Folk terminology of farm buildings

ROBERTAS STUNŽINAS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

KEYWORDS: folk construction terms, names of farm buildings, synonyms, polysemous terms, generic terms, specific terms

Scientific terms name the concepts of a field of science as members of a particular system. Folk terms arise spontaneously, naming concepts without reference to a system of concepts. However, they form complex, heterogeneous microsystems of lexical units connected by various semantic relations (for more on the origins, synonymy, polysemy, genus–species relations, and other aspects of folk terminology for the dwelling house and its parts, see Stunžinas 2010: 130–143; 2011: 142–153). This article examines folk terms¹ that name farm buildings. They are analysed in terms of the concepts named, their origins, and their semantic relations (synonymy², polysemy, and genus–species relations). The material is drawn from spoken-language sources: the comprehensive Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (electronic edition), the Dictionary of the Druskininkai Dialect, the Dictionary of the Kaltanėnai Vernacular, the Dictionary of the Kazlų Rūda Vernacular (vol. I), the Dictionary of the Kupiškėnai (vol. I), the Dictionary of the Lazūnai Dialect, the Dictionary of the Northeastern Dūnininkai Vernaculars, the Dictionary of the Zanavykai Vernacular (vols. I–III), and the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language (vol. I). In all, 196 distinct folk terms are analysed³.

¹ The term building is used in the sense of “building/structure.” It may also be used to mean any kind of structure; see building “structure, building” (DŽ₆). Farm buildings are understood as structures of complex construction used to store farm equipment, clothing, grain, and fodder; the category also includes buildings for keeping livestock, food preparation, bathing, and auxiliary purposes. Buildings (structures) of various ancillary uses and simple construction—sheds, shelters, and privies—are not included among farm buildings. The terminology of this group is intended to be analysed separately.

² In this article, folk terminology is examined as the body of terms used across the entire folk language, in which synonymy and polysemy are found. Folk terms can also be studied within the boundaries of a dialect, as its terminological system (for more, see Klepikova 1974: 31).

³ The sources examined contain numerous term variants, which are not treated as separate terms in this article (for more on the concept of a variant, see Stunžinas 2008: 111–112).

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1. CONCEPTS, ORIGINS OF TERMS,

SYNONYMY AND HIERARCHICAL RELATIONS

Traditional Lithuanian farm buildings developed and changed over many centuries. This may have led to the abundance and diversity of folk terminology in this field. For example, one of the first above-ground buildings with an open hearth was the Samogitian namas (‘house’) – until the 16th century, people lived in it and kept livestock there. As animal husbandry developed, a type of dwelling with rooms for keeping livestock took shape in Samogitia. The Samogitians called it a numalis (for more, see LLA 1965: 42–43). The dwelling house and farm buildings have been described in the works of historians and ethnographers. One of the first to describe in Lithuanian, in the 19th century, the traditional Lithuanian dwelling house, the stable attached to it, and other farm buildings was the educator, historian, and ideologue of the national revival Simonas Daukantas. His descriptions contain names of traditional buildings: “Their first building in those forests was called nam[s], or namas, namaitis, which is why the whole nation was called nomadžiai by outsiders, that is, people living in homes. <...>. The second door in that partition wall was almost as large as the main one, and led from the house to the stable, or kūtė, so called from the word tverti (‘to fence in’); hence the entire enclosure was later called tvaras, or dvaras, which at first was fenced in from poles, sharing one side wall with the house itself; in that stable the animals stood along the walls, namely cows and oxen” (Daukantas 1976: 429–430). Over time, the function of the house changed and it became a summer dwelling, kitchen, storehouse, or stable (for more on the development of the building, see Butkevičius 1958: 157).

Data from spoken-language sources show that the term namas denotes any farm building – “a dwelling or some other building; a stable; a cowshed; a small detached building with a stove for summer use”⁴ LKŽe. The term trobesys has a similar meaning: “some kind of farm building” LKŽe, ZanavŽ3 481. These two synonyms may be considered central terms in the micro-system under discussion; other terms are linked to them by hierarchical relations. Eighty-four specific terms are related by hyponymy to the generic terms namas and trobesys. According to their function, specific terms designate ten types of buildings: 1) a building for storing grain, cereals, and other supplies; 2) a building for piling, drying, and threshing grain; 3) a building for storing grain and flax; 4) a building for drying flax; 5) a building for storing hay; 6) a bath-

The article draws on the meanings given in the sources.⁴

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house; 7) a building for preparing food; 8) a building for keeping livestock; 9) auxiliary buildings; 10) a building for processing food. One hundred and ten terms are related by hyponymy to the terms in the groups listed. They function as specific terms and name buildings according to various characteristics (function, quality, construction, size, etc.).

