ONA LAIMA GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ

Šiauliai University

SOME PROBLEMATIC CASES IN THE USE OF SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION MARKS

KEYWORDS: literacy, spelling recommendations, computer printing.

In addition to letters and numerals, texts employ many different marks that provide additional information. Punctuation marks also perform different functions in written language.

The aim of the article is to discuss the use of less common marks and several problematic cases in the use of spelling and punctuation marks.

Many agree with the view that „<...> a system of characters, like spelling itself (writing methods and rules) and punctuation, is a matter of convention, the external shell of language <...>“ (Pupkis 2005: 231). Unfortunately, there are still remaining or newly emerging facts showing that linguists, too, have not clearly defined theoretically or indicated in practice how certain things should be used, particularly those that have become relevant because of widespread computerization. The spelling and punctuation cases examined in this article are discussed or mentioned in many normative language publications; today, however, they need to be clarified, since clear, specific, and reliable recommendations for making computer-printed text better in quality are lacking.

LESS COMMONLY USED MARKS

The Mandatory and Optional Punctuation Rules (hereinafter PPST) list the following punctuation marks used in Lithuanian: full stop (.), comma (,), semicolon (;), colon (:), dash (–), question mark (?), exclamation mark (!), ellipsis (...); parentheses: opening ((), closing ()); quotation marks (opening („), closing (“) (PPST 2009: 3). This publication notes that “the ends of lines and stanzas are marked with oblique strokes—

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

121

niais“ (PPST 2009: 13), tačiau tokio ženklo tarp išvardytų skyrybos ženklų nėra. Juozas Abaravičius yra rašęs, kad skirtukų priskaičiuojama ir daugiau: kablelis ir brūkšnys, apostrofas, išnašų žvaigždutė, pasvirieji brūkšniai, dar tarpelis tarp žodžių, pastraipos įtrauka ir kt. (Abaravičius 2002: 9). Aldonas Pupkis taip pat teigia: „Kartais atskiru ženklu laikomas kablelis ir brūkšnys (, –), o brūkšnys nagrinėjamas kartu su brūkšneliu kaip rašybos dalykas. Be 10 pagrindinių ženklų, kalbama ir apie kitokius skyrybos simbolius: apostrofus, išnašų žvaigždutes, pasviruosius brūkšnelius¹, tarpus tarp žodžių, pastraipų įtraukas ir kt. (jie gali būti laikomi ir rašybos dalykais) <...>“ (Pupkis 2005: 235).

Combinations of marks are also used. The Lithuanian Language Handbook (hereafter LKŽin) gives the following additional combinations:?!?!.!..?.. (LKŽin 1998: 349); it states that some marks, for example, the exclamation mark and the question mark, may be placed in parentheses. Jonas Balkevičius wrote: “At the end of an interrogative-exclamatory sentence, besides an exclamation mark and a question mark², in certain cases <...> an ellipsis may also be added (two more dots are added) <...>, e.g.: What is going on here?!.. P Cvir.” (Balkevičius 1963: 429). The publication Lithuanian Spelling and Punctuation (hereafter LKRS) mentions that only a single dot is written instead of an ellipsis (?!.) (LKRS 1992: 135)³. When students, school pupils, and other writers are asked what these marks are, they answer by naming them in sequence: question mark, exclamation mark, dot. In general, punctuation is used quite freely, e.g.: Or perhaps the din of the city, the noise of cafés, the rumble of a train, the roar of the sea do not disturb your reading...?⁴ Traditionally, a question mark and two dots (?..) should appear at the end of the sentence—analysis can help us understand both the use of punctuation marks and the meaning of the sentence.

When a particularly strong emotional effect is intended, two or three exclamation marks or question marks may be written, e.g.: Bravo, that’s right, we agree, we agree!!! <...>

¹ A. Pupkis mini būtent pasvirąjį brūkšnelį (žr. Pupkis 2005: 234, 235), ne brūkšnį. Kuriuos rašybos atvejus autorius turi omenyje, nepaaiškinta.

² More precisely, one should write “without a question mark and an exclamation mark.” For those who understand, the word order poses no problem. However, marks written as (!?) have sometimes been seen in written work.

³ The second part of the publication Lithuanian Spelling and Punctuation, Punctuation, was declared no longer valid in 2006 (see Resolution No. N–5 (106) of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, dated 28 September 2006). This means that some matters of punctuation (those not covered by PPST) remained less clearly regulated. Consequently, certain provisions of this publication (including those concerning combinations of several marks at the end of a sentence) are also included in later publications, such as LKŽin) – Editorial note.

