Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica
2026, ol. 94, pp. 1–19
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Recei ed: / Gau a: 2025-11-06. Accep ed: / P iim a: 2026-04-13. 1
ON THE MEANING OF THE LITHUANIAN PREPOSITION po:
A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Lie u ių kalbos p ielinksnio po eikšmė: kogni y inė pe spek y a
IEVA STASIŪNAITĖ
Vilnius Uni e si y
E-mail: ie a.s asiunai e@ l . u.l
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6787-2602
Fields o esea ch: p eposi ional seman ics, academic w i ing.
h ps://doi.o g/10.35321/all94-10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ABSTRACT
S udies o p eposi ional meaning a e a he p oli ic in cogni i e linguis ics. Howe e , he Li huanian
po ‘unde ’ s ill elies on in ui i e explica ion a he han co pus-based e idence, e lec ing he adi ional line
o in es iga ion. Thus, he p esen pape ocuses on: (1) iden i ying he p ima y sense o he p eposi ion; (2)
examining i s ex ensions, o majo use ypes, in physical and non-physical con ex s, and (3) linking he
es ablished senses ha di e in s a us in he o m o a ne wo k. 1000 conco dance lines wi h po om he
ic ion segmen in he Co pus o Con empo a y Li huanian Language we e examined. The P incipled
Polysemy Model (Tyle , E ans 2003) was used o dis inguish be ween he senses and hei con ex ual a ian s
as well as o p ima y sense iden i ica ion. Con ex ual clues played a signi ican ole as well. The indings show
ha he p ima y sense, based on a p o o-scene o he Figu e benea h he G ound, gi es ise o he o he senses
o he p eposi ion. Some o hem a e conc e e – di e en ia ed by he ypes o F and G and hei geome ic
and/o unc ional ela ionships, while he o he ex ensions a e abs ac and mo i a ed by me apho . The pape
also conside s how he meaning o po in e ac s wi h he noun cases i go e ns.
KEYWORDS: Li huanian p eposi ion po, conc e e and abs ac senses, p incipled polysemy.
ANOTACIJA
Kogni y inėje kalbo y oje nemažai dėmesio ski iama leksinių kalbų p ielinksnių seman ikai. Šiame
s aipsnyje keliami ys ikslai: (1) pagal igū os i ono ipus bei jų geome inius i (a ba) unkcinius san ykius
nus a y i po pi minę eikšmę, (2) išski i ki as su izine i abs akčia e d e susijusias p ielinksnio eikšmes bei
(3) iš i i jų mo y acinius yšius. Išanalizuo a 1000 konko danso eilučių su p ielinksniu iš g ožinės li e a ū os
egis o Daba inės lie u ių kalbos eks yne. Ty ime aiky as p incipinės poliseminės analizės modelis (Tyle ,
E ans 2003), be o, a siž elg a į kon eks inius požymius, susijusius su pas o ia po a osenos dažnio aiška.
Nus a y a, kad iš pi minės eikšmės, siejamos su p o oscena, ku ioje igū a y a ono apačioje, galima iš es i
ki as penkias p ielinksnio eikšmes. Kai ku ios iš jų y a konk ečios, o likusios – abs akčios i mo y uo os
koncep ualiųjų me a o ų. S aipsnyje aip pa umpai ap a iama, kaip po eikšmė są eikauja su linksniais,
ku iuos p ielinksnis aldo.
ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: lie u ių kalbos p ielinksnis po, konk ečios i abs akčios eikšmės, p incipinė
polisemija.
2
1. INTRODUCTION
This pape aims o con ibu e o he cogni i e line o esea ch in o p eposi ional
seman ics by ocusing on he Li huanian po ‘unde ’, which belongs o one o he mos
highly de eloped subse s p o o ypically in ol ing e e ence o a e ical axis (see also
e ical space in Di en 1993: 74). I s inclusion in he in es iga ion was no andom bu
a he delibe a e, mo i a ed by he seman ic ichness and e sa ili y o he p eposi ion,
esul ing in mul iple lines o scien i ic inqui y. Fo ins ance, Jonas Šukys (1998: 538) ea s
po in a mo e adi ional manne , ocusing on i s spa ial, empo al, and dis ibu i e uses in
con empo a y Li huanian, wi h p esc ip i e no es conce ning case go e nmen . Vy au as
Amb azas (2005: 444; 2006: 300), on he o he hand, ex ends he analysis o sequen ial,
g adual, mo ion, and mo e ine-g ained senses o adjacency, p o iding his o ical and
dialec al e idence as well. Li huanian lexicog aphic sou ces, hough di e ing in desc ip i e
ambi ion, likewise play an impo an ole in mapping he seman ic ange o po. Fo ins ance,
he Dic iona y o he Con empo a y Li huanian Language (DLKŽ8e 2021, he eina e )
adop s a mo e economical app oach, comp essing he usage o he i em in o a se o senses
(place, ime, manne , dis ibu ion, e c.), each illus a ed wi h a ew ep esen a i e examples.
