ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

FEATURES OF DEFINING MEANINGS

IN THE DICTIONARY OF STANDARD LITHUANIAN: PLANTS AND ANIMALS

KEYWORDS: meaning, definition, cognitive definition, traditional definition, dictionary, Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian.

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

The concepts of the lexical meaning of a word and the definition of a word’s meaning are an integral part of explanatory dictionaries. Do we know how these concepts are understood by dictionary compilers? The introductions to explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian usually present, in fairly formal terms, the methods used to explain word meanings and the graphic representation of word meanings in dictionary entries. However, it is not always clear which conception of lexical meaning these dictionaries adopt, which definitional formulas are used to define words from different semantic groups, which features of lexical meaning are most often brought to the fore, and so on.

This article examines the description of the categories of plants and animals in dictionaries. Several considerations motivated the choice of these categories: since botany and zoology have highly developed terminological systems, words denoting plants and animals can be—and tend to be—defined in very scientific terms, by specifying their place in various kingdoms, families, genera, and so on; on the other hand, words denoting plants and animals are everyday, familiar words that are constantly used and heard, so they can also be defined in everyday terms, by mentioning typical features associated with those plants and animals. Explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian vary in how they approach these two alternatives.

The article examines the definitions of the meanings of several specific nouns denoting plants and animals. The nouns were selected from the manuscript of the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (hereafter, DŽ) and from the portion already published online¹.

The aim of the article is to discuss the features of defining the meanings of selected words denoting plants and animals in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian and to offer suggestions for formulating definitions of these and other terms in the same field.

¹ The study draws on the portion of this dictionary published online (http://bkz.lki.lt) and the manuscripts of portions not yet published.

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To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set:

1) to reveal how the compilers of the BLK Dictionary understand the lexical meaning of a word;

2) to determine which definition of word meaning—traditional or cognitive—is most often used in the BLK Dictionary to define the general category names plant and animal and the words belonging to these categories (domestic animals, trees, fruit, etc.), and to compare them with definitions in other explanatory Lithuanian dictionaries and in selected English and Russian dictionaries;

3) to determine which features are most often selected in the BLK Dictionary when defining the names of specific members of the selected categories—plants and animals.

1. CONCEPTIONS OF WORD MEANING AND DICTIONARY OF THE STANDARD LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

Linguistics encompasses numerous semantic conceptions—structuralist, cognitive, logical, and others (for more, see Jakaitienė 1988: 30–40; Gudavičius 2007: 14–27, etc.). Table 1 below presents the semantic conceptions summarized by Dirk Geeraerts (2006: 387), which exist or have existed in linguistics during particular periods².

TABLE 1. Semantic conceptions (after D. Geeraerts)

PERIOD

CONCEPTION

MAIN PRINCIPLES

EMPIRICAL DOMAIN

EXPLANATORY PRINCIPLE

1870–1930

Historical-philological semantics

Language as the self-expression of an individual or community

Claims about changes in meaning

Principles of efficiency and expression

1930–1975

Structuralist semantics

Language as an autonomous structure

Statements about paradigmatic and syntagmatic semantic relations

Semantic decomposition or semantic postulates

1970–

Logical semantics

Language as a reference to possible worlds

Statements about the truth / falsity conditions of propositions

Algorithmic decomposability of the meaning of a (complex linguistic unit)

1975–

Cognitive

Language as

Statements about

Natural

² Information translated by A. Gaidienė.

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semantics a cognitive tool: flexibility, internal structure, experiential basis, encyclopedic character, etc.; categorization (prototypicality) and cognitive strategies

Structuralist and cognitive semantics could probably be regarded as the most widespread approaches in linguistics, offering entirely different views of the concept of word meaning.

Pasak Nikolajaus Boldyrevo (Boldyrev 2004: 7–8), viena iš teorinių struktūralistinės semantikos pozicijų – tarp lingvistinių ir ekstralingvistinių veiksnių yra aiški riba, t. y. žodžio reikšmė nepriklauso nuo to, ką kalbėtojas žino apie realų ar menamą pasaulį (plačiau žr. Gaidienė 2016: 16). Kitaip sakant, struktūralistų požiūriu, reikšmė yra gana savarankiška organizuota semantinių elementų visuma (Jakaitienė 2010: 56).

