Metaphorical Economic Terms

RASUOLĖ VLADARSKIENĖ

Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas

KEYWORDS: economic terms, metaphorical terms, stylistic neutrality, imagery

The most characteristic stylistic features of scholarly language (generalization, precision in subject matter, pronounced logical exposition, objectivity, conciseness, comprehensiveness, and clarity) have been discussed in works on stylistics (Pikčilingis 1971: 314–323; Župerka 1997: 81). They emphasize that imagery and emotionality are not characteristic of scholarly language. Terms constitute an important layer of scholarly language and therefore also exhibit its general features. In Kazimieras Župerka’s view (1997: 81), “[t]he precision in subject matter of scholarly language is determined by the use of terms and other unambiguous words with direct meanings.” When listing the principal requirements for terms, authors note correctness, systematicity, brevity, ease of formation, and stylistic neutrality (Gaivenis 2002: 36–50). However, many scholarly texts contain both vivid and metaphorical terms, raising the question of how they should be evaluated.

Ši mokslo kalbos problema nėra nauja, apie ją jau rašė Kazimieras Gaivenis (2002: 44–47) nagrinėdamas terminų stilistinį neutralumą, Vilija Celiešienė ir Judita Džėžulskienė (2009, 50–51) aptardamos profesinės kalbos pagrindus; taip pat yra ir atskirų straipsnių, skirtų metaforinių terminų bendrosioms problemoms (Baltrūnaitė 1998: 36–47), statybos metaforiniams terminams (Stunžinas 2006: 62–73); metaforų vartojimui mokslo populiarinamuosiuose tekstuose (Petrėnienė 2010: 129–134), metaforinių terminų vertimo į lietuvių kalbą sunkumams (Marina 2006: 98–108, Volungevičienė 2010: 23–27) ir kt.

The subject of the article is metaphorical economic terms, collected from Aiškinamojo įmonės vadybos terminų žodyno (2000), Ekonomikos terminų žodyno, compiled by Rūta Vainienė (2007), Ekonomikos terminų žodyno, translated from English

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kalbos (1997), Europos žodyno (Eurovoc). Metaforiniais terminais šiame straipsnyje vadinami perkeltinės reikšmės žodžiai, įvardijantys specialias sąvokas.

The aim of the article is, after examining the foundations of metaphorical naming in scholarly language, to review the structure of metaphorical economic terms and describe the features of metaphorical transfer.

METAPHORICAL NAMING IN TERMINOLOGY

K. Gaivenis (1991: 30) aptly described the importance of imagery in scholarly language and, consequently, in terminology: “Imagery is not an essential feature of scholarly language, but is permissible and tolerable only within certain limits. Its role varies not only in the language of different fields of science, but also across genres.” Thus, it is only necessary to define those limits clearly and try not to exceed them. This is not so simple, however, because the objects studied in different fields of science and the ways they are named differ.

A paradoxical situation arises: scholars of stylistics acknowledge that imagery and expressiveness are not characteristic of scholarly style, yet they cannot deny the fact that numerous metaphors are found in the terminology of various fields of science. Consequently, researchers seek the reasons for this phenomenon and ways to reconcile precision in subject matter with the use of words in figurative meanings in scholarly language (and terminology).

This situation can be explained by the twofold conception of metaphor. Metaphor is generally understood as “the transfer of the name of one thing or phenomenon, on the basis of some shared feature, similarity of function, or direct impression, to name another thing or phenomenon” (Gudavičius 2009: 114); however, two types are distinguished: linguistic and artistic metaphors. Linguistic metaphors result from secondary indirect nomination; they retain a degree of imagery and semantic duality and are used for nominative and communicative purposes. These metaphors are objective and systematic, and reflect a collective view of the logical relations between objects. Artistic metaphors are used as stylistic figures; they are subjective and individual and perform an aesthetic function (KPP 325–327). It is artistic metaphors that are undesirable in terminology, whereas linguistic metaphors are used when they provide the sole designation for a concept. Metaphor has taken root in scholarly language because it compares two things, and analogy is one of the most important modes of scientific thought. Audronė Bitinienė states that metaphor “is not merely an ornament of thought or text; it is connected with human mental activity: it helps us to understand, structure, evaluate, and explain phenomena in the world” (Bitinienė 2007: 36).