The Dic iona y o he Li huanian Language (LKŽe, he eina e ), by con as , o e s ex ensi e
da a om dialec s, olde ex s, olklo e, eligious discou se, and idioma ic usage, hus
p io i ising comp ehensi eness and empi ical documen a ion. E en hough hese wo ks
p o ide aluable classi ica o y and desc ip i e insigh s, hey ea he senses o po as disc e e
ca ego ies a he han as a adial ne wo k. In o he wo ds, he lexicog aphe s seem o
assume ha he meaning o he p eposi ion is oo complex and unsys ema ic o be
ep esen ed as an in e ela ed s uc u e.
Cogni i is s, who iew p eposi ional senses as mo i a ed ex ensions a he han
isola ed meanings, also expe ience challenges, pa icula ly in hei ea ly s udies. Fo ins ance,
Inesa Šeškauskienė (2001), in he discussion o po and i s Li huanian nea -synonym žemiau,
along wi h hei p ima y ansla ion equi alen s unde and below in English, a gues ha
gene al no ions (e.g., “lowe han”) in dic iona ies and linguis ic li e a u e a e o en
inaccu a e o o e simpli ied. She, he e o e, emphasises no only geome y bu also
unc ional ela ions, o he in e play be ween he wo, in he seman ic in e p e a ion o he
i ems; howe e , ha app oach applies only o hei conc e e senses. O he s udies on
p ima y ansla ion equi alen s o po and hei synonyms e eal u he di icul ies. Fo
ins ance, Ba ba a Wege (1991) discusses below, bu inds i esis an o analysis in e ms o
necessa y and su icien condi ions. John R. Taylo (1993) and René Di en (1993), while
examining he polysemy o a numbe o English p eposi ions, add ess unde hough hei
discussion o i s abs ac senses emains ske chy. And ea Tyle and Vy yan E ans (2003)
in es iga e unde and below acco ding o he P incipled Polysemy Model; howe e , hei
analysis occasionally lacks he dep h o a gumen a ion ound in hei ea men o o he
p eposi ions. Ie a S asiūnai ė (2018; 2025) examines he mo i a ed polysemy o žemiau and
below using he same model, showing how hei p ima y meaning gi es ise o bo h conc e e
and abs ac senses. Al hough he es ablished senses only pa ially o e lap wi h dic iona y
en ies, a p incipled ne wo k-based app oach seems o yield a mo e sys ema ic accoun han
he p e ious s udies.
O he esea ch on in lec ing languages, while no in ol ing po, has p oduced no able
indings as well. Fo ins ance, Elżbie a Tabakowska (2010) in es iga es he Polish za
(‘behind, beyond, o ’), illus a ing how he p eposi ion in e ac s wi h p e ixes and case
o ms. I s Russian and Li huanian coun e pa s a e examined by Da ia Shakho a and
A. Tyle (2010) and I. Šeškauskienė and Eglė Žilinskai ė-Šinkūnienė (2015), espec i ely,
demons a ing how nume ous senses o m a mo i a ed ne wo k a ound a cen al spa ial
sense. O he wo ks ocus on he c oss-linguis ic in es iga ion o p eposi ions. Fo example,
E. Žilinskai ė-Šinkūnienė e al. (2019a) epo ha con ainmen and suppo a e ende ed
di e en ly in La ian and Li huanian, while E. Žilinskai ė-Šinkūnienė e al. (2019b) ind
3
con ainmen o be simila ac oss Li huanian, La ian and Es onian; howe e , suppo
displays g ea e a ini y be ween La ian and Es onian. E. Žilinskai ė-Šinkūnienė e al.