⁴ Some examples are taken from colleagues’ work or from manuscripts being edited; in other cases, only the part of a sentence relevant to illustrating the topic under analysis is quoted, so authorship and sources are not indicated. Editors of publications often also correct authors’ spelling (usage). The article focuses on usage and draws attention to problems.

122

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

(LKRS 1992: 136). Repeated marks used too frequently may lose their force. Needless to say, their use also depends on the style of the text.

Some marks occur in pairs: parentheses and quotation marks; commas and dashes also become paired when used to set something off. The use of paired and single marks in a sentence differs. For example, parentheses may be used in a sentence for different purposes: in the first case, they provide information; in the other, they enumerate: “Prepositions are written separately from word combinations (a) and from fused word forms (b), e.g.: a) among other things, among other things, by no small amount <...>; b) until now, up to now <...> ” (LKRS 1992: 52).

There are not many paired marks, but some can be unusual—single quotation marks. In scholarly literature, there is variation in how the meaning of a word is presented in the text. Most often it is written either like this: babelis “confusion, disorder” (LKRS 1992: 64), or like this: ledas ‘frozen water’. LKRS states: “The names of cultivated plant varieties are written with a capital letter and enclosed in single quotation marks” (LKRS 1992: 64). It explains that “this way of writing them is internationally standardized. Quotation marks may be omitted when the name is set in a different typeface or accompanied by a specific variety designation” (LKRS 1992: 64), and gives examples: ‘Vengrinė’ (a plum variety), ‘Akuotieji’ (a wheat variety), ‘Senga Sengana’ and others. Attention should be drawn here to the form of the opening quotation marks. Incidentally, the textbook Lithuanian Language (hereafter LK I) uses different quotation marks: strawberries “Senga Sengana” (LK I 1995: 321). The most recent version of single quotation marks is logically understandable—one Lithuanian quotation mark (“ „). However, it is difficult to get used to this way of writing, because the opening quotation mark (the singular use of a plural noun becomes a reality here) looks like a cable, only written after a space; the word then follows, e.g.: “stress is like the soul of language”; Latin segmentum,a segment, a little piece‘ (Stundžia 2009: 12). Here, double and single quotation marks of the same style (graphic form) are used.

Another problem is whether double marks can be written. For example: <...> place names are also used in symbolic names, especially often in the names of sports teams and clubs, wellness complexes, or holiday resorts, and so on. The Consultation Bank of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter VLKK) states: “When two quotation marks or parentheses meet, one set of quotation marks or parentheses is written (as when two commas or other punctuation marks meet), e.g.: Utenos beer has become more expensive. A source may be indicated in various ways (in a footnote, in parentheses (www.delfi.lt); what matters is that the reader receives the necessary information”; however, it is further added: “At the end of a sentence, when an abbreviation point meets another point (e.g., abbreviations etc.,

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

123

etc.) and a period at the end of the sentence, a single period is also used. Sometimes, for clarity, double parentheses may be used in complex texts: ((0,990 – 1,18)/0,12 = −1,6); ...interest arose only in the 20th century (A. Žigaitytė, the opera “Mažvydas” (1987), “Žilvinas and Eglė” (2002)), etc.” (http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/7696)⁵. Thus, a single period should appear at the end of the aforementioned sentence (<...> place names are also used <...>). However, parentheses are usually doubled, e.g.: This question will have to be raised b e f o r e t h e c o m m i t t e e (= for the committee; the committee will have to be asked (the committee)) (KP 2(2) 2003: 87).

The European Union Institutions’ Editorial Style Guide (hereafter ILRV) states that double parentheses may be used when required by the meaning: poly(oxy(dimethylsilane)); This Agreement (of the European Union and the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)) was signed in February 1992. This publication recommends single quotation marks: The Commissioner noted that “there were disputes concerning the company ‘Microsoft’; it states that “[d]ouble quotation marks are not recommended, but may be used if necessary: The Commissioner noted that “there were disputes concerning the company ‘Microsoft’” (ILRV 2011: 151–152).

It is difficult to write adjacent opening double quotation marks and opening single quotation marks that introduce a meaning (and, analogously, closing quotation marks), when quoting a quotation, and so on; however, quotation is not the subject of this article’s research.

There are various types of brackets, e.g.: () – parentheses, or simply brackets; [] – square brackets; { } – braces; < > – angle brackets, etc. The meanings of symbols or additionally used symbols are always explained; for example, in the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DLKG) it is stated: “Examples written in phonetic transcription are, where necessary, given in square brackets ‘[]’ <...>; slashes ‘/ /’ indicate phonological transcription, while braces ‘{ }’ indicate morphophonological or morphological transcription” (DLKG 1997: 21).

