežėjas, -a, vežikas, -ė and malkevežys, -ė; kepėjas, -a, kepikas, -ė and duonkepys, -ė.

Individual sememes of polysemous SM personal designations may belong to different derivational categories, depending on the relationship to an object—or the transitivity—of the actions denoted by their base verbs. For example, the first sememe of the derivative šaukinas, -ė, meaning ‘a shouter, screamer’, is based on the meaning ‘to shout, scream’ of the base verb šaukti, which has no relationship to an object. The second sememe of šaukinas, -ė, however, denotes ‘a person who used to announce official news to people’, that is, it is based on the verb’s sememe ‘to summon, invite’, which has a relationship to an object. Therefore, šaukinas, -ė (1) belongs to the class of designations of bearers of properties, whereas šaukinas, -ė (2) belongs to the class of agent designations.

2.5. TYPES OF PROCESSES. The different types of processes denoted by base verbs (for more detail, see Halliday 1985; Valeckienė 1998: 34–55) are also important for the derivational categories of SM personal designations.

For example, agent designations are always derived only from verbs of a type whose denoted action can be performed by a person serving the semantic function of agent (AG). The semantic-function formulae for such base verbs are as follows: AG – V – O (REZ, PAT, CON, BEN): kapoti, šukuoti, sakyti, padėti. When the subject has another function—that of perceiver (PER), patient (PAT), or beneficiary (BEN)—the verbs can serve only as base words for designations of bearers of verbal properties (e.g., myletojas, -a, mėgėjas, -a, abe joklis, -ė, turėtojas, -a).

Only agent designations are derived from verbs denoting physical, material actions performed by people that achieve a certain result (AG – V – REZ), e.g.: audėjas, -a, drožikas, -ė, statytojas, -a. No designations of bearers of properties are derived from verbs of this type (e.g., gaminti, pjaustyti, minti).

Although verbs denoting certain types of processes (e.g., mental processes, reciprocal relations, perceptions) express an active effort by a person to bring an object or matter into the sphere of an action, usually without affecting it, derivatives of such verbs are not very semantically compatible with derivatives of verbs that govern a salient object (REZ, PAT) (Labutis 1994: 49). Agent designations are not possible from all verbs of this type, e.g.: baigti darbą > *baigėjas, -a, užmiršti knygą > *užmiršėjas, -a, but užmiršėlis, -ė; pradėti paskaitą > *pradėjikas, -ė.

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2.6. STEM STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY. Only personal names with the suffix -ikas, -ė are divided into different groups of action performers and bearers of a characteristic according to the structural complexity of the stem. Names of action performers with the suffix -ikas, -ė are not formed from prefixed verbs: derivatives formed from such words denote only bearers of a characteristic, e.g.: apgavikas, -ė, įdavikas, -ė, išdavikas, -ė, pakalikas, -ė, pardavikas, -ė, prigavikas, -ė, cf. nešikas, -ė, vežikas, -ė. Derivatives with other suffixes of this meaning may also have stems of prefixed base verbs, e.g.: įkainotojas, -a, pardavinėtojas, -a, užrašytojas, -a, nuleidėjas, -a, sukirpėjas, -a alongside davėjas, -a, rašytojas, -a. Reflexivity is not characteristic of the base stems of action-performer names: the few derivatives with the suffix -tojas, -a that retain reflexivity are merely artificial formations (e.g.: pasikėsintojas, -a, pasisavintojas, -a).

3. WORD-FORMATION FORMANT

3.1. In keeping with the theoretical requirement to analyze derivatives binarily, a derivative formant is distinguished in addition to the derivational base. In linguistics, a word-formation formant is defined as the set of formal word-formation devices (Urbutis 1978: 209) used to form new words with a new derivational meaning.

The word-formation formants of SM nouns denoting persons by gender have an obligatory component—the masculine or feminine ending. Different endings do not undermine the unity of the word-formation formant at all, since their selection depends on the gender of the referent being named. Thus, the derivatives dažytojas, dažytoja are considered derivatives formed with a single word-formation formant—the suffix -tojas, -a. Also: rėplys, rėplė are derivatives with the ending -ys, -ė; vyndarys, vyndarė are compounds formed with the same word-formation formant³.