(2020) highligh he impo ance o opological and geome ic ea u es in desc ip ions o
spa ial ela ions be ween wo objec s, e ealing a ia ion in e ms o p oximi y, emo eness
and dis ance in Li huanian and La ian (c . Šķil e s e al. 2020). I. Šeškauskienė and Ri a
Jukne ičienė (2020) show ha Li huanian lea ne s s uggle wi h in and on because o non-
cong uen L1–L2 mappings shaped by seman ic and in lec ional ea u es, suppo ing
a mo i a ed polysemy app oach. E. Žilinskai ė-Šinkūnienė and I. Šeškauskienė (2021)
compa e he La ian aiz and he Li huanian už ‘behind, beyond’, demons a ing how hei
senses di e ge despi e a sha ed domain due o case ma king and e bal p e ixa ion, which
highligh s p eposi ional meaning as pa o b oade mo phological-seman ic ne wo ks.
Howe e , despi e hese ad ances in cogni i e-seman ic esea ch, no s udy has
add essed he Li huanian po, he e o e, i is impo an o es ablish i s seman ic elemen s
anew o p o ide an unambiguous desc ip ion. The p esen analysis has h ee main
objec i es: (1) o iden i y he p ima y sense o he p eposi ion, (2) o examine i s ex ensions,
o majo use ypes, in physical and non-physical con ex s, and (3) o demons a e how he
es ablished senses ha di e in s a us can be sys ema ically linked in a single ne wo k.
2. DATA AND METHODOLOGY
This chap e desc ibes da a collec ion and he me hodological amewo k agains
which he objec i es o he p esen s udy ha e been se .
1000 u e ances wi h po (ou o 50,243) we e andomly collec ed om he Co pus o
he Con empo a y Li huanian Language (DLKT, he eina e ), excluding i s idioma ic o
o he wise es ic ed uses. Howe e , only ic ion was selec ed om a a ie y o segmen s as i
was belie ed o ep esen a wide ange o senses o he i em s udied (such a choice may also
be jus i ied wi h e e ence o p e ious esea ch; see, o example, Šeškauskienė, Žilinskai ė-
Šinkūnienė 2015). The u e ances we e glossed acco ding o he Salos Glossing Rules
adap ed o he speci ics o Bal ic mo phology (Nau, A kadie 2015).
In he p esen in es iga ion, a p eposi ion is conside ed o exp ess a ela ion be ween
wo en i ies in he ex a-linguis ic wo ld, e.g., suolas po langu ‘a bench unde he window’.
Figu e (F) is an en i y ha is concep ually o eg ounded, ypically smalle and mo able (i.e.,
a bench), while G ound (G) se es as a e e ence objec wi h espec o which F is loca ed
and is he e o e usually la ge and immo able (i.e., a window) (Talmy 2000).
The quali a i e me hod was used o iden i y and classi y he dis inc senses, o majo
use ypes, o po, wi h he esul s p esen ed as ela i e equencies, since i allowed a mo e
in-dep h examina ion o meaning. In line wi h his app oach, du ing he anno a ion
p ocedu e, conco dance lines we e examined o de e mine whe he F and G ep esen ed
conc e e objec s, people, abs ac ions, o ac ions, p ocesses. So, space he e included, apa
om physical, also se e al o he spaces, which ollows Gilles Fauconnie ’s (2007) Men al
Space Theo y. In addi ion o hese pa ame e s, he analysis conside ed he spa ial
con igu a ion o F and G, hei idealised geome ic shapes and/o in e nal s uc u es, and
hei unc ional in e ac ion. Thus, du ing he p ocess o meaning cons uc ion, he
p eposi ion was assumed o p omp a ple ho a o concep ual ope a ions g ounded in
encyclopaedic knowledge. A he same ime, ce ain uses may be mo i a ed by he speake ’s
p edisposi ion o communica i e in en ion, allowing he same si ua ion o be cons ued
om a ious pe spec i es. The e o e, he deg ee o speci ici y and salience assigned o
pa icula aspec s o a scene was also conside ed in he sense-iden i ica ion p ocedu e, in
line wi h Hans J. Schmid’s (2007) discussion o salience and ela ed no ions, such as Ronald
Langacke ’s (2000) ocal adjus men s and Leona d Talmy’s (2007) a en ion phenomena.