Pasak kognityvistų, žodžio reikšmė yra pažintinės veiklos rezultatas (Mikلسkas 2009: 40), mąstomosios būties apraiška (Jakaitienė 1988: 40), t. y. žodžio reikšmė kognityvistų suvokiama kaip neatsiejama mentalinio turinio, kurį formuoja atitinkamos srities žinios, dalis (Gudavičius 2011: 113). Žodžio, apskritai lingvistinio vieneto, reikšmės perduoda tik dalį mūsų žinių apie pasaulį, o pagrindinė jų dalis slypi su jais siejamuose konceptuose (Boldyrev 2014: 87). Galima teigti, kad leksinė reikšmė yra kalboje, konkrečiame pasakyme aktualizuojama koncepto dalis. Svarbu pabrėžti, kad žodžio reikšmė tampa suprantama tik kitų kognityvinių struktūrų (kurios sužadinamos kalbėtojų sąmonėje) kontekste ir visiškai nesvarbu, ar šios struktūros yra verbalizuotos, t. y. žodžio reikšmė siejama su kognityviniais kontekstais – kognityvinėmis struktūromis arba žinių blokais, kurie ir leidžia tas reikšmes suprasti (Boldyrev 2004: 8–9; plačiau žr. Gaidienė 2016: 21).

Daugelis kalbininkų (plg. Geeraerts 1989: 142; Vežbickaja 1996) sutinka, kad „<...> visiškai įmanoma suderinti ir kognityvinį, ir struktūrinį požiūrį į žodžio reikšmę“ (Jakaitienė 1988: 57). Būtent tokį žodžio reikšmės sampratos – kognityvinės ir struktūralistinės – derinį taiko BŽ rengėjai. Struktūralistinis žodžio reikšmės aspektas natūraliai atsiskleidžia analizuojant sintagminius ir paradigminius aiškinamųjų žodžių santykius konkrečiuose pasakymuose (iliustraciniuose pavyzdžiuose) bei jų santykius su savo hiponimais / hiperonimais ar sinonimais ir pan., o tiriamos tų žodžių sąsajos su platesnėmis mentalinėmis struktūromis (konceptais) leidžia jų reikšmių apibrėžtis papildyti prototipiniais požymiais, daugiareikšmio žodžio reikšmes susieti į motyvuotą tinklą ir kitaip patobulinti žodyninio straipsnio struktūrą.

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Thus, this article will demonstrate how these two semantic conceptions are combined, drawing on the definitions of words denoting plants and animals presented in BŽ.

Explanatory dictionaries are often criticized for inconsistently adhering to particular conceptions of lexical meaning. According to Evalda Jakaitienė (2005: 81), in the Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language³ (ed. in chief S. Keinys), common, everyday words are defined by specifying few semantic features, whereas well-known plants, animals, and the like are defined in detail, with their semantic features specified. This inconsistency in defining meanings is due to several factors: lexical diversity, the purpose of the dictionary, its intended audience, and so on. In contemporary lexicography, prototype theory is often proposed as a basis for avoiding inconsistencies in defining word meanings (for a more detailed discussion, see Geeraerts 2006: 327–355). First, this theory helps dictionary writers identify the essential features of a lexeme’s meaning; it also offers conceptual tools for presenting the meanings of polysemous words on a consistent basis, for example, as a motivated semantic network dominated by one or more nodes (prototypes).

2. PROTOTYPE THEORY AND LEXICOGRAPHICAL PRACTICE

The concept of the prototype is associated with the experimental studies conducted by Eleanor Rosch in the twentieth century. Their results showed that some category members possess more features characteristic of that category, while others possess fewer, and that the boundaries of the categories themselves are not clearly defined. E. Rosch called the most typical member of a category, by which the category can be recognized, a prototype (Ungerer, Schmid 2006: 10). In general, the categorization of the reality surrounding us became fundamental for cognitive psychologists, who began to view it from the perspective of human cognitive activity (Kubriakova 1996: 45–46).

The prototype-theory approach to category membership contradicted classical theory. Classical theory holds that category boundaries are clear: all members of a category share the same set of (necessary) features, so members assigned to the same category are equal to one another (Dirvenas 2009: 15). Below we present Holger Diessel’s ⁴table⁵, which summarizes the differences between classical and prototype theories (see Table 2).

³ E. Jakaitienė used the fourth edition of the Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, published in 2000.