One of the main buildings on a farm is a building for storing grain, cereals, and other supplies. Such a building is called by three synonymous terms—two Lithuanian and one Germanic: klėtis “a building or part of a building for storing grain, clothes, or other things, or for sleeping; a granary” LKA I 47, KzRŽ I 368, ZanavŽ1 718, svirnas⁵ LKŽe, LKA I 47, DrskŽ 362, LzŽ 252; ×⁶špykerė (German Speicher) LKŽe, LKA I 47, ZanavŽ3 331. Daukantas described the tradition of the klėtis: “The third building was called klėtis, from the word klėsti; raised a cubit or a cubit and a half above the ground on blocks or large stones, floored and ceilinged with boards to keep it dry, it held grain in bins, or granaries, clothes, meat, hides, and roots, namely, things for going out and things made of linen; sometimes it had one room, sometimes two, three, or four <...>” (Daukantas 1976: 433). The terms klėtis and svirnas should be considered partial synonyms—they had different meanings historically. Written sources from the 16th century show that the klėtis was used for sleeping and storing clothes, while the svirnas was used for storing grain (Dundulienė 1982: 114, 1991: 101). Therefore, in this article, terms denoting the same or very similar concepts are considered synonymous⁷.

Four terms—three Lithuanian and one Germanic—are related by hyponymy to the terms denoting the klėtis (svirnas). They function as specific names for the klėtis and indicate characteristics of function, size, quality, or construction: drapanė “a klėtis for clothes” LKŽe, KpŽ 434, svirnas “a larger klėtis” LKŽe, LKA I 47, ZanavŽ3 236, svirnynas “a poor, modest svirnas”

Meanings of synonymous terms are not given.⁵

A cross marks foreignisms. The entries of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language are used as the basis.⁶

A broad conception of synonymous terms is important because folk-term meanings are imprecise. In terminology theory, synonyms are generally considered to be terms identical in meaning—doublets (Ахманова 1966: 13, Даниленко 1977: 53; Головин, Кобрин 1987: 54). Doublets designate the same objects, have the same distribution, and can replace one another without changing the content (Курышко 1993: 109). Folk terminology is not characterized by strictness of meaning and use, so it is difficult to determine exactly which terms are completely identical in meaning and which are not.⁷

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LKŽe; ךpykeris (German Speicher LKŽe) “a building with rooms downstairs and grain stored upstairs” LKA I 47.

Another of the most important traditional farm buildings was the building for storing, drying, and threshing grain. Daukantas mentioned this type of building and its name: “The fifth building was likewise oblong and rectangular, called a reja, in which dry grain, taken out of the granary and spread on the threshing floor, was threshed” (Daukantas 1976: 436). Sources from spoken language show that this building is known by seven synonyms—five Lithuanian, one Latvian, and one Germanic: kluonas LKŽe, LKA I 53, DrskŽ 159, KltŽ 115, LzŽ 123, ZanavŽ1 731, daržinė LKŽe, LKA I 53, jauja LKŽe, LKA I 53, klojimas LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 728, šiaudinė LKŽe; reja (Latvian rija) LKŽe, LKA I 53; ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne) LKA I 53, LKŽe. Reja is considered a Latvianism, and is thought to be of Finnish origin (Sabaliauskas 1990: 273, Urbutis 2009: 385; Karulis 2001: 755).

Seven specific terms are linked by hyponymic relations to the terms listed above; they denote features concerning the buildings’ purpose (3 terms), construction (2 terms), size (1 term), and construction and size (1 term). Three* compound Lithuanian terms designate a threshing barn for storing grain: javinė daržinė LKA I 53; laukinė daržinė LKA I 53, lauko daržinė LKA I 53. The Germanism skūnia refers to a threshing barn with one or two threshing floors: ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne) “a building for storing grain with one threshing floor” LKA I 53, ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne) “a building for storing grain with two threshing floors” LKA I 53. A small threshing barn is denoted by one Lithuanian term—klojimėlis “a small threshing barn” LzŽ 122—and another term, referring to construction and quality or size, is kloniokas “a poorly built⁸, insubstantial threshing barn” KzRŽ I 373.

A building for storing hay is known by thirty synonyms. Twenty-seven terms are single-word forms—sixteen Lithuanian, six Slavic, one Germanic, and four hybrid: daržinė LKŽe, LKA I 56, KltŽ 40, KpŽ 342, daržinėle KltŽ 40, diendaržinė LKA I 57, jaujė LKA I 57, klai-mas LKA I 57, klojimas LKA I 57, kluonas LKA I 57, klu onelis LKA I 57, kluoniukas LKA I 57, padanginė LKŽe, LKA I 57, pašarinė LKA I 57, pridaržė LKA I 57, prieklaimys LKA I 57, priekluon is LKA I 57, stoginė

⁸ The adjective menkas can have several meanings: menkas 1. “small, of insignificant size or limited extent”; 7. “poor, inadequate, no good” LKŽe.