4
The quali a i e me hod also implied a p incipled dis inc ion be ween dis inc senses
and hei con ex ual a ian s. Fo his pu pose, a model o wo d meaning known as
P incipled Polysemy was adop ed (Tyle , E ans 2003). Despi e subs an ial c i icism, i
emains one o he ew amewo ks ha o e s a sys ema ic and explici me hodology o
iden i ying p eposi ional senses. Fi s , o a sense o be dis inc , o ins an ia ed in memo y,
i mus con ain an addi ional elemen no appa en in any o he senses. In o he wo ds,
a dis inc sense mus in ol e ei he (A) a successi e change in he se o concep s, such as
(a) s ong in e dependencies be ween he p eposi ion and he dynamic (kine ic) and/o
geome ic p ope ies o G (e.g., s a ic s. dynamic, dimensional s. adimensional), (b)
co esponding ea u es de ining F, as equi ed by he speci ic ela ion exp essed, and/o (c)
he na u e o he ela ionship be ween he en i ies, whe he opological (e.g., con ac ,
p oximi y) o unc ional, o (B) p ojec ion on o a new domain (ibid.: 42–43; c . Wesche
1986/1987; Lako 1987). While (B) spans mul iple domains, (A) applies o changes wi hin
he same domain, as a loca i e concep may gi e ise o ano he loca i e concep , a empo al
concep o ano he empo al concep , e c. In o he wo ds, ansi ions be ween concep s, o ,
ollowing Ignacio Na a o i Fe ando (2006: 176), shi s, occu g adually. Finally, a dis inc
sense canno be in e ed om ano he sense o he con ex in which i occu s bu mus
ins ead unc ion as a s able, con en ionalised uni (Tyle , E ans 2003: 42–43).
The P incipled Polysemy Model also p o ides p omp s o guide p ima y sense
iden i ica ion (ibid.: 47–50); howe e , in he p esen pape , hey we e adap ed o e lec he
ac ual seman ic endencies: (1) he physicali y o F and G, which is ela ed o such p inciples
o cogni i e linguis ics as he expe ien ial app oach and embodimen , s a ing ha he
p ima y sense is usually mo e physical, close o bodily expe ience (Johnson 1987; Lako
1987; S een e al. 2010); (2) con ex ual clues associa ed wi h a easonably s able equency
o occu ence (Sinha, Ku e a 1995); (3) he ea lies a es ed sense, which alls in line wi h
o he cogni i ely-o ien ed wo ks on in lec ing languages (Pawelec 2009; Tabakowska 2010);
(4) he use o he p eposi ion in composi e o ms; (5) ela ions o o he p eposi ions ha
o m composi ional, o con as , se s, di iding a ious spa ial dimensions, e.g., po s. i š;
(6) equency o use in a ne wo k; howe e , i is no a de e mining ac o due o he
o e whelming equency o occu ence o po when i designa es empo al ela ions (c . he
ele ance o he pa ame e o žemiau and below by S asiūnai ė 2018; 2025). To speci y he
p ima y sense, A. Tyle and V. E ans (2003: 52) also in oduce he concep o a p o o-
scene, o “an idealised men al ep esen a ion ac oss he ecu ing spa ial scenes” associa ed
wi h a p eposi ion.
Finally, a adial ca ego y app oach (Lako 1987), g ounded in Rosch’s (1978)
P o o ype Theo y, was used o accoun o he mo i a ed polysemy o po. Wi hin his
amewo k, wo d meaning is s uc u ed a ound a cen al, p o o ypical sense, om which
o he less ep esen a i e senses ex end in a non- andom way, o ming a ne wo k a he han
a lis o un ela ed senses. Seman ic ex ensions a e explained wi h e e ence o image-schema
ans o ma ions and me apho . Image-schema ans o ma ions a e sys ema ic modi ica ions
o a basic image schema, such as changes in scale, o ien a ion, o pe spec i e, which a e
g ounded in ecu ing isual and kinaes he ic expe iences. Me apho , in u n, in ol es
mapping s uc u e om a mo e conc e e sou ce domain on o a mo e abs ac a ge domain
(Lako , Johnson 1980; Lako 1987; Kö ecses 2010), allowing spa ial expe ience o shape
abs ac senses. A p eposi ion hus se es as “an excellen ‘labo a o y’ o in es iga ing he
way in which spa ial expe ience g ounds many o he kinds o non-spa ial, non-physical
concep s” (Tyle , E ans 2003: ix).
5
3. RESULTS
This chap e p esen s he key indings o he p esen in es iga ion in o he seman ics
o po. Fi s , an o e iew o i s senses, along wi h hei ela i e equencies in he DLKT
da ase , is p o ided (see Table 1).