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Scientific style is not a closed system; many terms are terminologized units of international vocabulary, and they may enter terminology already in use in a figurative sense. For example, Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DŽ) gives the primary meaning of the word srautas as “a stream or flow of liquid,” and its second meaning, close to the first, as “a stream of various particles or waves”: A stream of air or gas. A stream of wind. A stream of flames. A stream of sand. A stream of light or heat. A stream of electrons. Magnetic flux. As can be seen, in this latter sense the term srautas is used in the terminology of various fields. In economic terminology, the word is used figuratively to mean “a continuous series”: a stream of passengers, freight, goods DŽ. Cf. more specialized terms: capital flow EV; migrant flow EV; money flow EV; discounting of cash flows VŽ 26; cash flow statement VŽ 198.

STRUCTURE OF METAPHORICAL TERMS

Recognizing that metaphorical naming is not very characteristic of economic terminology, terms of various structures in which words used figuratively to name specialized economic concepts can be identified were selected as the object of study.

Single-word metaphorical terms are not characteristic of economic terminology, since one word is usually insufficient to make clear the basis of comparison and the resulting figurative meaning. Such terms occur only rarely:

when the figurative meaning is not very far removed from the original meaning and it is possible to infer what concept the word denotes, e.g., free rider “a consumer who consciously declares that they do not value a collective product, in the expectation that they will be able to use it without paying its full price” ETŽ 26;

when the figurative meaning is connected with the term’s history of origin; such terms are understood only by specialists, e.g., coupon “bond interest” EŽ; this name derives from the paper bond, which had detachable sections for which interest was paid. Although bonds are often intangible today, the name has remained.

Words used figuratively that are the head words of compound terms are used with modifiers specifying the thing to which the metaphorical meaning is assigned (nominative metaphors), e.g.: [price] scissors VŽ 138, [tax] burden ETŽ 267, EŽ 174; [price]

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bubble EŽ 122. Such words can take different modifiers and form a particular group of metaphorical terms: [support] mechanism EV, [pricing] mechanism EV, [additional trade] mechanism EV, [currency intervention] mechanism EV, [market] mechanism ETŽ 439, [exchange-rate] mechanism EV; [demographic] growth EV, [economic] growth EV, [production] growth EV, [company] growth EV, [industrial] growth EV, [economic] growth EV; [Community] revenue EV, [budget] revenue EV, [export] revenue EV, [tax] revenue EV.

Figurative words that describe the literal head terms of a compound term (attribute metaphors) are metaphorical dependent components of compound terms, e.g.: shadow [economy] EŽ 256–257, ETŽ 477; bad [loan] ETŽ 54, iron [law of wages] EŽ 96. These dependent components are usually adjectives, less often participles (creeping [inflation] ETŽ 479, EŽ 257) or noun genitives (sin [tax] EŽ 190, pillow [tax] ETŽ 325, EŽ 197). Several terms can be formed with the same metaphorical dependent component (golden [share] EŽ 36; golden [rule] EŽ 36).

Metaphorical word combinations. Compound terms whose metaphorical meaning derives from the word combination are specialized and known only to specialists; some have a more general meaning, and although their basis of comparison can be inferred, it is unclear what concept they denote, e.g.: golden parachute EŽ 36, ETŽ 29; golden handshake EŽ 36, ETŽ 29; free lunch EŽ 185; poison pill ETŽ 312; shock therapy EŽ 257; Chinese wall ETŽ 217.

Economic dictionaries have also included authorial metaphors, e.g., invisible hand EŽ 185 (Adam Smith’s metaphor describing the mechanism by which market prices operate; an expanded variant, invisible hand of the market, is often used to clarify whose hand is meant), Big Brother EŽ 65 (George Orwell’s metaphor describing total, extensive, and active authority). These metaphors are conventional in economic texts and are used as names for particular phenomena.

SEMANTIC FEATURES OF METAPHORICAL ECONOMIC TERMS

In science, metaphors are created to explain unknown or unclear things and reveal their essence by drawing on what is already known and familiar to people. Russian scholars (Ivina 2003: 62, Prokhorova 1996: 41) highlight the importance of metaphorical naming in terminology; they also emphasize that

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this phenomenon is characteristic of terms in technology, medicine and other natural sciences (botany), since metaphors are first and foremost created on the basis of external resemblance and are therefore associated with concrete vocabulary (Prokhorova 1996: 41). Robert Stunžinas also identified similar tendencies in Lithuanian construction terminology: “Metaphorical naming of features in construction terminology occurs mainly on the basis of the characteristics of household objects and objects from the animal world. Terms’ metaphorical components most often name features on the basis of external resemblance to objects, while surface features are named metaphorically” (Stunžinas 2006: 71).