3.2. The category of action-performer names is not characterized by a diversity of word-formation types: 85.3% of such derivatives are formed with just three more frequent suffixes (-tojas, -a: skirstytojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: pirkėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: šėrikas, -ė); the other four are merely rare exceptions (-ovas, -ė: rangovas, -ė, -ininkas, -ė: tvāristininkas, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: šaukūnas, -ė, -onas, -ė: valdōnas, -ė). 10.6% of action-performer names are formed by compounding a noun and a verb (ūkvedys, -ė), while the ending is a rather atypical and rare (1.1%) formant for action-performer names (notable pure derivational endings include -as, -ė: vadas, -ė, -ius, -ė: knišius, -ė and the extended ending⁴ -lys (-lis), -ė: seklys, -ė). However, it should be emphasized that the word-formation types involving the suffixes -tojas, -a, -ėjas, -ė, -ikas, -ė and compounds with a verbal component as their head are highly productive and, one might say, regular.

The category of bearers of a verbal characteristic is characterized by a wealth of word-formation types: such names are formed with 31 suffixes and their variants (more often with -ėlis, -ė: išbadėjėlis, -ė, -tojas, -a: sąvadautojas, -a, -ūnas, -ė: atskalūnas, -ė, -(t)inis (-(t)inys), -ė: statytinis, -ė, valdinys, -ė, -alius, -ė: sirgalius, -ė, -ėjas, -a: griežėjas, -a, -eklis, -ė: stenėklis, -ė, -ikas,

³ The word-formation formant of compounds is complex. It consists of a particular ending and, at the same time, the juncture of the base stems, which joins the stems of two words into one word (see Urbutis 1978: 88).

⁴ Endings with desemanticized consonantal formants are called extended derivational endings. They are endings similar in formal expression and identical in derivational meaning, realized in different environments (for more, see Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 191–192, 202–203, 223; Valeckienė 1996: 125–131, 1998: 312; cf. Knūkšta 1976: 11–12).

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-ė: išdavikas, -ė, -(t)ukas, -ė: peštukas, -ė, slapukas, -ė, -uolis, -ė: varguolis, -ė, -ovas, -ė: varžovas, -ė, -(t)ininkas, -ė: samdininkas, -ė, būr-tininkas, -ė, -ulis (-ulys), -ė: dundulis, -ė, žindulys, -ė, (t)uoklis, -ė: pavyduoklis, -ė), 3 with endings and 15 with extended endings (more often with -ius, -ė: terlius, -ė, -is (-ys), -ė: žliumbis, -ė, -lys, -ė: kamšlys, -ė, -klis, -ė: kvatoklis, -ė) and by compounding the supporting verb with a first component that is a noun (pilvakalbis, -ė), adjective (piktdžiugis, -ė), more rarely a numeral (pirmagimis, -ė), pronoun (kitamanis, -ė), or adverb (meiliakalbis, -ė). But most of these word-formation types are unproductive—only a few formations are made according to them.

3.3. Some suffixes and endings forming names of verbal-property bearers are the same as those forming names of nominal-property bearers; cf.: -uolis, -ė: smirduolis, -ė (: smirdi) and aistruolis, -ė (: aistra), kantruolis, -ė (: kantrus), vienuolis, -ė (: vienas); -(t)ininkas, -ė: būrtininkas, -ė (: burti) and jūrininkas, -ė (: jūra), pirmininkas, -ė (: pirmas); -ius, -ė: snaudžius, -dė (: snaudžia, snaudė) and klumpius, -ė (: klumpė), būsius, -ė (: būsas). For example, derivatives in -ūnas, -ė formed from a verb, noun, adjective, and numeral, such as: pagrūnas, -ė (: pagrūė), pareigūnas, -ė (: pareiga), žymūnas, -ė (: žymus), pirmūnas, -ė (: pirmas), have the same categorial word-formation meaning, ‘someone who has the thing expressed by the base word as a characteristic’, and can be grouped into a single word-formation category, in this case the category of “property bearers”.