Table 1. Senses o po ( ela i e equencies)
As shown abo e, po has six senses: h ee ela ing o physical space and h ee coding
ela ions in non-physical space. As o he ela ionship be ween conc e e and abs ac senses
(31.4%, To al 1 s. 68.6%, To al 2), he p eposi ion seems o p e e ex ensions away om
physical space. Mo eo e , po go e ns h ee case- o ms: GEN, ACC, and INS, he las being
he mos dominan wi h conc e e senses (21.4%, To al 1). GEN, by con as , is no used in
physical con ex s bu appea s in 62.4% o he da a e e ing o abs ac senses (To al 2).
ACC is mo e equen wi h po in physical han non-physical con ex s (10% s. 6.2%, To al
1 and To al 2, espec i ely), yielding a g and o al o 16.2%. Mo eo e , in conc e e senses,
he p eposi ion combines wi h a noun in a single case, as shown in To al 3: INS (p ima y
sense: 6.2%, co e : 15.2%) o ACC (pe asion: 10%). In non-physical con ex s, simila
pa e ns eme ge: GEN ( empo al consis ency: 3.8%), ACC (dis ibu i e quan i y: 6.2%), and
GEN ( empo al sequence: 58.6%). Thus, empo al sequence is he mos equen sense in
he compiled co pus.
The seman ic peculia i ies o po, as a es ed by he DLKT da a, a e discussed as
ollows. Fi s , he p ima y sense is es ablished, and i s ex ensions in physical and non-
physical con ex s a e examined. Nex , mo i a ed ela ionships be ween he senses, o majo
use ypes, ha di e in s a us a e emphasised as a ne wo k.
3.1. De ining he P ima y Sense
3.1.1. Elemen s o he P o o-scene
Figu e 1 o e s an app oxima e image o he concep ual spa ial ela ion be ween wo
en i ies, as coded by po and ep esen ed in he p o o-scene.
Noun cases
Senses
GEN
ACC
INS
To al 3
1. P ima y sense
–
–
6.2%
6.2%
2. Co e
–
–
15.2%
15.2%
3. Pe asion
–
10%
–
10%
To al 1: Conc e e senses
(1+2+3)
–
10%
21.4%
31.4%
4. Tempo al sequence
58.6%
–
–
58.6%
5. Tempo al consis ency
3.8%
–
–
3.8%
6. Dis ibu i e quan i y
–
6.2%
–
6.2%
To al 2: Abs ac senses
(4+5+6)
62.4%
6.2%
–
68.6%
G and o al:
To al 1 + 2
62.4%
16.2%
21.4%
100%

6
Figu e 1. P o o-scene o spa ial scenes wi h po
The DLKT da a a es o se e al ea u es o he p o o-scene associa ed wi h he i em
unde s udy. Fi s , he schema ic cons ual encodes he ela ion in which F is loca ed lowe
han G in Euclidean space along a e ical axis:
(1) <...>mediniai ka eliai po lubų sija <...>.
Wooden. NOM.PL.M do es.NOM.PL po ceiling.GEN.PL.F beam.INS.SG
‘<...> wooden do es unde he ceiling beam <...>.’
In he example, sija ‘beam’, e e ed o by means o encyclopaedic knowledge,
becomes G (a bold line in Figu e 1), while ka eliai ‘do es’, designa ing he bounda y o
e ical space wi h i s bo om a he lowe end, ac s as F. The en i ies a e e ically aligned
in a sequen ial o de (see he e ical b oken line in Figu e 1)
1
, so po en ails no only
geome ic ela ions bu also p oximi y, which is well e lec ed in i s usage wi h he dis ance
ma ke iesiai ‘immedia ely’. In he ollowing example, akys ‘eyes’ and kak a ‘ o ehead’
cons i u e pa o a human ace, so he absence o dis ance is mo e like he consequence o
con ex
2
:
(2) <...> po kak a <...> akys <...>.
Po o ehead.INS.SG eye.NOM.PL
‘<...> eyes <...> unde he o ehead <...>.’
Howe e , in (3) and (4), F and G a e no only e ically aligned bu also a ec each
o he due o hei adjacency, which is consis en wi h unc ional, o ex a-geome ic,
accoun s (Vandeloise 1991; 1994; Co en y e al. 2001). In o he wo ds, medicine en e s he
human body h ough an a m a ached o a d ip di ec ly o e i , while a compu e code
loca ed benea h he pho o gi es in o ma ion abou i :
(3) <...> [ anka gulėjo] po lašeline su įsmeig a ada a enoje <...>.