⁴ For more details, see http://www.personal.uni-jena.de/~x4diho/Script.Language%20and%20Cognition%201.pdf.

⁵ Information translated by A. Gaidienė.

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TABLE 2. Differences between classical and prototype theories

Classical theory

Prototype theory

Categories are defined on the basis of shared features.

Categories are defined according to the best member.

Categories have clear boundaries.

Categories have fuzzy boundaries.

All members of a category are equal.

Some members of a category are better than other members of that category.

The meaning of categories is constant.

The meaning of categories depends on culture and context.

Cognitive semantics adopted the concept of the prototype from cognitive psychology and began to apply it. According to Aloyzas Gudavičius (2009: 67), “the prototype—a thing or phenomenon that speakers regard as typical, exemplary, and normal amid a variety of similar things or phenomena—became the centre of semantic description.”

In lexicography, the concept of the prototype can be used and applied at two levels:

a) A word’s meaning is defined on the basis of a prototype. Defining meanings in this way moves away from the logical criteria of necessity and sufficiency, since the definition first lists the features that characterize the prototypical member of the category (Jakaitienė 2005: 82).

b) The prototypical meaning of a polysemous word is considered to be the meaning that is first associated with that word in the mind of the average speaker (linguistic community). In other words, the different meanings of a word are structured according to the same principle as the different members of a single category; that is, it is assumed that a word has a prototypical meaning with which less prototypical meanings are associated. According to the members of the Pragglejaz group (2007: 3), prototypical meanings tend to be more concrete, to denote things that are easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell, or taste, and to be related to bodily actions; they are more specific and often historically older, although not necessarily more frequent. In dictionaries, such meanings are often presented first.

Rolando Mikulsko (2009: 72) teigimu, „[v]ienas pagrindinių leksikografinio apibrėžimo uždavinių yra padėti žodyno skaitytojui atpažinti žodžiais žymimų kategorijų atstovus tikrovėje“. Būtent tai padaryti padeda prototipus apibrėžiantys požymiai. Nors

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The usefulness of prototype theory for lexicographers is beyond doubt, but the practical application of this theory has its drawbacks—namely, distinguishing genuinely prototypical features from non-prototypical ones. According to E. Jakaitienė (2005: 83), “one of the most complex tasks of lexicography is to determine how many and which features of the thing denoted by a word (a prototype or a concept) should be included in a reliable definition of its meaning, and how they should be arranged in that definition.” This article examines how the authors of BŽ address this task.

3. WORD DEFINITION AND THE DICTIONARY OF THE STANDARD LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

Introductions to Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries discuss the definitions of word meanings in rather formal terms. Usually, three⁶ principal methods of defining word meanings are identified—descriptive⁷, synonymous, and cross-referential—while the introductions to explanatory dictionaries⁸ briefly mention the principles for defining word meanings (see Table 3).

TABLE 3. Principles for defining word meanings in BŽ and DŽ_7i

BŽ

DŽ_7i

“In descriptive definitions, the characteristic features of objects, phenomena, and concepts are briefly indicated <...>”⁹.

“The principal method of defining word meanings is definitional-descriptive. It briefly indicates the characteristic features of objects, phenomena, and concepts, without seeking encyclopedic precision or detail”¹⁰.

As can be seen, dictionary compilers limit themselves to a mere mention of the characteristic features of objects, phenomena, and concepts. The question naturally arises as to how these “characteristic” features are understood and what criteria are used to identify and select them. After all, “determining the minimal set of semantic features in a definition of meaning, distinguishing what belongs to meaning from what belongs to our knowledge of reality, is the principal and perhaps the most complex task in defining a particular meaning” (Gudavičius 2009: 61).

⁶ In addition to these three, there may be other methods of defining meanings, such as explicative, single-word, mixed, and so on (cf. Naktinienė 2006: 22; Svetikienė 2006: 181).

⁷ The name of this method of definition varies: it is called descriptive (cf. Murmulaitytė 2006: 37; Svetikienė 2006: 181; LKŽe, section “Structure,” subsection “Defining word meanings”), explanatory (cf. Naktinienė 2006: 22), definitional (cf. Jakaitienė 2005: 79), definitional-descriptive (DŽ₇i, section “Introduction,” subsection “Defining word meanings”), definitional-explanatory (Murmulaitytė 2000: 148), and so on.