The subject matter of economics (as well as of other social sciences and humanities) is different: abstract matters are most often studied here. The principal subject of economics is human economic activity; various actions, relations, connections and characteristics therefore often need to be named. Metaphors are consequently based not on external resemblance (as in technology and construction terminology), but on similarity of function or other associations.

A universal tendency toward metaphorization is prominent in economic terminology: anthropomorphism, in which the metaphorical model is the human being as a social subject. The basis for the transfer of meaning is human activity and the words describing its components. Metaphorical economic terms are formed using words that name realities from various other fields of professional activity. Compound terms containing words associated with warfare, hunting and similar fields are worth noting; they evoke associations with force, coercion and deception—in other words, negative things. Examples include: [cold] war EŽ 256; [price] war EŽ 123, VŽ 135; white knight EŽ 39, black knight EŽ 121, grey knight EŽ 216; [financial] intervention EV, intervention [price] EV, intervention [loan] EV, intervention [stocks] EV, intervention [purchase] EV; [audio and video recording] piracy EV, [computer] piracy EV; [labour] poaching EV; [population] trap ETŽ 141; [liquidity] trap ETŽ 247; [poverty] trap EŽ 249, ETŽ 461; [employee] recruitment EV; similar negative associations also arise from medical terms, for example: [budget] injections ETŽ 53; shock therapy EŽ 257; poison pill ETŽ 312; [supply] shock EŽ 208.

Metaphorical economic terms with more neutral meanings are those whose associations are linked to construction (creative destruction EŽ 150; [price] ceiling EŽ 124; front door ETŽ 401, back door ETŽ 516) or technology ([support] mechanism EV, [pricing] mechanism EV, [additional trade] mechanism EV; [fiscal] brake ETŽ 127; [price] barometer ETŽ 190, [financial] leverage VŽ 200).

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Metaphorical transfer is also associated with words denoting everyday human actions, for example: [money] laundering EV, EŽ 219; free lunch “benefits received for nothing” EŽ 185; segment “bond interest” EŽ 33; [tax] burden EŽ 174; [debt] burden ETŽ 460.

Metaphorical terms reflecting cultural realities are used less often. Theatre terms ([Community’s international] role EV, [social] role EV; [economic development] scenario EV) are universal and characteristic of the terminology of sciences other than economics as well. Expressive terms containing religious vocabulary have readily predictable features, for example: [tax] haven “a jurisdiction where non-residents are subject to relatively low corporate taxes, or none at all” EŽ 175; sin [tax] “a tax paid to the state for engaging in certain activities condemned by society” EŽ 190. Political terms can be assessed similarly, for example: voting [with one’s feet] “the emigration of residents from a country because of unacceptable economic conditions” EŽ 39; voting [with money] “the expression of consumer preferences in the market” EŽ 39.

As can be seen, abstract economic concepts are named using words that denote both abstract and concrete objects. Admittedly, the general tendency of metaphorization to transfer words from the concrete domain into the abstract domain is not very pronounced; nevertheless, a few names for everyday objects have also entered economic terminology, for example: [currency] basket EV, VŽ 203; [student] basket EŽ 176, [consumer] basket EŽ 276; [price] scissors VŽ 138; pillow [tax] EŽ 197, bottlenecks “weak links in the production process” EŽ 53.

Another metaphorical model found in economic terms is nature (zoological and botanical metaphors). It is, however, used much less often. Zoological metaphors in economic terminology are expressive: actors are named after animals, but the basis for comparison—the animal characteristics that matter—is not always clear, since such terms are usually semantic loans from English. Examples include: bull, cf. English bull EŽ 52; bear, cf. English bear EŽ 160; cash cows, cf. English cash cows EŽ 166; dogs, cf. English dogs EŽ 257, EŽ 290; tiger [economy], cf. English Tiger Economy EŽ 262. In Lithuanian, animal names may evoke associations different from those they evoke in English, so translation sometimes uses the name of a different animal, for example, [currency] snake, cf. English monetary snake EV.