Some letter abbreviations are declined when necessary; in that case, case endings are written “in lowercase after a hyphen or an apostrophe, e.g., TASS-o or TASS’o report” (LKRS 1992: 74). In Stasys Keinys’s view, it would still be worth discussing how to write: “<...> it is unclear why (and in some other cases, for example, in the spelling of certain foreign proper names) a rare, apparently borrowed alternative with a hyphen is used instead of an apostrophe” (Keinys 2005: 189). LKRS states that shortened function words separated from a surname by an apostrophe may occur at the beginning of a personal-

⁵ ...interest arose – here, after the ellipsis, a space seems to be missing (it would be appropriate to write <...> and leave a space).

124

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

name and are written with a capital letter, e.g.: L’Anžas, O’Henris, D’Abernonas, whereas inside a personal name they are written in lowercase, e.g.: Žana d’Ark, Marselis l’Erbė (LKRS 1992: 88). An apostrophe is also required when Lithuanian endings are added to non-Lithuanian names, e.g.: Larousse’as, etc. (LKRS 1992: 89). An apostrophe is “a spelling mark—a hook, written in the upper part of the line in place of an omitted vowel, e.g., French ‘l’homme’⁶ instead of ‘le homme’, after a palatalized consonant in phonetic transcription, and before Lithuanian endings added to abbreviations, e.g., TASS’as” (TŽ 1985: 41). In later editions, only the final part of the definition was revised: “before Lithuanian endings following authentic proper names that end in a silent vowel or consonant, e.g., de Gaulle’is (TŽ 2001: 60), yet it is stated that the apostrophe is a spelling mark (see VLE 2001: 664; LKE 2008: 28). In scholarly works, bibliographies, and documents, foreign words are sometimes rendered letter by letter. The aim is to represent (transliterate) the original-language form more accurately by using diacritical marks, e.g.: Russian Кузьмина – Kuz’mina⁷ (Ambrazas 2008: 14). In such cases, the apostrophe marks the palatalization of a consonant. Publications are inconsistent, e.g.: Kacnel’son (Кацнельсон), Koval’ (Коваль), Rol’ [человеческого...] (Роль...), but Chidekel (Хидекель), Košel (Кошель), Ulman (Ульман), Volf (Вольф) (see Gudavičius 2009: 239–254). In continuous text, proper names are transcribed using the alphabet of the language in question—written as Kuzmina (Кузьмина), Olga (Ольга)⁸, etc.

HYPHEN, DASH, SPACES, AND OTHER MATTERS

The differences in the use of hyphens and dashes are defined fairly clearly in normative Lithuanian-language publications.

Previously, the hyphen was classified as a punctuation mark; now it is considered a spelling mark. In printed text, a hyphen between linked words or their parts is always written without spaces on either side.

There are several problematic cases of usage in which one must decide which mark to print (a dash or a hyphen) and, at the same time, whether to print it with spaces on both sides or without them.

⁶ Printed with a space after the apostrophe.

⁷ V. Ambrazas’s book has precisely this kind of apostrophe.

⁸ For further details, see: Instructions for the Transcription of Surnames, Given Names, and Place Names from Russian into Lithuanian and from Lithuanian into Russian, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1990.

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

125

The rules state that a hyphen is written between two independent surnames of the same person, e.g., ⁹Kymantaitė-Čiurlionienė, and between a surname and a pseudonym, e.g., Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas (exceptions include two given names, a given name or surname and an epithet, etc.) (for more details, see http://www.vlkk.lt/nutarimai/rasyba/brukšnelis.html).

S. Keinys points out that “<...> in practice, the spelling of personal names is most often extended—and the uninflected or partly uninflected parts of double surnames are linked by a hyphen, e.g.: Urniežiūtė-Lambergs, Velskopf-Henrich, Žolio-Kiuri, etc. It would certainly be logical and justified to formulate this rule more broadly, that is, not to link the spelling of surnames to the inflectability of their components, as this would also help distinguish unfamiliar compound surnames from a given name or given names” (Keinys 2005: 187). Thus, it would always be clear that a hyphen separates two surnames of one person. The VLKK website states the following about personal names: “When marrying, a woman may also choose a double surname made up of her maiden and married surnames; such a surname is written with a hyphen, e.g.: Rūta Simutytė-Gaidienė, Asta Butkė-Jurgaitienė, Jolanta Radzevičienė-Budrė. (A double surname may be inconvenient to use because it is rather long, and surnames cannot be shortened in official documents.)” (http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/nutarimai/asmenvardziai). Under the rules, it is clear that names consisting of the surnames of two people, rather than two surnames belonging to one person, must be written differently—with an en dash without spaces, e.g.: the Ivanov–Toporov ethnolinguistic school, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, etc. In practice, this rule is not followed when given names are added to surnames (various forms are used), e.g.: the concept of Aleksandras Potebnia – Solomon Kacnelson (Gudavičius 2009: 59); Fr. Klugė-A. Goetzė, <...> A. Waldė-J. Pokornas <...> dictionaries (Ambrazas 2008: 33¹⁰), etc.