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LKŽe, LKA I 57, šieninė LKŽe, LKA I 57, ZanavŽ3 271; ×adryna (Belarusian адрына, Polish odryna) LKA I 57, ×kaladnykas (Belarusian холодник, Polish chłodnik “a shed, a small shed”) LKA I 57, ×padakė (Polish poddasze) LKA I 57, ×pavietis (Belarusian павец “woodshed”) LKA I 57, ×salošius (Polish szalas “tent, hut”) LKA I 57, ךopas (Polish szopa < German Schuppen LKŽe) LKA I 57; ×skūnia (Middle Low German schūne LKA I 53) LKA I 57, ZanavŽ3 96; ×adrynelė (hybrid, from Slavic adryna and the Lithuanian suffix -ėlė) LKA I 57, ×skūnelė (hybrid, from Germanic skūnia and the Lithuanian suffix -elė) LKA I 57, ×skūngalis (hybrid, from Germanic skūnia and Lithuanian galas “end”) LKA I 57, ךieninyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian šieninė and the Slavic suffix -yčia) LKA I 57. Daukantas wrote about a building for storing hay; he called such a building stoginė and daržinė: “The seventh building was called a stoginė, or daržinė, oblong and rectangular, into which grain, straw, or hay was piled <...> it was called a stoginė because it had a roof; its walls were made either of logs or of poles” (Daukantas 1976: 437). A building for storing hay is designated by three compound Lithuanian terms: pašarinė daržinė LKA I 57, šieninė daržinė LKA I 57, šieno daržinė LKA I 57.

It should be noted that some terms may be considered partial synonyms, since they designate non-identical concepts. According to the data collected for the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language, separate buildings for storing hay were rare; hay was usually kept in structures attached to other buildings (LKA 1977: 57). Sometimes buildings for storing hay were erected in meadows; in form and construction they resembled those on farmsteads (Butkevičius 1971: 191). These structures had walls and were regarded as buildings.

Two small groups of terms denote a building for storing grain and flax, and a building for drying flax. The first is known by three synonyms—two Lithuanian and one Latvian: jauja LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 563, pirtis LKŽe, ZanavŽ2 409; reja (Latvian rija) LKŽe, DūnŽ 301. The group of names for the second building likewise consists of three synonyms—two Lithuanian and one hybrid: žardinė LKŽe, žardininkas LKŽe; מardininkčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian žardinė and the Slavic suffix -inčia) LKŽe.

A bathing building is also classified among farm buildings. The main name for a bathing building is bathhouse. The Aukštaitians and Dzūkai used pirtimi to mean a bathing room, the Zanavykai and Kapsai a building for drying flax, and the Samogitians a room for drying grain. The Samogitians called a bathing building perene (LEB 1964: 277). Ethnographers maintain that bathhouse is the original meaning of the term for a bathing building. Daukantas wrote about this, and in the 19th century he called it pirtimi.

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the Samogitian bathing building: “The eighth building was called a bathhouse; inside the bathhouse there was a stove, along half the walls were benches, from the word ‘to wash’ <...>; to these bathhouses they led not only guests and travelers, but also messengers of foreign nations: for in ancient times the greatest honor was to lead a guest to the bathhouse and steam him <...>” (Daukantas 1976: 437). Later, the bathing building was called by other terms; however, according to local researchers, the eastern Aukštaitians best preserved the original meaning of the term for a bathhouse (Butkevičius 1971: 198). The sources examined show that the group of names for bathing buildings consists of six synonyms in all: three Lithuanian, two Slavic, and one Germanic: bathhouse LKŽe, LKA I 58, DrskŽ 267, KltŽ 216, ZanavŽ2 409, jauja LKŽe, perenė LKŽe, LKA I 58, DūnŽ 254; ×banė (Russian, Belarusian dialect баня) LKA I 58, ×laznė (Polish łaznia, Belarusian лазня) LKA I 58, LKŽe; ×badestubė (German Baden and German dialect stuba LKŽe) LKA I 58.

The names of utility buildings include four terms denoting food-preparation buildings—three Lithuanian and one hybrid: namas ‘a small detached building with a stove, used in summer’ LKŽe, pravarelės ‘a small building nailed together from boards, where meat is smoked and, in summer, food is cooked and potatoes are boiled for pigs’ LKŽe, viralinė ‘a separate kitchen building or annex, a summer kitchen’ LKŽe, DūnŽ 443, ubladė (hybrid, from German ubas) ‘a detached building containing a bread oven or where feed is prepared for livestock’ LKŽe. Ubladė is characteristic of Samogitia; it is a small building with a masonry bread oven and a little room for storing tools. Daukantas described the traditional ubladė: “The sixth building is called ublade; in it was a bread-baking stove, so called because beneath it they baked not only bread and cakes, <...> but also fish and meat, sometimes in wooden troughs, sometimes on straw; there they dried grain, mushrooms, and apples for apple preserves; there too stood millstones for grinding grain, just as among the Romans, where grain was ground, bread was baked in the same place. Among the poor, these ubladės also served as bathhouses, as I have said, for a stove had been built on top of the masonry stove” (Daukantas 1976: 436). In the works of local historians, this building is also called numalis. It is thought that the name ubladės arose from the name of a room in a dwelling house that contained a stove and chimney (Gutautas, Knežys 1992: 347). All the building names mentioned are considered synonyms: they share the same semantic core and differ only in secondary features.