4. SEMANTICS OF PERSONAL DESIGNATIONS

4.1. Verbal personal designations name people of different genders according to various aspects of human existence: activity, profession, occupation, incidental actions, conduct, and permanent, incidental, or changing states.

4.2. SEMANTIC COMPONENTS. The SM nouns denoting people are divided into groups of names for agents and names for property bearers on the basis of the categorical semantic components ‘active’: ‘inactive’, ‘has a relation to an object’: ‘has no relation to an object’, ‘object-oriented’: ‘associated with an object’, ‘result-oriented’: ‘experiencer-oriented’. Words bearing the features ‘active’ and ‘has a relation to an object’ are names for agents (e.g., lipdytojas, -a, mokytojas, -a). Words bearing the features ‘active’ and ‘associated with an object’ (e.g., tauškalius, -ė, prasimanynėlis, -ė), ‘has no relation to an object’ (e.g., žuvautojas, -a, kariuomeninkas, -ė), or the component ‘inactive’ (e.g., tinginys, -ė, nusinėlis, -ė), as well as words that do not differentiate the opposition ‘active’: ‘inactive’ at all (verbal designations denoting personal properties arising from actions performed by another person and directed at the person named, e.g., tremtinys, -ė, palikuonis, -ė; and some evaluative designations, e.g., netikėlis, -ė, smirdalius, -ė) are names for property bearers. There are, of course, exceptions: for example, names for agents denoting participants in dynamic states have the semantic component ‘has no relation to an object’ (cf. ėjikas, -ė, plaukėjas, -a), while names for property bearers denoting people by occupation have the component ‘experiencer-oriented’ (cf. ėdūnas, -ė, kamšlys, -ė). However, names for agents never have the component ‘inactive’, and names for property bearers never have ‘result-oriented’ (see 2.5.).

4.3. ADDITIONAL SEME. The nature of the lexical and word-formation meanings of verbal derivatives is also of considerable significance

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and varies: in some, the two meanings approximately coincide; in others, they differ more markedly.

4.3.1. Derivatives whose lexical and word-formation meanings approximately coincide are formed from bases without additional semantic components⁵, e.g.: auklėtojas, -a ‘one who educates’, nešikas, -ė ‘one who carries’, kepėjas, -a ‘one who bakes’. Almost all names for agents belong to this type.

4.3.2. The word-formation meaning of names for property bearers often includes a semantic increment (cf. Ermakova, 1984: 6), that is, additional semes compared with the lexical meaning of the derivative, e.g.: ‘someone who likes doing something’ (dabišius, -ė, pašai̇̃pūnas, -ė), ‘participant in a certain action’ (pašnekovas, -ė), ‘someone who does a lot of something’ (bėgūnas, -ė, kamšlys, -ė, pažadūnas, -ė), ‘someone who does something in a certain way (for a long time, often, quickly)’ (krapštukas, -ė, keiksnys, -ė, plėšūnas, -ė), and so on. Comparing lexical and word-formation meanings is often an additional criterion for determining the meaning of verbal derivatives. For example, personal designations based on verbs of the same type, with the components ‘active’ and ‘has a relation to an object’, can sometimes denote either agents or property bearers, depending on the person’s relation to the action: whether the person merely performs it or likes doing it, does it often, and so on—in other words, whether there is a semantic increment. Thus, we classify the nouns bėgikas, -ė ‘one who runs’ and keikikas, -ė ‘one who curses’, which lack additional semes, as names for agents, whereas derivatives from the same bases, bėgūnas, -ė, keiksnys, -ė, keiksmininkas, -ė ‘someone who curses constantly, likes to swear’, which have the semantic increment ‘constantly’, ‘someone who likes doing it’, are classified as names for bearers of verbal properties. Cf. also kaūlytojas, -a ‘one who begs’ and kaulys, -ė ‘one who begs constantly’, gėrikas, -ė ‘one who drinks’ and gėrovas, -ė ‘drunkard’, girtuoklis, -ė ‘someone who gets drunk, often becomes intoxicated’.