A hyphen must also be used in a double geographical name, e.g., North Rhine-Westphalia (http://www.vlkk.lt/lit/nutarimai/rasyba/brukšnelis.html). The following place names (mostly regions) are given with a hyphen in DLKŽ_6e: Baden-Württemberg, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Castile-La Mancha, Castile and León, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt, Champagne-Ardenne, Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, North Rhine-Westphalia, Schleswig-Holstein. Country names may be joined by a conjunction, e.g., Bos

⁹ Both inflected surnames (LKRS: 56). Words forming a surname and given name that are uninflected are not linked by a hyphen to inflected words or to one another, e.g.: Tallat Kelpsą, Put Puterleckis, etc.

¹⁰ The author’s transcription of P. Skardžius’s surname.

126

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

nia and Herzegovina (DLKŽ(_6e). A hyphen is not used in adapted names, e.g., Saint Petersburg (DLKŽ(_6e). There are exceptional cases when it is necessary to investigate and clarify what is meant: “Apparently, not a hyphen but an en dash should be used in the name Dubysa–Venta Canal <...>, because here the river names indicate boundaries (that is, the Dubysa–Venta Canal)” (Keinys 2005: 188).

The use of a hyphen between common nouns is discouraged. When nouns are syntactically coordinate but name two things rather than one, they are joined not by a hyphen but by the conjunction and, e.g.: culture and education (not culture–education), income and expenditure (not income–expenditure). Genitives of such nouns functioning as homogeneous modifiers but not denoting a single concept are likewise joined not by a hyphen but by the conjunction and (or as well as), e.g.: relations between Balts and Slavs (not Balto-Slavic). The same applies to joining proper nouns, e.g.: the treaty between Lithuania and Iceland (not Lithuanian-Icelandic¹¹) (http://www.vlkk.lt/nutarimai/rasyba/bruksnelis.html). When one writes the rulers of the Republic of Lithuania-Poland (Ambrazas 2008: 12), the meaning is quite different.

Similar issues are discussed when considering the rules for using the en dash. In the Advice on Administrative Language (hereafter KancKP¹), it states: “an en dash is written between words denoting bilateral relations: They concluded a purchase–sale (though trade is better) agreement. Lithuanian–Belarusian¹² negotiations began” (better: negotiations between Lithuania and Belarus); it is further clarified: “One word is often enough to describe bilateral actions as well: transfer of documents (not transfer–acceptance), house purchase (not purchase–sale) agreement. If bilateral relations are nevertheless expressed in two words, an en dash, not a hyphen, should be written between them” (KancKP¹). Judita Džežulskienė considers that in such cases the en dash stands in place of the conjunction and (Cieliešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 244). It is not easy for language users to identify bilateral actions, bilateral relations, and the like.

Brūkšnys yra skyrybos ženklas (LKRS 1992: 136–137), vartojamas dvejopai: su tarpais ir be jų.

An en dash is written between two or more words or numerals denoting the boundaries of the location, time, quantity, or sequence of objects and phenomena (e.g.: The Vilnius–Kaunas train will depart on time. Visitors are admitted from 12:30 to 16:30. I visit the library 2–4 times a week). Regarding the fact that there should be no spaces, LKRS

¹¹ A hyphen has been written.

¹² Here it is an en dash; cf. footnote 11.

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

127

neužsimenama, nors pateikti pavyzdžiai rodo paliktus tarpus (LKRS 1992: 234). LKŽin (1998: 376) parašyta aiškiai: „Tarp ribas žyminčių žodžių ar skaitmenų brūkšnys įterpiamas be jokių tarpelių“. S. Keinys papildo: „Su ribų žymėjimu galima sieti kalbų rašymą verčiamųjų žodynų pavadinimuose, pavyzdžiui, „Latvių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas“ (pirmoje XX a. pusėje ir jo viduryje tie pavadinimai dažniausiai rašyti su brūkšneliu). Iš tikrųjų tokiais atvejais reikia skiriamojo ženklo, ir toks, kaip sakyta, yra brūkšnys“ (Keinys 2005: 185–186).

However, the literature does not specify how to print a dash indicating boundaries—whether with or without spaces—between numerals denoting an interval, when abbreviations or other words are also inserted between them, e.g.: at the end of the 19th century – the beginning of the 20th century; late 19th c.–early 20th c.