The largest part of the terminology under consideration consists of terms naming buildings for keeping livestock. There are one hundred and ele-

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ven terms used to name livestock buildings. Thirteen terms are considered general names for a livestock building, nine of them Lithuanian, for example: gurbas (Lithuanian Sabaliauskas 1970: 34) LKŽe, LKA I 49, kūginys LKŽe, LKA I 49, pūnė LKŽe, LKA I 49, tvarčiukas LKA I 49, tvartas LKŽe, LKA I 49, DrskŽ 424, KltŽ 365, LzŽ 273, ZanavŽ3 510. The livestock building is also called namu LKŽe. Historically, the term namo derives from the name of a dwelling, since in old houses people lived and kept livestock under one roof. As livestock farming developed in Samogitia, a new type of dwelling emerged (also called numalis by the Samogitians), with rooms for keeping livestock (LLA 1965: 42–43). Daukantas also mentions such a building: “The second door <...> led from the house to the livestock building, or kūtė, so called from the word tverti ‘to enclose’; hence the whole homestead was later called tvaru, or dvaru, which at first was enclosed with poles, sharing one side wall with the house, and in that livestock building the animals were tied along the walls, namely cows and oxen” (Daukantas 1976: 430). Because of the adjoining enclosure, the livestock building is also called by the Lithuanian term diendaržis LKŽe. It is also designated by the name of a bathing building—jauja LKŽe. A building for keeping livestock is also named by a structural term—dangtis LKŽe, LKA I 49. The livestock building is also called by five loanwords—three Slavisms, one Latvianism, and one Germanism: ×abares (Polish obora LKŽe) LKA I 50, ×stainia (Belarusian стайня, Polish stajnía) LKŽe, stodas (Belarusian stado Fraenkel 1962: 910) LKŽe; kūtė (Latvian kuts) LKA I 49, LKŽe, DūnŽ 162, ZanavŽ1 818; ×staldas (German dialect stall) LKŽe, LKA I 50, ZanavŽ3 163.

Names for livestock buildings have regional usage patterns. The term tvarto is the most widely used; it is known in the standard language and across a large dialect area (in southern, central, and eastern Lithuania). Kūtė is used in the northern part of Lithuania, gurbas in the northeastern corner, staldas in southern Samogitia, pūnė in the eastern Aukštaitian dialect area, namas, dangtis and abaŕes in certain areas of central Lithuania, and kūginys in a small area of the eastern Aukštaitian dialect region (Sabaliauskas 1970: 30–49).

Ninety-eight specific terms are linked by hyponymic relations to the general names for livestock buildings; they denote characteristics of function (92 terms), construction (2 terms), and size (4 terms). The largest group consists of terms naming horse stables. Historians note that this building was known by several terms: arklių tvartas, arklių kūtė (Daukantas 1976: 430–431). Living-language sources show that terms denoting horse stables form a synonymic series of twenty-seven items. The single-word terms num-

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ber sixteen: four Lithuanian, three Slavic, two Germanic, and seven hybrid: arklidė LKŽe, LKA I 50, KpŽ 66, LzŽ 23, ZanavŽ1 58, arkliatvartis LKŽe, LKA I 51, arklinė LKŽe, LKA I 50, arklinykas LKA I 50; ×abarai (Belarusian абора, Polish obora LKA I 50) LKA I 51, ×kaniušnia (Belarusian канюшня) DrskŽ 136, LKA I 51, ×stainia (Belarusian стайня, Polish stajnia) LKŽe, LKA I 51, DrskŽ 346, ZanavŽ3 161; ×staldė (German dialect stall) LKŽe, ×straja (German dialect štraie, štrei) LKŽe; ×arklistaldis (hybrid, from Lithuanian arklys and Germanic staldas) LKA I 51, ×kaniūkštė (hybrid, from Slavic kaniušnia and the Lithuanian suffix –tė) LKA I 51, ×stainelė (hybrid, from Slavic stainia and the Lithuanian suffix –elė) LKA I 51, ×stainikė (hybrid, from Slavic stainia and the Lithuanian suffix –ikė) LKA I 51, ×staininė (hybrid, from Slavic stainia and the Lithuanian suffix –inė) LKŽe, LKA I 51, ×stojinė (hybrid, from Slavic stoinia and the Lithuanian suffix –inė) LKŽe, LKA I 51, מirginyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian žirgas and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) LKŽe. A. Sabaliauskas has noted that kaniušnė (kaniušnia) was probably borrowed from Belarusian, while forms with an inserted –k– arose within Lithuanian itself (Sabaliauskas 1970: 54). Horse stables are also designated by twelve compound terms, most of which have Lithuanian elements: arklinė pūnė LKA I 50, arklinis ažudaras LKA I 51, arklinis gur­bas LKA I 50, arklinis tvartas LKA I 50, arklių dangtis LKA I 50, arklių gur­bas LKA I 50, arklių namas LKA I 50, arklių pūnė LKA I 50, arklių tvartas LKA I 50. The group of mixed terms comprises terms with Lithuanian modifiers and borrowed heads: arklių kūtė (Latvian kuts) LKA I 50, arklių ×staldas (German dialect stall) LKA I 50, arklių ×stelingis (Latvian stelingis ‘pen’, German dialect stellinge ‘livestock building’) LKA I 51.