4.4. NEUTRALITY. Names for agents are evaluatively neutral. Most names for bearers of verbal properties have a derogatory, pejorative, or ironic meaning, arising from the meaning of the base verb, which is not evaluatively neutral, e.g.: ryjikas, -ė, krapalius, -ė ‘someone who walks unsteadily’, bambėklis, -ė, zyzeklis, -ė. A person’s appearance, character, behavior, or what has happened to them may all be viewed negatively (e.g.: nutūkelis, -ė, žėliūnas, -ė ‘someone overgrown with hair’, paleistuvis, -ė, jūželis, -ė, klaikšis, -ė, suškis, -ė). Even when one or another designation has a positive connotation, it often also conveys an ironic attitude: pralobėlis, -ė, įsimylėjėlis, -ė. Because of these motivations for use, many names for bearers of verbal properties belong only to colloquial speech.

4.5. RELATION TO THE MEANINGS OF BASE WORDS. The meanings of SM pairs denoting people derive from actions performed by the person themselves (rarely another person) and states experienced by them, as expressed by the meanings of the base words. The meanings of the derivatives are therefore close to those of their base words, although they do not coincide completely.

4.6. MEANINGS OF NAMES FOR AGENTS. Names for agents can denote performers of physical, material, and mental actions; speakers; and participants in interpersonal relations, sensations, and dynamic actions:

4.6.1. NAMES FOR PERFORMERS OF PHYSICAL, MATERIAL ACTIONS – these are SM nouns denoting people who perform physical, material actions directed toward

⁵When determining whether lexical and word-formation meanings are identical, definitions given in DLKŽ are most often used.

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object. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person who performs a physical, material action directly directed at an object, as denoted by the base word’. Depending on the nature of the action denoted by the base words, they may refer to performers of processes, makers of things, and agents who change the state of things⁶.

4.6.1.1. NAMES OF PROCESS PERFORMERS are formed with suffixes (exceptionally, with an ending) and by compounding from verbs denoting an object-oriented action conceived of as a process, without a result, e.g.: -tojas, -a: perdavinėtojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: vežėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: rinkikas, -ė, -lys (-lis), -ė: pirklys, -ė, perpirklis, -ė, -ovas, -ė: varovas, -ė 1. ‘one who drives livestock’, -ius, -ė: knisius, -ė; vainiksegi̇s, -ė.

4.6.1.2. NAMES OF MAKERS OF THINGS are formed with suffixes and by compounding from transitive, object-oriented verbs denoting the making of a particular thing, conceived of as the result of an action, in which the thing is changed, e.g.: -tojas, -a: pjautytojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: mezgėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: malikas, -ė; žvakdarys, -ė.

4.6.1.3. NAMES OF AGENTS WHO CHANGE THE STATE OF THINGS are formed with suffixes and by compounding from verbs denoting a particular object-oriented action in which the state of a thing, conceived of as a patient, is described, e.g.: -tojas, -a: šukuotojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: skalbėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: šveitikas, -ė, -ininkas, -ė: glaistinininkas, -ė, -ovas, -ė: tvarkovas, -ė; knygrišys, -ė.

4.6.2. NAMES OF PERFORMERS OF MENTAL ACTIONS are SM names denoting persons who perform actions conditioned by a person's intellectual qualities and abilities. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person who performs a mental action related to an object, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes and by compounding, e.g.: -tojas, -a: dėstytojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: vertėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: spėjikas, -ė, -ovas, -ė: užsakovas, -ė; raštvedys, -ė.

4.6.3. SPEAKER NAMES are SM nouns denoting persons who perform speech acts related to an object but not directed toward it. The derivational meaning of such names is: ‘a person who performs an object-related speech act, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes (rarely with endings), e.g.: -tojas, -a: kalbėtojas, -a, pasakotojas, -a, sakytojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: skelbėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: skelbikas, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: šauktūnas, -ė 2. ‘one who reports’, -lys, -ė: šauklys, -ė 1. ‘a person who conveys news’.