Botanical metaphors are rare in economic terminology; for example, decision tree VŽ 123, ETŽ 467. However, one of the more prominent and frequently used

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Metaphors are associated with plant growth processes, which are compared with economic processes: [demographic, economic, production, enterprise, industrial, agricultural] growth EV.

Economic terms characteristically employ water metaphors, with action as the basis of comparison, e.g.: [capital] flow EV, [migrant] flow EV, [money] flow EV; [capital] outflow EV, [liquid assets] outflow [abroad] EV; [capital] outflow [from the country] EV; brain drain EV; inflows EV; [Community, budget, export, tax] revenues EV. Metaphors based on movement were also associated with these, e.g.: [capital] flight EŽ 126, [capital] movement EV, [free movement of capital] EV, [movement of goods] VŽ 150.

A group of metaphors is associated with concepts from the fundamental sciences, for example geometry, which denotes space, the positions of planes, and objects, e.g.: [monetary] space EV; horizontal, vertical [agreement] EV, horizontal [diversification] VŽ 52, horizontal [integration] ETŽ 150; horizontal [marketing system] VŽ 154; vertical [marketing system] VŽ 157; vertical [enterprise site planning] VŽ 68, [age] pyramid EV, [Maslow’s hierarchy of needs] pyramid VŽ 111, [inflation] spiral VŽ 176, ETŽ 163; [price and wage] spiral ETŽ 199; [goods] line VŽ 150.

There is a substantial group of metaphorical economic terms in which the basis of comparison is a quality—that is, physical qualities (strength, temperature, size, cleanliness) are given figurative meanings, e.g.: flexible [work schedule] EV, flexible [working hours] EV, flexible [retirement age] EV, flexible [production process] VŽ; hot [money] EV, ETŽ 208, EŽ 129, VŽ 195; high [fashion] EV, high [technology] EV; shadow [economy] EV, EŽ 256; clean [industry] EV, clean [technology] EV; ledger EŽ 66, ETŽ 77, Big Brother EŽ 65; opaque exchange rate ETŽ 306, hard currency ETŽ 512.

It is worth noting that in economic terminology, dependent modifiers especially often denote a quality by reference to a particular material (gold), that is, the value of that material. The thing described thereby acquires the sense of being especially valuable: golden [share] EŽ 36; golden [rule] EŽ 36; golden parachute EŽ 36, ETŽ 29; golden hello ETŽ 29; golden handshake EŽ 36, ETŽ 29.

A small group of metaphorical terms in which colors are assigned particular meanings may be considered separately. Black and the shade gray traditionally denote negatively evaluated things, e.g.: black [market]

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EV, EŽ 121, VŽ 153; black [list] EŽ 121; gray [economy] EV; green is associated with ecological and environmentally sustainable things, e.g.: green [tax] EV; green [tourism] EV; green [energy] EV, EŽ 291.

Metaphorical terms can denote opposites, and their motivation is clear when antonyms are used: white knight EŽ 39 / black knight ETŽ 34, EŽ 121; front door ETŽ 401 / back door ETŽ 516. Less transparent are translated metaphors whose semantic basis for contrast is not apparent from the meanings of the words, e.g.: Big Brother EŽ 65 “a synonym for total, extensive, and active government” / night watchman “a synonym for small and limited government, the opposite of Big Brother” EŽ 180; bull market EŽ 52 / bear market EŽ 160.

The main reason metaphorical economic terms arise is translation from other languages, as is clearly shown by comparing terms in different languages; some of them may be considered metaphorical terms used in several languages, e.g.: monetary intervention mechanism (English monetary intervention mechanism), exchange-rate mechanism (English exchange-rate mechanism, German währungspolitischer Interventionsmechanismus, French mécanisme d’intervention monétaire); [currency] basket (English basket of currencies, German Währungskorb, French panier de monnaies); [money] laundering (English money laundering, German Geldwäsche, French blanchiment d’argent).

CONCLUSIONS

1. The use of metaphorical terms in the terminology of a particular field of science is closely related to the objects of study of that branch of science. When specific, clearly tangible and frequently used or visible objects are named, metaphorical naming is based on the external similarity of objects; metaphors in the terminology of the exact sciences are the result of secondary metaphorical nomination. In economics, there are not many concrete objects; more often, various things related to phenomena, actions, or their interrelationships have to be named. Therefore, metaphors are based on similarities of function and various associations, and many are authorial metaphors.