Cow barns are denoted by twenty-two synonymous terms—nine single-word terms and thirteen compounds. Fourteen terms are Lithuanian—seven single-word terms and seven compounds: bandininkas LKA I 50, galvidė LKŽe, galvijinė LKA I 50, gyvulininkas LKA I 50, karvidė LKŽe, LKA I 50, KzRŽ I 326, karvinys LKŽe, LKA I 50, numas LKA I 50; galvijinė pūnė LKA I 50, galvijų tvartas LKA I 50, karvidis tvartas LKA I 50, karvinė pūnė LKA I 50, karvinis gur­bas LKA I 50, karvinis tvartas LKA I 50, karvių pūnė. Cow barns are also called by two Slavicisms: ×abarės (Belarusian абора, Polish obora) LKA I 50, ×valaunios (Belarusian валуня ‘ox shed’) LKA I 50. Six compound terms are mixed; in all of them, the modifiers are Lithuanian and the heads are Latvian or Germanic: bandos kūtė (Latvian kuts) LKA I 50, galvijinė kūtė (Latvian kuts) LKA

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I 50, karvidžių kūtės (Latv. kuts) LKA I 50; bandos ×staldas (German dialect stall LKŽe) LKA I 50, galvijų ×staldas (German dialect stall LKŽe) LKA I 50, karvinis ×staldas (German dialect stall LKŽe) LKA I 50. The group of names for an ox byre consists of four synonymous terms—two Lithuanian and two hybrids: jaučiatvartis LKA I 50, jautidė LKŽe; ×builinė (hybrid, from German builis and the Lithuanian suffix -inė) LKŽe, ×jautstald is (hybrid, from Lithuanian jautis and German staldas) ZanavŽ1 567. It should be noted that terms denoting a cowshed and an ox byre can be interpreted in two ways—as hyponyms of general names for cattle sheds or as hyponyms of the term galvidė. The term galvidė is also used as a general name for a cattle shed: “cattle shed” LKŽe.

A pigsty is referred to by nineteen synonymous terms. Six terms are single-word, of which three are Lithuanian and two are hybrid: kiauliatvartis LKŽe, LzŽ 116, kiaulidė LKŽe, LKA I 51, kiaulinys LKŽe; ×kiaulinčius (hybrid, from Lithuanian kiaulė and the Slavic suffix -inčius) LKŽe, ×kiaulinyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian kiaulė and the Slavic suffix -inyčia) LKŽe. The same type of shed is also named by a term for a stable: ×kaniūkšlė (Belarusian канюшня, Russian конюшня LKA I 51) LKŽe. Thirteen terms are compounds, nine of them Lithuanian: kiaulinė pūnė LKA I 51, kiaulinė pūnelė LKA I 51; kiaulinis gurbas LKA I 51, kiaulinis gurbel iokas LKA I 51, kiaulinis gurbelis LKA I 51; kiaulinis tvartas LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvarčiukas LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvartelis LKA I 51, kiaulinis tvartukas LKA I 51. In the group of mixed terms, those with Lithuanian modifiers and hybrid heads predominate: kiaulinė ×kūtėlė (hybrid, from Latvian kuts and the Lithuanian suffix -elė) LKA I 51, kiaulinis ×staldalis (hybrid, from German staldas and the Lithuanian suffix -alis) LKA I 51, kiaulinis ×staldukas (hybrid, from German staldas and the Lithuanian suffix -ukas) LKA I 51. One term has a Lithuanian modifier and a Latvian head: kiaulinė kūtė (Latv. kuts) LKA I 51. A sheepfold is denoted by seven synonymous terms: five Lithuanian, one Germanic, and one hybrid: avidė LKŽe, avikinė LKŽe, avin ykė LKŽe, DrskŽ 25, avininkas ZanavŽ1 86, avitvartis LKŽe; ךkūnia (German dialect schūne) LKŽe; ×avinyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian avis and the Slavic suffix -inyčia) LKŽe.