4.6.4. NAMES OF PARTICIPANTS IN RECIPROCAL RELATIONS denote persons who perform actions conditioned by reciprocal relations between an agent and an object. The derivational meaning of such SM formations is: ‘a person who performs an action, named by the base word, conditioned by reciprocal relations between an agent and an object’. They are formed with suffixes (rarely with an ending), e.g.: -tojas, -a: sveikintojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: gerbėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: gyny­kas, -ė, -lys, -ė: kvieslys, -ė.

A distinct group of names of participants in reciprocal relations denotes persons according to the acts of CARE (protection, guarding, herding) they perform, which may be understood as a state. These are SM nouns formed with suffixes (rarely endings) and compounds, e.g.: -tojas, -a: globotojas, -a, -ovas, -ė: valdovas, -ė, -onas, -ė: valdōnas, -ė archaic, -inin­kas, -ė: valdininkas, -ė, -as, -ė: sargas, -ė; aviganis, -ė.

⁶ This classification is conditional, since sometimes the functional role of the object depends on the lexical meaning of the words. Cf. pjauti šieną (there is no result), pjauti lentas (a result is intended).

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4.6.5. NAMES OF PERCEIVERS OF SENSATIONS – these are prefixal (rarely suffixal) SM nouns denoting persons who voluntarily perform psychophysical actions related to an object. The derivational meaning of these personal names is: ‘a person who voluntarily perceives sensations related to an object, named by the base word’, e.g.: -tojas, -a: klausytojas, -a, stebėtojas, -a, ūostytojas, -a, -ovas, -ė: žiūrovas, -ė, -as, -ė: žvalgas, -ė.

4.6.6. NAMES OF PERFORMERS OF DYNAMIC ACTIONS with suffixes are derived from intransitive verbs denoting active actions not oriented toward an object, namely voluntary dynamic movements performed by a person and perceived as a certain state, e.g.: -tojas, -a: lakstytojas, -a, -ėjas, -a: ėjėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: čiuožikas, -ė.

4.7. MEANINGS OF NAMES OF BEARERS OF VERBAL PROPERTIES. Such SM nouns name persons characterized by their occupation, interpersonal relationships, mental activity, dynamic actions, sounds produced voluntarily or involuntarily, involuntary physical, changing physical, mental, or existential states, the outcome of a process they experience, or extraneous actions directed at them.

4.7.1. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY VOLUNTARY ACTIONS can be divided into five types:

4.7.1.1. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY THEIR OCCUPATION – these are SM nouns denoting persons whose characteristic derives from an active, voluntary action they perform, one that indicates a propensity or occupation in some activity. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a trait arising from their occupation, named by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, and by compounding, e.g.: -tojas, -a: meškeriotojas, -a, -ūnas, -ė: krapštūnas, -ė, -ėlis, -ė: sukilėlis, -ė, -ėjas, -a: būrėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: lošikas, -ė, -alius, -ė: rūkal(i)us, -ė, -iūgas, -ė: smaliūgas, -ė (: smilti, smilūs) ‘smaližius’, -ninkas, -ė: kariaunininkas, -ė, -ovas, -ė: gerovas, -ė, -uoklis, -ė: rijūoklis, -ė, -uonis, -ė: grobuonis, -ė, -lys, -ė: šaulys, -ė, -klys, -ė: žūklys, -ė (: žūti), -nius, -ė: puošnius, -ė (: puošti); pilvapenys, -ė, veltėdys, -ė.

4.7.1.2. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS denote persons whose characteristics derive from actions or states they experience as a result of their interpersonal relationships. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a trait arising from the base verb they experience, which names an interpersonal relationship’. These are prefixal and ending-based derivatives, and compounds, e.g.: -tojas, -a: meil(i)kautojas, -a, -ūnas, -ė: grūnas, -ė, -ėlis, -ė: susimokėlis, -ė, -ikas, -ė: apgavikas, -ė, -tukas, -ė: muščiukas, -ė, -ėjas, -a: kropėjas, -a, -okas, -ė: šaipokas, -ė, -uolis, -ė: pašai(u)olis, -ė, -ovas, -ė: sugerovas, -ė, -tinis, -ė: sugyventinis, -ė, -iūgas, -ė: viliūgas, -ė (: vilti); -ys, -ė: kaul(i)ys, -ė (: kaulyti), -klis, -ė: didžiuoklis, -ė ‘one who is proud’, -snys, -ė: keiksnys, -ė; miglapūtys, -ė, padlaižys, -ė.