⁸ In the online version of LKŽe, only the synonymous and cross-referential definitions of meanings are described in detail in the section “Defining word meanings”; therefore, only BŽ and DŽ₇i are quoted in the table.

⁹ See http://bkz.lki.lt/?pg=reiksmiu_aiskinimas, section “Defining meanings,” subsection “Methods of defining meanings.”

¹⁰ See http://lkiis.lki.lt/lkz-ivadas, section “Defining word meanings.”

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Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries generally use traditional definitions, that is, the definition of a word’s meaning draws on elements of scientific categorization (scientific nomenclature). Cognitive semantics, especially prototype theory, offers new means of improving word definitions in explanatory dictionaries. The differences between traditional and cognitive definitions of word meanings will be briefly presented below.

In a traditional¹¹ definition, elements of scientific knowledge are often used in an effort to convey as objective a picture as possible of an element of reality. It draws on the hierarchical internal structure of a category, consisting of a generic (hyperonymic) concept and specific (distinguishing) features that characterize a lower-level (hyponymic) concept (Gudavičius 2009: 70–72; Smetonienė 2015: 64–65).

A cognitive definition¹² draws on everyday, personal knowledge of and experience with the world; it seeks to show what associations arise in the speaker’s mind when a word is uttered during a speech act. It reflects all the features of lexical meaning—that is, central and peripheral ones—without drawing a strict boundary between the so-called denotative and connotative features, particularly when the latter are associated with certain conventional contexts (Gudavičius 2009: 70–72; Smetonienė 2015: 64–65).

Let us compare the definition of the word garbė given in DŽ₇ with the cognitive definition of this word formulated by Irena Smetonienė (2015: 80) (see Table 4).

TABLE 4. Definition of the word garbė

Traditional definition

Cognitive definition

honor (4) respect recognized by society for merits; glory, good reputation: It is a matter of honor. To strip someone of honor. To lose one’s honor. Such an offer does you honor. That does you no honor. an honorary member (elected in recognition of merit). a guard of honor (intended to honor). ◊ a word of honor (a firm verbal assurance) (DŽ₇).

garbė – “it is a sense of self-worth and responsibility, in which a person feels valued for their life and accomplishments, and a good name earned in society through good and unselfish deeds, upright conduct and a virtuous life, high moral standards, honesty, justice, keeping one’s word, respect for others and care for others, self-sacrifice for one’s homeland, an ideal, and the well-being of other people, patriotism, and heroism” (Smetonienė 2015: 80).

¹¹ It is also called a classical, dictionary definition.

¹² J. Bartminskio (1988), A. Gudavičiaus (2009), I. Smetonienės (2015) ir kt. darbuose vartojamas terminas kognityvinė definicija.

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As can be seen, the cognitive definition of the word garbė is much broader than the traditional definition of this word given in DŽ₇. The cognitive definition seeks to show all the possible features of this concept that may be important in certain contexts and situations. For example, the concept of honor is understood here not only as an external phenomenon, “respect recognized by society for achievements,” which was emphasized when the conceptual foundations of DŽ were laid, but also as “self-esteem and a sense of responsibility”; that is, the criteria of behavior regarded as honorable in society must be internalized by the individual and understood as an inner imperative governing their behavior.

It can be argued that the editors of BŽ often combine traditional and cognitive definitions of a word’s meaning. Let us look at how the previously mentioned word garbė is defined in BŽ:

garbė¹³ noun (4) 1. the totality of a person’s moral values (decency, honesty, sense of duty, etc.): Doing this job well is a matter of honor for me. You have neither honor nor conscience. 2. respect recognized by society for achievements: Glory and honor to the book smugglers who prevented the destruction of the native language! Your proposal does us honor. That does you no credit. A deed worthy of honor. He badly needs honor (to be honored). 3. a good name, a good reputation; synonym: glory: To strip someone of their honor. To lose one’s honor. The party’s honor has been tarnished [soiled]. The athlete will defend Lithuania’s honor at the Olympics. ♦ garbės žodis see žodis. (in someone’s) honor in tribute to (someone): A reception is being held at the presidential palace in honor of the guest.

The main features of the concept of honor presented in the cognitive definition are also recorded in the BŽ dictionary entry for the word garbė, but are divided among separate meanings (see Table 5).