The groups of names for poultry sheds are small. A chicken shed is designated by five synonymous terms: three Lithuanian, one Slavic, and one hybrid: chicken coop LKA I 52, LKŽe, henhouse LKŽe, chicken house LKŽe; ×katukas (Belarusian komyx, Polish kotuch) LKŽe, KltŽ 103; ×vištinyčia

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(hybrid, from Lithuanian višta and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) LKŽe. The group of names for a goose shed consists of three synonymous terms—two Lithuanian and one hybrid: žąsidė LKŽe, žąsinykas LKŽe; מąsinyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian žąsis and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) LKŽe. A duck shed is denoted by one Lithuanian and one hybrid term: antidė LKŽe; ×antinyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian antis and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) LKŽe.

There are considerably fewer specific terms denoting sheds by other characteristics (construction, size). Buildings for keeping livestock are named according to their construction by two Lithuanian terms: tvarthamis “a shed joined to another building” LKŽe, namas “a shed under the same roof as a dwelling house” LKŽe, LKA I 49. Daukantas also mentions a separate kūtę-named shed in which livestock and vehicles were kept: “The second building, as though joined at one corner to the side of the house, was called kūtė, and was likewise an elongated rectangle; in the middle of the southern wall it had one door, as high as the wall and so wide that one could drive in with the largest hay wagon, which was supported between the three walls and that door and was called tarpikis, or ratainyčia, where wheels, carts, and sledges were kept; sometimes war horses were kept there on the stelingis <...>” (Daukantas 1976: 432–433), although no such specific term could be found in the sources examined. By size, sheds are named by four specific terms. A small shed is designated by three synonymous terms—two Lithuanian and one hybrid: namelis LKA I 49, tvartelis DrskŽ 425; ×staldalis (hybrid, from German staldas and the Lithuanian suffix –alis) LKŽe. A large shed is called by the hybrid term ×pastaunyku (hybrid, from Slavic pastauka and the Lithuanian suffix –nykas) LKŽe.

The group of names for auxiliary buildings comprises two Lithuanian terms, four Slavic, one Germanic, and one hybrid term: pirkaitė “a small, fitted-out building for storing things” LKŽe, rūsys “a special building for storing vegetables” LKŽe; būda (Belarusian буда, Polish buda) “a small building” KzRŽ I 88, ZanavŽ I 182, grinčia (Belarusian грындніца LKA I 34) “a building into which potatoes are poured” LKŽe, ×kaburė (Russian кобура) “a boarded building for storing things, a ramshackle shed” LKŽe, ךopa (Polish szopa < German Schuppen) “a small, inferior building for various purposes” LKŽe; ×kelnorė (German Keller) “a semi-underground building for storing potatoes” LKŽe, KzRŽ I 340; ×bragelis (hybrid, from Slavic baragas and the Lithuanian suffix –elis) “a small building, a little shelter for storing things” LKŽe.

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Terms denoting a food-processing building are included among the names of farm buildings. Smokehouses are generally described as small structures, e.g.: rūkykla ‘a building for smoking meat or fish’ LKŽe, rūkalė ‘a smokehouse (a small plank building where food is cooked in summer and meat is smoked in winter)’ LKŽe. In total, seven terms denote a smokehouse—four Lithuanian, one Slavic, and two hybrid terms, e.g.: dūminė ‘smokehouse’ LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 329, rūkinė ‘smokehouse’ LKŽe, ZanavŽ2 582; ×būdka (Belarusian buda Fraenkel 1962: 61) ‘smokehouse’ ZanavŽ1 184; ×dūminyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian dūmas ‘smoke’ and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) ‘smokehouse’ ZanavŽ1 329, ×rūkinyčia (hybrid, from Lithuanian rūkas ‘smoke’ and the Slavic suffix –inyčia) ‘smokehouse’ LKŽe, ZanavŽ2 528.

2. M U L T I V A L E N C E O F T E R M S

Some terms in the micro-system under examination have the same form but different meanings. In total, polysemy is characteristic of twenty-eight terms, which make up eleven sets. Most are binary sets (8 sets, or 73% of all sets of polysemous terms); ternary sets are almost three times less common (3 sets, or 27%). Most often, polysemous terms denote farm buildings serving different purposes (7 sets). For example, daržinė, klojimu, kluonu, and skūnia denote a building for storing crops, grain, and other supplies, as well as a building for storing hay, e.g.: daržinė ‘building where grain is stored’ LKŽe, LKA I 53 – ‘building for storing hay’ LKŽe, LKA I 56, KltŽ 40, KpŽ 342; klojimas ‘building for storing crops, a threshing barn’ LKŽe, ZanavŽ1 728 – klojimas ‘building where hay is stored’ LKA I 57.