Nouns denoting persons characterized by interpersonal relationships could also include those naming persons according to acts of RECEIVING, TAKING. These are prefixal derivatives and compounds, e.g.: -ėjas, -a: gavėjas, -a, įgijėjas, -a, -tojas, -a: paveldėtojas, -a, laimėtojas, -a, -ikas, -ė: ėmikas, -ė; duonpelnys, -ė.

4.7.1.3. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY DYNAMIC ACTIONS – these are SM nouns based on verbs denoting movement or other mobility and naming persons whose characteristic derives from the movement actions they perform, perceived as

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state. The derivational meaning of names of this type is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the dynamic state expressed by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, or by compounding, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: nuklėdis, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: bėgūnas, -ė, -tojas, -a: iškylautojas, -a, -alius, -ė: virtalius, -ė ‘one who walks along in a winding line’, -ninkas, -ė: keliaunininkas, -ė, -uklis, -ė: virtuklis, -ė, -uolis, -ė: nerimuolis, -ė ‘a restless person’; -is, -ė: klibis, -ė, -lys, -ė: šoklys, -ė, -vis, -ė: ateivis, -ė, -klis, -ė: klajoklis, -ė, -ius, -ė: krapalius, -ė (: krapalioti) ‘one who walks unsteadily on their feet’, -šis, -ė: nepaslankšis, -ė; purvabridys, -ė, aukštalipis, -ė.

4.7.1.4. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY MENTAL ACTIVITY are SM nouns denoting persons whose property arises from states conditioned by the person’s mental qualities and abilities. The derivational meaning of these names is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the mental state they experience, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, or by compounding, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: užmišėlis, -ė, -tojas, -a: mąstytojas, -a, -iūnas, -ė: žiniūnas, -ė, -ovas, -ė: žinovas, -ė, -inys, -ė: mokinys, -ė, -iūgas, -ė: pramaniūgas, -ė, -iuonis, -ė: žiniuonis, -ė, -klis, -ė: abejoklis, -ė, -ys, -ė: žynys, -ė; laisvamānis, -ė, aklātikis, -ė.

4.7.1.5. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY VOLUNTARILY PRODUCED SOUNDS are SM nouns denoting persons whose property arises from the act of producing sounds through their own efforts. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the act of producing sounds voluntarily, as performed by them and denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, or by compounding, e.g.: -tojas, -a: švilpautojas, -a, -eklis, -ė: bambėklis, -ė, -alius, -ė: tauškalius, -ė, -utis, -ė: čiauškutis, -ė, -ėjas, -a: švilpėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: švilpikas, -ė, -ovas, -ė: kalbovas, -ė, -ininkas, -ė: paūstininkas, -ė, -snys, -ė: klyksnys, -ė, -ulis, -ė: dundulis, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: plepūnas, -ė, -uolis, -ė: šnekuolis, -ė, -lys, -ė: suoslys, -ė, -ys, -ė: plepys, -ė; niekabylys, -ė, aiškiakalbis, -ė.

4.7.2. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY AN INVOLUNTARY STATE can be divided into six types:

4.7.2.1. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY INVOLUNTARILY PRODUCED SOUNDS designate persons whose property arises from an involuntarily experienced state involving the production of sounds. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the state of involuntarily producing sounds that they experience, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes and endings, e.g.: -alius, -ė: čiaudalius, -ė, -eklis, -ė: stenėklis, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: virkūnas, -ė, -enis, -ė: tylėnis, -ė, -esas, -ė: švelpėsas, -ė (: švelpti) ‘a person who lisps’; -lys, -ė: parplys, -ė, -klis, -ė: aimanuoklis, -ė, -snys, -ė: verksnys, -ė, -is, -ė: žliumbis, -ė, -ius, -ė: zaūnius, -ė.