LKRS provides an example of how a date is written: 1984 02 01 – 1984 03 15 was on a business trip (LKRS 1992: 80). The examples in the publication illustrating the rules for using a dash to mark the boundaries of objects and phenomena are likewise written with spaces on both sides of the dash, e.g.: The diesel train Vilnius – Klaipėda was approaching the port city <...> (LKRS 1992: 234). Thus, 20 years ago, when the book was published, no attention was paid to spaces.

ILRV states that a dash is written without spaces from the text: “between two or more independent words or numerals denoting the boundaries (interval, extent) of the location, time, quantity, order, etc. of objects and phenomena: express train Luxembourg–Paris, pp. 21–23, articles 150–204, grades 5–8, English–Lithuanian dictionary, pupils are on holiday in June–August, 2006–2009, May 15–22, [the examples of greatest interest are given below – O. L. G.] January 1, 2003–December 31, 2006, 2003 01 01–2006 12 31” (ILRV 2011: 149). There is also a note: “For clarity, a dash may be written with spaces:”

• between an abbreviated word and a numeral (or word), e.g.:

The conference took place from November 29 to December 1, 2010.

The course of study is expected to be completed within three months (September 15, 2010 – December 15, 2010).

Europe, late 13th c. – early 14th c.

• between numerals whose groups are separated by spaces:

2003 01 01 – 2006 12 31 100 000 000 – 300 000 000.”

128

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

Thus, when there are only two possible options (dashes with spaces and without them), “for the sake of clarity”¹³ either form may be used.

ILRV also discusses other cases of printing (or not printing) dashes and spaces: a dash not separated from the text by spaces is used in established spellings: purchase–sale contract law, works handover–acceptance certificate. A dash is not used between independent words denoting bilateral relations: Lithuania–Poland relations¹⁴ (should be relations between Lithuania and Poland), Lithuania–Latvia negotiations (should be negotiations between Lithuania and Latvia), EU–US cooperation (should be cooperation between the EU and the US). A dash is not used between words denoting a possessive relationship (the conjunction and is used): a joint Lithuanian and Swedish company (not a joint Lithuania–Sweden company), the border between Lithuania and Belarus (not the Lithuania–Belarus border) (ILRV 2011: 149).

LKŽin (1998: 375) nurodoma: „Brūkšniai dedami tarp žodžių, reiškiančių kelių reiškinių ryšį ar seką, pvz.: 1. Iš tautosakos jis meniškai rekonstruo mitologinį žmogaus – gamtos – visatos ryšį. (r.) 2. Atskirų kraštų apžvalgą pateikia pagal schemą: naudingosios iškasenos – pramonė – žemės ūkis – transportas.“ Komentarų, ar rašant brūkšnį reikia tarpų, čia taip pat nėra. O kaip rašyti opoziciją, priešpriešą reiškiančius žodžius – su tarpais ar be jų? Keli skirtingi pavyzdžiai: „<...> į bendrinę kalbą orientuotai vartosenai atriboti be išlygų netinka nei vartojimo sričių, nei rašytinės–sakytinės formos, nei viešumo–privatumo kriterijai. Bene svarbiausiu kriterijumi tampa oficialumas–laisvumas“; „<...> priešprieša sistemiška–nesistemiška atliepia antrojo aspekto priešpriešą normiška–nenormiška“; „<...> sudaro antonimų poras pagal požymį teigiamas/neigiamas, pvz.: džiaugsmas – liūdesys, pasididžiavimas – gėda, kantrybė – nepakantumas ir kt.“; „<...> vartojama sąlygos–pasekmės santykiams reikšti <...>; „<...> skiriamos tarmiškos–netarmiškos struktūros požymis“; „Svarbus požymis yra atmainos kodifikacija–nekodifikacija“ ir kt. Opoziciją, priešpriešą tikriausiai galima vertinti kaip ribas ir rašyti brūkšnį be tarpų iš abiejų pusių. Kai kuriais atvejais, kur aiški alternatyva, tiktų pasvirasis brūkšnys. Jis galėtų būti vartojamas tam tikrai alternatyvai žymėti (atitinka jungtuką arba) (žr. toliau apie pasvirąjį brūkšnį), tačiau mokslinėje literatūroje turėtų atsirasti pastabų, komentarų.

¹³ Apie kabučių vartoseną yra rašiusi Rūta Marcinkevičienė (2006). Šiuo atveju kabutės straipsnyje būtent ir reiškia modalumą.

¹⁴ Cf. footnotes 11 and 12.