Some polysemous terms denote both a generic and a specific concept (5 sets). Most often (4 sets), specific terms record distinguishing features relating to the purpose of buildings. For example, namu denotes any farm building as well as an outbuilding or a barn, e.g.: ‘a dwelling or some other building’ LKŽe – ‘a small detached building with a stove, used in summer’ LKŽe – ‘a barn’ LKŽe. The terms abarės and stainia serve as both generic and specific names for barns: ×abarės ‘barn’ LKA I 50 – ‘cow barn’ LKA I 50; ×stainia ‘barn’ LKŽe – ‘horse stable’ LKŽe, LKA I 51, DrskŽ 346, ZanavŽ3 161. The term galvidė denotes a cow barn and a broader concept—a cattle barn: ‘a cattle or cow barn, cowshed’ LKŽe. One instance was observed in which a specific term denotes structural features. The term skūnia serves as the generic name for a building used to store crops, and also

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denotes it according to the number of threshing floors: skūnia ‘building where crops are stored’ LKA I 53, LKŽe – ‘building where crops are stored, with one threshing floor’ LKA I 53 – ‘building where crops are stored, with two threshing floors’ LKA I 53.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The folk terminology for farm buildings comprises 196 terms, which denote 54 different structures. The terminology under examination is Lithuanian: terms of native origin make up almost two thirds (64%) of all terms. Borrowings—Slavisms, Germanisms, and Latvianisms—account for one fifth (20%), while hybrids and mixed compound terms account for one sixth (16%) of all terms.

2. More than one third (35%) of the concepts in the terminology under examination are named by more than one term. The abundance of synonymy in the terminology for farm buildings may be attributable to the variety of forms of folk terms, the resources of the native language and borrowing, the regional distribution of term usage, and the development of buildings.

3. Farm buildings are most often designated by long synonym sets of diverse origin. Binary synonym sets make up about one sixth (16%), ternary sets almost one third (31%), and sets with four or more members slightly over half (53%) of all synonym sets. The largest groups are the names for buildings used to store hay and buildings used to house livestock, each containing twenty or more synonymous terms. In terms of origin, synonym sets containing synonyms of diverse origins predominate (80% of all synonym sets).

4. Terms naming farm buildings form a three-level hierarchy. Two terms may be regarded as generic, denoting any farm building. The generic terms have eighty-four hyponyms, denoting ten farm buildings of various purposes: a building for storing crops, grain, and other supplies; a building for storing, drying, and threshing crops; a building for storing crops and flax; a building for drying flax; a building for storing hay; a bathing building; a building for preparing food; a building for housing livestock; outbuildings; a food-processing building.

5. The names of three buildings have hyponyms. The terms denoting a building for housing livestock have ninety-eight hyponyms, most of which (94% of the specific terms in the group) record features relating to purpose. Specific names for buildings used to store crops, grain, and other supplies mark purpose (25%), size (25%), quality (25%), and structural features (25% of the specific terms in the group) in equal proportions. Specific names for buildings used to store, dry, and thresh crops most often indicate purpose (44%).

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and construction (28% of the group of specific terms) characteristics. A small proportion of specific terms record size characteristics (14%) and construction and size characteristics (14% of the group of specific terms).

6. One seventh (14.3%) of the terms form eleven rows of polysemous terms. Most members of polysemous-term rows denote buildings with different purposes, while others designate generic and specific concepts. Terms denoting specific concepts most often record characteristics of purpose.

ŠALTINIAI

DrskŽ – Druskininkų tarmės žodynas. Sud. G. Naktinienė, A. Paulauskienė, V. Vitkauskas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1988.

DunŽ – V. Vitkauskas. Šiaurės rytų dūnininkų šnektų žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976.

KltŽ – Kaltanėnų šnektos žodynas. Sud. A. Vilutytė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008.

KzRŽ I – Kazlų Rūdos šnektos žodynas I. Red. A. Pupkis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008.

KpŽ I – K. Vosylyté. Kupiškėnų žodynas I, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2007.

LžŽ – J. Petrauskas, A. Vidugiris. Lazūnų tarmės žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985.

LKA I – Lietuvių kalbos atlasas I. Red. K. Morkūnas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1977.

LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (elektroninis leidimas). Vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, Vilnius, 2005.

ZanavŽ1–3 – Zanavykų šnektos žodynas I–III, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003–2006.

LITERATŪRA

Butkevičius I. 1958: Tradiciniai lietuvių valstiečių gyvenamieji namai. – Iš lietuvių kultūros istorijos 1, 157–173.

Butkevičius I. 1971: Lietuvos valstiečių gyvenvietės ir sodybos, Vilnius: Mintis.

Daukantas S. 1976: Raštai, Vilnius: Vaga.