4.7.2.2. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY AN INVOLUNTARY PHYSICAL STATE are SM nouns denoting persons whose properties arise from a state conditioned by their manner of being, posture, or another physical condition that often requires no exertion of will. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the physical state they experience, as denoted by the base word’. They are derived with suffixes and endings or formed by compounding, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: išsišėpelis, -ė, -alius, -ė: miegalius, -ė, -tojas, -a: žiopsotojas, -a, -enis, -ė: tylėnis, -ė, -ikas, -ė: tupikas, -ė, -uklis, -ė: mieguklis, -ė, -ūnas, -ė: sėdūnas, -ė, -ys, -ė: neregys, -ė, -ius, -ė: snaudžius, -dė, -lys, -ė: vėplys, -ė, -šas, -ė: migšas, -ė; trumparegys, -ė.

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4.7.2.3. NAMES OF PERSONS CHARACTERIZED BY A CHANGING INVOLUNTARY PHYSICAL STATE denote persons whose properties arise from a state conditioned by their changing physical condition. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from their altered (less often, changing) physical state, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, or by compounding, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: pér aukėlis, -ė, -alius, -ė: drambalius, -ė (: drimba) ‘a person with a large belly’, -ulis, -ė: burbūlis, -ė (: burbti) ‘a fat person’, -ūnas, -ė: želūnas, -ė colloq. ‘one who is overgrown, covered with hair’; -is, -ė: pliūmpis, -ė ‘one who is flabby’, -lys, -ė: tišlys, -ė, -ius, -ė: drisk(i)us, -ė, -kus, -ė: dribkus, -ė (: dribti), -nius, -ė: šūtn(i)us, -ė (: šūto), -snius, -ė: džiušni(us), -ė, -šas, -ė: dribšas, -ė (: dribti), -šis, -ė: lėpšis, -ė (: lėpti), -šlys, -ė: raukšlys, -ė (: rauktis); miegpuvys, -ė pejor. ‘sleepyhead’.

4.7.2.4. Names of persons characterized by a mental state designate persons by properties arising from their inner experiences, often conditioned by their psyche. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the mental state they experience, as denoted by the base word’. They are formed with suffixes, endings, or by compounding, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: isimylėjėlis, -ė, -tojas, -a: pavyduliautojas, -a, -ūnas, -ė: pavydūnas, -ė, -ėjas, -a: laukėjas, -a, -ikas, -ė: delsi(k)as, -ė, -inys, -ė: tinginys, -ė, -uolis, -ė: pavyd(u)olis, -ė, -onas, -ė: niūr(u)onas, -ė; -lys, -ė: gaišlys, -ė, -is, -ė: įngis, -ė (: įngti) ‘a lazy person’, -šis, -ė: klaikšis, -ė, -šas, -ė: kluikšas, -ė ‘a fool’, -štis, -ė: klaikštis, -ė ‘one who has gone mad’; niekdžiugis, -ė, piktdžiugis, -ė.

4.7.2.5. Names of persons characterized by an existential state are suffixed and compound SM nouns denoting persons whose properties arise from states related to their existence or being. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the existential state they experience, as denoted by the base word’, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: nebūvėlis, -ė, -tojas, -a: gyventojas, -a; sénbuvis, -ė, naujakurys, -ė, čiab(u)vis, -ė.

4.7.2.6. Names of persons characterized by the outcome of an experienced process are suffixed and compound SM nouns denoting persons whose properties arise from states associated with a particular existential outcome. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from the outcome of a process they experience, as denoted by the base word’, e.g.: -ėlis, -ė: pražuvėlis, -ė, numirėlis, -ė, -uolis, -ė: paskenduolis, -ė, skenduolis, -ė, -enis, -ė: prapuolėnis, -ė, -ėsis, -ė: mirėsis, -ė 1. ‘a deceased person’, -tininkas, -ė: mirtininkas, -ė ‘one condemned to die’, -uoklis, -ė: pakaruoklis, -ė; šaltmirys, -ė, aklagimis, -ė, antrágimis, -ė.