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

129

The use of the forward slash also raises questions. This mark is called by various names: oblique, diagonal, slanting slash (slėšas, sliašas – an inadmissible foreignism). The slash can lean to the left or to the right, and is therefore also called the backslash, forward slash (operating systems use them to indicate different paths).

PPST explains that, when quoting verse, line and stanza endings are marked with forward slashes, for example: The images juxtaposed by the principle of contrast in the poem subtly convey the context: “Was it you, or a little swallow, / Alighting on the palm of spring, / That chirped, joyful and light – / Flew away, waving its wings. // Our rivers are deep and calm, / The branches of the trees green and low – / nestle close to mother earth. / Adorned with young gardens” (PPST 2009: 13).

The VLKK Consultation Bank lists three further uses of the forward (oblique) slash¹⁵. In practice, the first rule is applied inconsistently, so it is worth remembering that “1. The forward (oblique) slash is generally used to indicate an alternative (equivalent to the conjunction or). For example, between abbreviations for telephone and fax, if they have the same number, one may write: Tel. / fax 212 65 75; between alternative grammatical forms or constructions that can replace one another: He got rid of the persistent interlocutor / a persistent interlocutor / from a persistent interlocutor; between expressions in different languages, for example, on a menu: Soup / Soup.” It should be noted that when a forward slash is used between words or their abbreviations, spaces are left on both sides of the slash. In analogous examples in printed publications, there is often no space, for example: tel./fax (telephone and telefax) (KancKP 1998: 279), but spaces do appear in: first name and / or surname forms, current / checking account, district / city councils (KancKP 1998: 62); Tel./fax (Vladarskienė 2003: 13); tel./fax (Celiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 250), and so on.”

The other two rules for writing the forward slash given in the VLKK Consultation Bank generally cause no confusion:

“2. The forward slash is used to indicate certain dimensions when it is necessary to specify the ratio of a physical quantity to the base quantities of a selected system of units, for example, Wind 6–8 m/s (meters per second). It is not appropriate to write 0.53 ct/kWh when one means that one kilowatt-hour costs 0.53 ct; instead, one should write: 1 kWh – 0.53 ct; 0.53 ct for 1 kWh; 0.53 ct per 1 kWh.

¹⁵ The use of the forward (oblique) slash has been discussed by Nijolė Sližienė (Gimtoji kalba, 1999, No. 3, p. 16), Dana Vainauskienė (Kalbos kultūra, 2000, No. 73, pp. 109–112).

130

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

3. A slash separates certain information in document indexes, computer programs, and bibliographic descriptions, e.g.: letter No. 35/509; Council of Europe Directive 76/308/EEC; www.vlkk.lt/ news.“

There is variation in publications. J. Džežulskienė states: „When a slash is used—usually between words denoting parallel items used alongside one another—spaces should be placed between the words, e.g., current / checking account, but they are unnecessary between numbers and abbreviations, e.g.: 120/80; m/s <...>“ (Celiešienė, Džežulskienė 2009: 250). Aušrinė Rinkevičienė gives examples of slash usage but pays no attention to spaces, although later in the publication she writes that spaces are left „<...> between a word and a slash or between two slashes (e.g.: Such a word does not exist // Šiaulių naujienos. – 1991, Sept. 21; and / or)“, and are not left „<...> between numbers or abbreviations and a slash (e.g.: tel./fax; No. 28/95)“ (Rinkevičienė 2003: 62–63).

The VLKK Consultation Bank states that „<...> in connected text, to express alternation, verbal means of expression should be used first—conjunctions or, either, e.g., Would you like coffee or tea?; among punctuation marks, parentheses should be used first, e.g., Inspection of heavy and/or oversized vehicles in October... In such cases, a slash is unsuitable, including when giving forms for both grammatical genders—<...> parentheses are appropriate, e.g.: Waiters (male/female) wanted⟧.

Literature rarely mentions a specific dash—the tilde (~), a transcription and lexicographic mark. It is stated that the tilde and the curved accent mark are in fact one and the same mark, merely used in two ways: in Lithuanian text (placed above a letter) as an accent mark, and elsewhere as an independent mark with no clear purpose. In linguistics, the tilde is written as a mark for contextual alternations and propositions. When indicating telephone numbers, for example, (8 ~ 21) 579285, the mark (~) means that one should wait for the exchange’s dial tone¹⁶.

When printing text, questions arise about how various marks should be carried over. It is logical and clear how to carry two words joined by a hyphen onto the next line—„<...> the hyphen is written both at the end of one line and at the beginning of the next, pra-

¹⁶ Telephone and fax numbers are written in accordance with the requirements set out in the Recommendations for Writing National and International Telephone Numbers, approved by Order No. 1V-1162 of 2005-12-23 of the Director of the Communications Regulatory Authority of the Republic of Lithuania (Žin., 2005, No. 152-5628; 2006, No. 88-3502).