Dundulienė Pr. 1982: Lietuvių etnografija, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Dundulienė Pr. 1991: Lietuvių etnologija, Vilnius: Mokslas.

DŽ₆ 2008 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.

Fraenkel E. 1955–1962: Litauisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg: Winter, I–II.

Gutautas S., Kneižys V. 1992: Apie trobų genezę. – Rietavo apylinkės, Kaunas: Lietuvos kraštotyros draugija, 341–349.

Karulis K. 2001: Latviešu etimoloģijas vārdnīca. Riga: Avots.

Kuryško G. F. 1993: Problems of Terminological Synonymy. – IITF-Series. Selected Readings in Russian Terminology Research, Vienna: TermNet, 102–111.

LEB 1964: Lietuvių etnografijos bruožai, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

LLA 1965: Lietuvių liaudies architektūra 1. – Kaimo gyvenvietės ir gyvenamieji namai, Vilnius: Mintis.

Sabaliauskas A. 1970: Iš baltų kalbų gyvulininkystės terminologijos istorijos. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 12, 7–81.

Sabaliauskas A. 1990: Lietuvių kalbos leksika, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Stunžinas R. 2008: Variantiniai statybos liaudies terminai Lietuvių kalbos žodyne. – Terminologija 15, 111–130.

Stunžinas R. 2010: Gyvenamojo namo ir pagrindinių jo dalių liaudies terminijos sinonimija. – Terminologija 17, 130–142.

Stunžinas R. 2011: Gyvenamojo namo ir pagrindinių jo dalių rūšiniai liaudies terminai. – Terminologija 18, 142–153.

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Urbutis V. 2009: Baltų etimologijos etuidai 2, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

Ахманова О. 1966: Словарь лингвистических терминов, Москва: КомКнига.

Головин Б. Н., Кобрин Р. Ю. 1987: Лингвистические основы учения о терминах, Москва: Высшая школа.

Даниленко В. П. 1997: Русская терминология, Москва: Наука.

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FOLK TERMINOLOGY OF FARM BUILDINGS

The article deals with folk terminology of farm buildings in respect of concepts, origin and semantic relations. The researched terms are taken from various lexicographical sources of Lithuanian folk terminology.

There are 196 terms in the researched sources which name 54 different farm buildings. The majority of the terms are of Lithuanian origin, they make up nearly two thirds (64%) of all terms researched, for example klėtis (granary) ‘building for storing grain or clothes’, kluonas ‘building for storing, drying and threshing cereal’, daržinė ‘building for storing hay’. Borrowings from Slavic and Germanic languages as well as the Latvian language make up one fifth (20%), for example pavietis (Belarus. na’еву) ‘building for storing hay’, staldas (Germ. dial. stall) ‘building for keeping animals’, reja (Latv. rija) ‘building for storing and drying cereal’. Hybrids and terms with mixed composition, for example stojinė (Sl. stoinia and Lith. -inė) ‘building for keeping horses’, karvinis (Lith.) staldas (Germ. dial. stall) make one sixth (16%) of all terms researched.

More than one third (35%) of researched concepts are named using more than one term. The abundance of synonymy of farm building terminology could have been caused by the variety of expression of folk terminology, usage of language’s own resources and borrowing, regional usage of terms and development of buildings. Lines of synonyms naming farm buildings are rather long and they consist of synonyms of different origin. Pairs of synonyms make up about one sixth (16%) of all synonym rows, for instance antidė – antinyčia ‘duck shed’. Three synonyms make up about one third (31%), more than three synonyms – more than a half (53%) of all synonym rows, for example žardinė – žardininkas – žardinčinčia ‘building for flax drying’, jaučiavartis – jautidė – buil inė – jautstaldas ‘ox barn’. Groups of names for hay storage and animal barn are the largest – they consist of more than twenty terms. These synonyms most often are of a different origin (80% of all synonym rows).

Terms naming farm buildings have a three-level hierarchy. Two terms which name a farm building in general can be viewed as generic, for instance namas – trobesys ‘any farm building’. Generic terms have 84 hyponyms which name 10 farm buildings of different purpose: building for storing grains, food supplies, clothes and household tools; building for storing, drying and threshing cereal; building for storing cereal and flax; building for drying flax; building for storing hay; building for bathing; building for cooking; building for keeping animals; auxiliary building; building for food preparation. Terms naming three types of buildings have hyponyms.

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One seventh (14,3%) of terms are polysemous. Most often they name buildings of different purpose, daržinė ‘building for storing cereal’ – ‘building for storing hay’, klojimas – ‘building for storing cereal’ – ‘building for storing hay’. Other polysemous terms name generic and specific concepts, for instance, namas ‘any farm building’ – ‘summer kitchen’ – ‘building for keeping animals’.

Gauta 2012-10-25

Robertas Stunžinas

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

E. paštas [email protected]

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