1
By way o compa ison, in he case o žemiau, a seemingly close synonym o he p eposi ion unde s udy, F’s
loca ion below G ac ing as a geome ic e e ence is no clea ly speci ied. I is well illus a ed by he ollowing
u e ance, whe e he add ess (F) occupies mo e space han he s amp (G) bu is in e p e ed as below only in
ela ion o he s amp’s uppe o lowe bounda y (S asiūnai ė 2018; 2025):
Žemiau paš o ženklo <...> ad esas.
Below pos .GEN.SG add ess.NOM.SG
‘An add ess below a s amp’
2
When po and žemiau can be used in e changeably, especially in bodily ela ions, hey e oke di e en
cons ual o he same spa ial scene, c .:
Suk yžia au ankas žemiau k ū inės / po k ū ine.
C oss.PST.1SG a m.ACC.PL žemiau ches .GEN.SG / po ches .INS.SG
‘I c ossed my a ms below/unde he ches .’
In he gi en example, žemiau e lec s he spa ial con igu a ion o wo discon inuous objec s, o
subspaces, when one subspace is concep ualised as being lowe han he o he (Šeškauskienė 2001; 2004). Po,
on he o he hand, is mo e con ac -o ien ed as a ms na u ally mee he ches .
7
[a m.NOM.SG lie.PST.3SG] po d ip.INS.SG wi h.PREP s ab.PST.PP.INS.SG.F
needle.INS.SG ein.LOC.SG
‘<...> [ he a m] wi h a d ip wi h a needle in he ein <...>.’
(4) Po o og a ija p ilipin as kompiu e inis kodas <...>.
Po pho og aph.INS.SG glue.PST.PP.NOM.SG.M compu e -NOM.SG.F
code.NOM.SG
‘A compu e code was a ached unde he pho og aph <...>.’
Thus, in he p esen analysis, he p o o-scene unde lying he spa ial ela ion encoded
by po, in which F is e ically lowe han G, illus a es he leas elabo a e con en o he
p eposi ion compa ed wi h i s o he senses. Howe e , he con igui y o spa ial p oximi y o
F and G allows hem o o m a meaning ul uni , sugges ing a p edisposi ion owa d
unc ional ela ions. This ype o p o o-scene will be ea ed as he mos ep esen a i e, o
p ima y, sense o po + INS (6.2% in Table 1).
3.1.2. Types o F and G
In his sec ion, ypes o F and G cha ac e is ic o he p ima y sense o po a e
discussed. Fi s , a ious combina ions o hese en i ies a e p esen ed wi h ela i e
equencies, which a e subsequen ly co obo a ed by he DLKL da ase .
Table 2. Types o F and G in he p ima y sense o po ( ela i e equencies)
G
F
Human body
Conc e e objec
To al 2
Human body
12.9%
27.4%
40.3%
Conc e e objec
33.9%
22.6%
56.5%
Ac ion/p ocess
–
3.2%
3.2%
To al 1
46.8%
53.2%
100%
As seen om Table 2, an impo an c i e ion o p ima y sense iden i ica ion, in
addi ion o i s leas elabo a e con en , is he physical aspec o F and G. In 53.2% o he
cases (see To al 1), G designa es a conc e e objec , whe eas in he emaining u e ances
(46.8%, To al 1), i is a pe son o human mo phology. Al hough people unc ioning as G
ep esen he second mos equen choice, hei occu ence in spa ial scenes highligh s he
ole o bodily expe ience in s uc u ing ou unde s anding o he wo ld (Gibbs 2006: 9;
Roh e 2007: 25–47), as a es ed by s udies o concep ual me apho (Lako , Johnson 1980;
Lako 1987; Kö ecses 2010).
Howe e , no only conc e e objec s, including people, ea u e as G in he p ima y
sense o po; he na u e o F is also o u mos impo ance. Tangible inanima e en i ies, as i s
deno a a, accoun o 56.5% o he da a (To al 2), while people and human body pa s
cons i u e he second mos equen ype (40.3%, To al 2). Ac ions and p ocesses, he
loca ion o which is de e mined wi h e e ence o a conc e e objec , occu in as ew as 3.2%
o he u e ances; howe e , no human body is selec ed as G in his case (To al 2).
Mo e speci ic s a is ical endencies a e u he illus a ed wi h conco dance lines om
he DLKT. Fo ins ance, human bodily pa s, ypically unc ioning as G wi h po in he
p ima y sense, a e kak a ‘ o ehead’, akys ‘eyes’, blaks ienos ‘eyelashes’, k ū inė ‘ches ’, e c.