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai 131

žioje, pvz.: lopšelis /–darželis“ (LKRS 1992: 73). Praktikoje tokių pavyzdžių nėra tekę matyti. S. Keinys papildo: „Nors taisyklėse nepasakyta, prireikus taip kelti reikėtų ir su brūkšneliu rašomus tikrinius vardus bei sutrumpinimus, pvz.: m-kla, un-tas“ (Keinys 2005: 188). Apie keliamą brūkšnį LKRS rašoma: „Brūkšnys gali būti keliamas į kitą eilutę, kai vartojamas ne tiesioginės kalbos skyrybai, pvz.: Dėk grūdą prie grūdo / – pripilsi aruodą“ (LKRS 1992: 73). Problemiška, kaip kelti žodžių ar santrumpų grupes su pasviruoju brūkšniu, pvz., tel. / faks. Taigi taisyklėse rašoma, kad ženklai gali būti keliami į kitą eilutę. Tačiau, skaitant tekstą, akys mato ženklus į priekį, ir eilutės gale parašytas, o ne perkeltas į kitą, pavyzdžiui, brūkšnys, padeda suprasti mintį, sakinio sandarą, pasirinkti skaitymo intonaciją, padaryti pauzę ir pan. Brūkšnį prijungti iš kairės pusės arba sujungti iš abiejų pusių padeda jungiamasis tarpas¹⁷, grupę spausdinant kompiuteriu pasidaro neskaidoma, nekeliama.

CONCLUSIONS

1. In text written by hand (with a fountain pen, pencil, etc.), it is difficult to distinguish by eye between a hyphen (a spelling mark) and a dash (a punctuation mark); whether a space has been left or not is less important. When typing text on a computer, additional instructions must be followed. Today, these are specific computer literacy requirements.

2. The lack of precise definitions in scholarly and normative publications concerning the use of certain spelling and punctuation marks and the marks themselves causes considerable confusion among language users and gives rise to unproductive discussions. Many people who write texts on computers rely primarily on logic. When language users understand how and why something should be done, they can apply the theory more easily in practice. When they do not know what is required, they improvise and resort to evasions—writing differently, changing the font, and so on. This hinders communication and allows free, simplified usage (and simplified language) to take hold, as is now evident in the electronic environment.

¹⁷ Computer specialists use the terms space (not little space), nonbreaking space – see Dagienė V., Grigas G., Jevsikova T. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Computing <http://www.likit.lt/term/enc.html>. The term nonbreaking space is also listed in the Terms Bank of the Republic of Lithuania <http://www3.lrs.lt:10001/pls/tb/tb.search>.

132

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

3. The use of certain spelling and punctuation marks must meet the needs of today’s computerised society. Examples presented in the article from linguistics publications confirm that the problematic cases under discussion are not specifically and clearly defined in theory; therefore, discussion of this issue could accelerate the emergence of practical recommendations.

LITERATŪRA

Abaravičius J. 2002: Skyrybos stilistika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

Ambrazas V. 2008: Svetimų tikrinių vardų rašymas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

Balkevičius J. 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

Celiešienė V., Džežulskienė J. 2009: Profesinės kalbos pagrindai, Kaunas: Technologija.

Dagienė V., Grigas G., Jevsikova T. 2008: Enciklopedinis kompiuterijos žodynas, antras pataisytas leidimas. Prieiga per internetą: <http://www.likit.lt/term/enc.html>.

DLKG 1997: Dabartinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Red. V. Ambrazas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

DLKŽ_6e – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Šeštas (trečias elektroninis) leidimas, su kompaktine plokštele. Redaktorių kolegija: Stasys Keinys (vyr. redaktorius), Laimutis Bilkis, Jonas Paulauskas, Vytautas Vitkauskas. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006. Prieiga per internetą: <http://dz.lki.lt>.

Gudavičius A. 2009: Etnolingvistika (Tauta kalboje), Šiauliai: VŠĮ Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

ILRV 2011: Institucijų leidinių rengimo vadovas, Liuksemburgas: Europos Sąjungos leidinių biuras. Prieiga per internetą: <http://publications.europa.eu/code>.

Keinys S. 2005: Brūkšnio ir brūkšnelio vartojimas. – Kalbos kultūra 78, 183–190.

KancKP 1998: Kanceliarinės kalbos patarimai. Parengė Pranas Kniūkšta. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

KancKP_i 2007: Kanceliarinės kalbos patarimai. Internetinis leidimas. Sudarytojas P. Kniūkšta, vyr. red. R. Vladarskienė, programuotojas E. Ožeraitis. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga per internetą: <http://kanceliariniai-patarimai.lki.lt>.