2. The most common basis for transferring the meanings of words in metaphorical economic terms is words describing human activity and its components; there are also zoological, botanical, and geometric metaphors. In metaphors of characteristics, figurative meaning is assigned to physical properties (strength, temperature, size, material, color).

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3. Abstract economic concepts are named both by abstract words and by words denoting concrete objects. However, the general tendency of metaphorization to transfer words from the concrete sphere to the abstract sphere is not very pronounced.

4. Metaphorical economic terms can be divided into four groups according to their structure: 1) simple metaphorical terms are rare and are usually calques (e.g., renegade, segment); 2) the head words of compound terms have a metaphorical meaning; such metaphorical economic terms are the most numerous (e.g., price scissors, tax burden, support mechanism); 3) dependent elements of compound terms are used metaphorically (e.g., shadow economy, creeping inflation, sin tax); 4) metaphorical phrases, usually calques (e.g., golden parachute, poison pill, shock therapy).

5. Metaphorical naming is not very characteristic of Lithuanian economic terminology, and a considerable proportion of metaphorical terms are calques. The motivation behind such terms is not always clear, and they are not very convenient to use. Therefore, when translating metaphorical terms from other languages, one should consider whether their semantic basis will be clearly understood in Lithuanian.

ŠALTINIAI

DŽ – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. 6 (elektroninis) leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas

EV – Europos žodynas (Eurovoc), prieiga per internetą http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/ev/ev.main.

ETŽ – Ekonomikos terminų žodynas, Pass C., Lowes B., Davies L. [iš anglų kalbos vertė Z. Bareikytė, L. B. Žemaittytė, K. Francūzevičiūtė]. 2-asis papild. ir patais. leid. Vilnius: Baltijos biznis, 1997.

EŽ – Vainienė R. Ekonomikos terminų žodynas, Vilnius: Tyto alba, 2008.

VŽ – Martinkus B., Neverauskas B., Sakalas A., Venskus R., Žilinskas V. Aiškinamasis įmonės vadybos terminų žodynas, Kaunas: Technologija, 2000.

LITERATŪRA

Baltrūnaitė R. 1998: Metaforiniai terminai. – Terminologija 5, 36–47.

Bitinienė A. 2007: Publicistinis stilius, Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio universiteto leidykla.

Celiešienė V., Džežulskienė J. 2009: Profesinės kalbos pagrindai, Kaunas: Technologija.

Gaivenis K. 1991: Lietuviškų terminų vaizdingumo klausimu. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai / Lietuvių leksikos ir terminologijos problemos 29, 26–31.

Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: tvarkybos ir teorijos metmenys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.

Gudavičius A. 2009: Etnolingvistika, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

Jakaitienė E. 2009: Leksikologija, Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

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METAPHORICAL TERMS OF ECONOMICS

The use of metaphorical terms in the terminology of a particular field of science is closely related to the research objects of that field. If concrete, tangible, frequently used or seen objects are being named, metaphorical nomination is based on the external similarity of objects; in this case a secondary nomination is quite common, for instance in terminology of building, engineering or biology. In economics there are not so many tangible objects, more often things related to various phenomena, actions, operations or relations are being named. Therefore metaphors are based on the similarity of functions and various associations; metaphors specific to particular authors are quite usual. On the whole metaphorical nomination is not very common in Lithuanian terminology of economics.

According to their relation with different language domains metaphorical terms of economics can be divided into three groups: 1) universal metaphors also widely used in other sciences with the usual transferred meaning (prekių srautas (flow of goods), paramos mechanizmas (support mechanism)); 2) common terms of economics, widely used by journalists (kainų burbulas (price bubble), kainų žirklės (price scissors), mokesčių našta (tax burden), kainų lubos (price ceiling)); 3) individual metaphors created by particular authors or special metaphors which are known and understandable only to specialists (nematoma ranka (invisible hand), lokių rinka (bear market), bulių rinka (bull market), valiutų žaltys (monetary snake, currency snake), baltasis karžygys (White Knight), juodasis karžygys (Black Knight)).

Quite a lot of metaphorical terms in Lithuanian terminology of economics are translations, their motivation is not always identifiable and they are not always convenient to use, therefore when translating metaphorical terms from other languages it should be considered whether their semantic basis will be clear in Lithuanian.

Gauta 2012-12-27

Rasuolė Vladarskienė Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas Saulėtekio al. 11, LT-03227 Vilnius E. paštas [email protected]

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