The posi ion o F is hen aken by human mo phology as well, e.g., akys ‘eyes’, kumščiai
‘ is s’, ankos ‘a ms’, e c. (12.9%, Table 2), some imes e en o ming an in eg al pa o G:
(5) <...> po jomis [akimis] a si ado apd ibę pilki maišeliai.
Po 3.INS.PL.F [eye.INS.PL] appea .PST.3PL sink.PST.PA.NOM.PL.M
g ey.NOM.PL.M bag.DIM-NOM.PL
8
‘<...> g ey bags appea ed unde he sunken eyes.’
Inanima e en i ies, e.g., akmenys ‘s ones’, pama as ‘ oo ing’, laip ai ‘s ai case’, kilimas
‘ca pe ’ o kelias ‘ oad’, when used wi h human ea u es, especially kojos ‘legs’, make he
mos equen deno a um o G (33.9%, Table 2)
3
.
O he physical objec s may also unc ion as G, he eby de e mining he loca ion o
people o elemen s o human ana omy (27.4%, Table 2):
(6) P ie šil o ė o šono p isiglaudęs. Po ž aigždžių lie umi.
Nea .PREP wa m.GEN.SG.M a he .GEN.SG side.GEN.SG
snuggle.PST.PA.NOM.SG.M po s a .GEN.PL ain.INS.SG
‘Snuggling up agains he wa m a he . Unde a showe o s a s.’
Mo eo e , when a conc e e objec , e.g., ka nizas ‘a co nice’, a b aila ‘a ledge’, e c., is
used as G, a wide ange o angible en i ies unc ion as F (22.6%, Table 2):
(7) Landa dešinėje, po a b aila <...>.
Hole.NOM.SG igh .LOC po ledge.INS.SG
‘The hole is on he igh , unde he ledge <...>.’
Conc e e en i ies in he posi ion o G may also appea wi h a dynamic ype o F
wi hou a ec ing he in e p e a ion o he p ima y sense (3.2%, Table 2):
(8) <...> aganius sugebėjo kils elė i ielas i spjo ė po jomis.
Magician.NOM.SG manage.PST.3SG li .INF wi e.ACC.PL and.CONJ
spi .PST.3SG po 3PL.INS
‘<...> he magician upli ed he wi es and spa unde hem.’
Thus, a ious ypes o F and G, a anged sequen ially along a e ical line, appea in
he p o o-scene unde lying he spa ial ela ion encoded by po. Howe e , he ypicali y o he
sense is ein o ced by he physical aspec o he en i ies in ol ed. Fu he , i will be shown
how less ypical meanings, o use ypes, a e ela ed o his sense by ans o ming i in
di e en ways.
3.2. Co e
The co e sense o po + INS is he mos equen in physical con ex s, occu ing in
15.2% o he DLKT da a (Table 1). I p ese es he spa ial con igu a ion o he en i ies om
he p ima y sense, wi h F posi ioned below and di ec ly unde G along a e ical axis,
emphasising ei he he endpoin o mo emen (9) o s a ic ela ions (10):
(9) <...> paėmiau peilį i s iedžiau po s alu.
Take.PST.1SG kni e.ACC.SG and.CONJ h ow.PST.1SG po able.INS.SG
‘<...> I ook a kni e om he cupboa d and h ew i unde he able.’
(10) Gulėdamas po an klode, Vi ginijus įsiklausė.
Lie.CVB.SG.M po blanke .INS.SG Vi ginijus.NOM.SG lis en.PST.3SG
‘Vi ginijus kep his ea s open lying unde he blanke .’
Wha dis inguishes he seman ic s uc u e om he p ima y sense, howe e , is
unc ional, o ex a-geome ic, in e ac ion be ween he en i ies. In o he wo ds, G,
concep ualised as a wo-dimensional objec , can co e F, which is smalle o a leas o he
same size and posi ioned di ec ly benea h i . To do so, G mus also be pa allel o F, as
illus a ed in he ollowing examples:
(11) Mo e is sėdėjo po pa eikslu.
Woman.NON.SG si .PRS.3SG po pic u e.INS.SG
3
Such combina ions a e impossible wi h žemiau, which equi es a mo e di use, con ac - ee a angemen o F
ela i e o G, e.g.:
<...> *žemiau kojų / po kojomis plikas cemen as, o ne pu us kilimas.