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

133

KP 2(2) 2003: Kalbos patarimai. Kn. 2: Sintaksė: 2. Prielinksnių ir polinksnių vartojimas. Sud. R. Miliūnaitė. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

LK I 1995: Lietuvių kalba 1: Leksikologija, fonetika, akcentologija, dialektologija, rašyba. Parengė J. Barauskaitė, G. Čepaitienė, D. Mikulėnienė ir kt., sudaryt. ir atsak. red. K. Župerka. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

LKE 2008: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija. Parengė V. Ambrazas, A. Girdenis, K. Morkūnas ir kt., sud. K. Morkūnas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

LKRS 1989: Lietuvių kalbos rašyba ir skyryba. Antras leidimas. Parengė N. Sližienė, A. Valeckienė; atsak. red. A. Valeckienė. Vilnius: Mokslas.

LKRS 1992: Lietuvių kalbos rašyba ir skyryba. Antras fotografuotinis leidimas. Parengė N. Sližienė (atsak. red.), A. Valeckienė. Vilnius: Mokslas.

LKŽin 1998: Lietuvių kalbos žinynas. Parengė B. Dobrovolskis, P. Kniūkšta (sud.). Kaunas: Šviesa.

Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga per internetą: <http://www3.lrs.lt:10001/pls/tb/tb.search>.

Marcinkevičienė R. 2006: Motyvuota ir nemotyvuota kabučių vartosena periodinėje spaudoje. – Kalbos kultūra 79, 209–216.

PPST 2009: Privalomosios ir pasirenkamosios skyrybos taisyklės. Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos 2006 m. rugsėjo 28 d. nutarimai Nr. N–2 (103) ir Nr. N–3 (104). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

Pupkis A. 2005: Kalbos kultūros studijos, Vilnius: Gimtasis žodis.

Rinkevičienė A. 2003: Oficialiųjų ir kitų raštų rengimas, Šiauliai: VšĮ Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

Stundžia B. 2009: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos akcentologija. Vadovėlis aukštosioms mokykloms. Vilnius: VU leidykla.

TŽ 1985: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Atsak. red. V. Kvietkauskas. Vilnius: Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija.

TŽ 2001: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Sudarė A. Bendorienė, V. Bogušienė, E. Dagytė ir kt., atsak. red. A. Kinderys. Vilnius: Alma littera.

Vladarskienė R. 2003: Dokumentų tekstai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla.

VLE 2001: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

VLKK – Valstybinė lietuvių kalbos komisija. Prieiga per internetą: <http://www.vlkk.lt>.

Gauta 2012 09 15

134

KALBOS KULTŪRA | 85

SOME PROBLEMATIC CASES OF THE USAGE OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND PUNCTUATION MARKS

Summary

In addition to letters and figures there are various symbols used in texts which provide additional information. Punctuation marks have different functions in the written language as well.

The aim of this article is to discuss a few problematic cases of orthography and punctuation and the usage of some less frequently used symbols such as paired, repeated, double and single marks, apostrophes, the variety of brackets, tildes, syllable hyphens, dashes and hyphens, slashes, spaces between characters, etc.

Linguists have not sufficiently clearly defined theoretically or suggested practically how to use some characters which were brought up-to-date by the computerization of the society. This article deals with cases of orthography and punctuation which have been discussed or mentioned in many publications of language codification, although there is a lack of precise, specific and authoritative recommendations which would help to achieve a better quality of text prepared on the computer.

In handwritten text it is quite difficult to distinguish by eye a hyphen (orthographic mark) and a dash (punctuation mark) and it doesn’t matter much how big the space between words is. When typing a text on the computer there are additional instructions according to the requirements of computer literacy.

Scientific and codifying publications do not define precisely some cases of orthography and punctuation as well as the usage of particular signs which sometimes causes confusion and provokes unnecessary discussions. Many computer specialists first of all follow the logic which is the basis of science. Users of the language ought to know how it should be and why it should be that way; then they would be able to put the theory for which the specialists are responsible into practice more easily. A lack of knowledge brings amateurish and evasive solutions, for instance changing font style instead of using quotation marks. This is not such an evil, but it complicates communication and a free, simplified usage (and simplified language) becomes established most obviously in the electronic media.

KEYWORDS: literacy, orthography recommendations, text typing on the computer.

ONA LAIMA GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ

Šiaulių universitetas

P. Višinskio g. 38, Šiauliai LT-76352

[email protected]

O. L. GUDZINEVIČIŪTĖ. Keli probleminiai rašybos ir skyrybos ženklų vartojimo atvejai

135