4.7.3. Names of persons characterized by an external action directed at them are suffixed and ending-derived SM nouns denoting persons whose property arises from an active physical, material, or mental action performed (or previously performed) by another person and directed at the person named. Their derivational meaning is: ‘a person characterized by a property arising from an action performed by another person and directed at the person characterized, as denoted by the base word’, e.g.: -(t)inis, -ė (-inys, -ė): auklėtinis, -ė, pasiuntinys, -ė, -uklis, -ė: gird(u)klis, -ė ‘one who is being given to drink’, -ininkas, -ė: samdininkas, -ė, -ėlis, -ė: pastūmėlis, -ė, -ukas, -ė: žindukas, -ė ‘a breast-fed child’, -ulys, -ė: žindulys, -ė, -uon(is), -ė: palikuonis, -ė; -as, -ė: įkaitas, -ė, -ys, -ė: kankinys, -ė.

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5. PERSONAL DESIGNATIONS WITHOUT PAIRS

Because the corresponding referent is absent, a small number of personal designations denoting an agent of an action or a bearer of a property occur only in one grammatical gender—masculine or feminine. These are nouns referring to an activity or occupation characteristic of only one sex (a man or a woman): angliakasys, artójas, auklė, slaugė, gimdyvė. Such designations are isolated formations. This is often determined not by the word-formation system, but by the distribution of social roles in society (cf. Boel 1976: 16–73). This is evident in verbal personal designations referring to men or women engaged in what society considers exclusively male or female domains, e.g.: work: žiedžius, kalvis and priemėja, pribuvėja, nešiotė; war: minuotojas, karvedys; promiscuity: svetimoteriautojas, žagintojas and padraika. Thus, personal designations without pairs should be regarded as exceptions to the general word-formation pattern of mobile nouns. This is also supported by the fact that feminine counterparts are entirely possible alongside most masculine personal designations, just as they exist alongside personal designations for other activities that might seem truly and exclusively male. Cf.: angliakasys, auksak asys, but molkasýs, -ė, rūdakasýs, -ė, žemkasýs, -ė; also kalnavertys and kelmavertys, -ė. Or, alongside some feminine personal designations, for example, slaugė, slaugas is possible; alongside gimdytoja, gimdytojas is possible (and is often used by speakers). The feminine designation priemėja is a lexicalized SM derivative noun priemėjas, -a and may be considered its homonym, since it is based on the same underlying verb.

Thus, in an increasingly modern world, where the distribution of social roles between the sexes is becoming less distinct, the word-formation pattern of mobile nouns in Lithuanian does not prevent the marking of newly emerging oppositions: male agent of an action – female agent of an action; male bearer of a property – female bearer of a property.

6. CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of their different word-formation meanings, bases, formants, and semantics, verbal personal designations can be divided into two classes: agents of actions and bearers of verbal properties. Their ratio is 53.6%: 46.3%. Together with denominal formations, they constitute a single derivational “category of persons,” corresponding to such noun word-formation categories as action nouns, instrument nouns, and so on. In Lithuanian, new words are continually formed according to the word-formation pattern of mobile nouns (SM) as new realities emerge. Thus, this class is productive, living, and open. Moreover, in Lithuanian, noun pairs are regularly formed according to the sex of their referents.

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TABLE 1. MEANINGS OF PERSONAL DESIGNATIONS EXPRESSED BY VERBAL MOBILE NOUNS

Meanings denoting agents of actions Percentages Meanings denoting bearers of properties Percentages Agents of physical material actions 34.5 By occupation 8.6 Denoters of interpersonal relations 8.3 By variable involuntary physical state 8 Agents of mental actions 6.7 By voluntarily produced sounds 4.5 Denoters of dynamic actions 2.5 By interpersonal relations 4.2 Speakers 1.1 By mental state 4.2 Denoters of sensations 0.5 By dynamic actions 4.1 By involuntarily produced sounds 3.4 By mental activity 3.2 By the action of an external person 2.6 By involuntary physical state 1.7 By the outcome of an experienced process 1.3 By existential state 0.5 Total 53.6 Total 46.3

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Judita Džežulskienė

Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas

Lietuvių kalbos katedra

Donelaičio g. 52, 3000 Kaunas, Lietuva

Gauta 2001 06 04