*Žemiau oo .GEN.PL/ po oo .INS.PL ba e.NOM.SG.M cemen .NOM.SG bu .CONJ no .NEG
lu y.NOM.SG.M ca pe .NOM.SG
‘<...> ba e cemen , bu no a lu y ca pe , *below/unde he ee .’
9
‘The woman was si ing unde he pic u e.’
(12) Kažkas aus a gulėjo an šaliga io po mano ba u.
INDEF.who.NOM pink.NOM.SG.F lie.PST.3SG on.PREP pa emen .GEN.SG po
1SG.GEN shoe.INS.SG
‘Some hing pink was lying on he pa emen unde my shoe.’
(11) illus a es he p ima y sense o po: he pic u e, concep ualised as a wo-
dimensional objec , hangs pe pendicula ly on he wall ela i e o he woman and hus does
no co e he bu me ely indica es he loca ion in close p oximi y. In (12), on he o he
hand, he p eposi ion is used in he co e sense, as he shoe occupies a pa allel, wo-
dimensional posi ion di ec ly abo e some hing pink, p esumably smalle , he eby educing
i s exposu e o isibili y.
In he ollowing conco dance lines, e en hough ea h and wa e cons i u e
con inuous masses, only hei wo-dimensional ho izon al op su aces a e me onymically
in ol ed in he p ocess o concep ualisa ion:
(13) <...> gynėjai būs inę įsi engė olose giliai po žeme <...>.
De ende .NOM.PL headqua e .ACC.SG RFL.se .PST.3PL ca e.LOC.PL deep.ADV
po g ound.INS.SG
‘<...> de ende s buil headqua e s in ca es deep unde he g ound <...>.’
(14) <...> ji nug imzdo po okeanu.
3.NOM.SG.F sink.PST.3SG po ocean.INS.SG
‘<...> she sank unde he ocean.’
As shown by he ad e b giliai ‘deeply’ and he e b (nu)g imz i ‘sink’, con ex ual
clues u he suppo he in e p e a ion o po as exp essing a co e ela ion. O he e bs,
e.g., slypė i ‘lu k’, ding i ‘disappea ’, (pa)(si)kiš i ‘pu onesel /some hing unde some hing’,
(pa)slėp i(s) ‘hide somebody/some hing/onesel ’, (pa)laido i ‘bu y’, e c., a e likewise
signi ican indica o s, aligning wi h V. Amb azas (2006: 298) who no es he same seman ic
con ibu ion o he p e ix pa-:
(15) <...> o og a ija, ūnan i (…) po celo ano plė ele mažame albumėlyje <...>.
Pho og aph.NOM.SG lu k.PRS.PA.NOM.SG.F po cellophane.GEN.SG
shee .DIM.INS.SG small.LOC.SG.M album.DIM.LOC.SG
‘<...> a pho og aph lu king unde a shee o cellophane in a small album <...>.’
(16) <...> šaknys palindusios po pi kios pama ais.
Roo .NOM.PL bu y.PRS.PA.NOM.PL.F po co age.GEN.SG ounda ion.INS.PL
‘<...> he oo s we e bu ied unde he ounda ion o he co age.’
Adjec i es, such as neįskai omas ‘undeciphe able’, o nouns, e.g., užklo as ‘bedco e ’,
slėp u ė ‘hiding place’, also equen ly occu wi h po o con ey co e ing:
(17) <...> s i i po uo palaikiu užklo u<...>.
F eeze.INF po DEM.INS.SG.M hin.INS.SG bedco e .INS.SG
‘<...> eeze unde ha hin bedco e <...>.’
(18) <...> š iesios akys neįskai omos po ilgais ki pčiukais.
Ligh .NOM.PL.F eye.NOM.PL NEG.deciphe able.NOM.PL.F po long.INS.PL.M
inge.INS.PL
‘<...> ligh eyes we e undeciphe able unde a long inge hai .’
Thus, he successi e con igu a ion o he en i ies along a e ical line is p ese ed,
bu changes in he dimensionali y and o ien a ion o G cause F o occupy a posi ion o
educed exposu e. This modi ica ion ein o ces an al eady la en unc ional in e ac ion,
sugges ing ha he co e sense o po + INS is de i ed om he p ima y sense.
3.3. Pe asion
Po + ACC mani es s a pe asion sense which also pe ains o physical space (10%,
Table 1). Wha becomes salien in he seman ic s uc u e, howe e , is he dis ibu ed
mo emen o F o e G:
16
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