TABLE 5. Comparison of definitions of the concept of honor

Meanings given in BŽ | Cognitive definition given by I. Smetonienė

1. the totality of a person’s moral values (decency, honesty, sense of duty, etc.) ⇔ this is a sense of responsibility

2. respect recognized by society for achievements ⇔ a sense of self-worth, when a person feels valued for their life and the things they have accomplished

¹³ The final edited BŽ dictionary entry for the word garbė may change.

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3. a good name, a good reputation

⇔ a good name, earned in society through good and selfless deeds, upright conduct and a virtuous life, high moral standards, honesty, fairness, keeping one’s word, respect for and care for others, sacrifice for one’s homeland, an idea, or the well-being of others, patriotism, and heroism

Let us also compare the definition of the proper noun Europa given in BŽ with the cognitive definition of this concept formulated by Marius Smetona (see Table 6).

TABLE 6. Definitions of the word Europa

BŽ

M. Smetona (2016: 154)

Europa nom. sg. (2) a part of the world in the Northern Hemisphere, forming the Eurasian continent together with Asia¹⁴: European states. European Economic Area. European Commission [Council]. Travel through Europe.

Europa – “that which lies on the continent, extending from the Iberian Peninsula to the Ural Mountains, the cradle of civilization with a rich history, a symbiosis of diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and customs, and an architecture grounded in cooperation and humanistic ideas; it can even be conceived of as one large state characterized by peace, security, and justice, uniting various free states and peoples, possessing a common currency and economy, and opening up great opportunities”

Clearly, the definitions presented differ considerably. In BŽ, a systematic¹⁵ uniform approach was chosen, as if in an encyclopedia, to define all countries, parts of the world (regardless of whether they are near or far from us), and so on—simply by indicating their geographical location; cf.:

¹⁴ The definition is the same in DŽ_6b.

¹⁵ With M. Smetona’s definition of the word Europa in view, the editors of BŽ might further consider its definition, since Europa is not only a continent but also a concept that evokes numerous historical, cultural, or political stereotypes.

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America noun (1) 1. a part of the world in the Western Hemisphere between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, consisting of two continents—North America and South America—and the adjacent islands <...>.

Latvia noun (1), officially Republic of Latvia a country on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea <...>.

Oman noun singular (2), officially Sultanate of Oman a country in Western Asia, on the Arabian Peninsula, on the Arabian Sea <...>.

Thus, in this case, the definitions in the BŽ are traditional. M. Smetona’s definition of Europe is clearly cognitive in orientation: the old continent is viewed here from within, from an internal perspective, through the eyes of a European; the definition lists the historical, cultural, and political features that define the continent’s identity. In other words, Europe is defined here primarily not as a geographical space, but as a political and cultural one.

4. DEFINITIONS OF THE MEANINGS OF THE WORDS PLANT AND ANIMAL

This section of the article examines the definitions of the meanings of the nouns plant and animal, which name two general categories. At first glance, these words seem very concrete and clear, but is it really easy to define them in such a way that other interested users can readily recognize what kinds of definition schemes are applied and which features are given priority when defining these words in explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian, English, and Russian?

4.1. First, let us look at how the most general category of vegetation—plant—is defined in selected Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries (see Table 7).

TABLE 7. Definition of plant in Lithuanian dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word plant

BŽ

an organism that feeds on inorganic substances and usually uses light energy for growth

DŽ_7i

an organism that feeds on inorganic substances and usually uses light energy for growth

LKŽ_e

an organism that feeds on inorganic substances from the soil and air, usually growing in a fixed position

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As can be seen, the definitions given in the dictionaries mentioned above are very similar (those in BŽ and DŽ_7i are identical). The most important feature recorded for a plant is that it is an ‘organism’, that is, living¹⁶. Another feature shared by the definitions is that a plant ‘feeds on inorganic substances’¹⁷ and requires ‘light energy’ (BŽ and DŽ_7i; LKŽ_e: ‘substances from the air’). LKŽ_e also notes that plants usually ‘grow in a stationary position’.

When writing the dictionary text, the authors of BŽ also drew on the experience of well-known foreign dictionaries, particularly those presented in Table 8; it is therefore useful to examine how these dictionaries define the meaning of the word augalas.

TABLE 8. Plant definition in English-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word augalas (English plant)

Features of referents recorded in definitions

WEBSTER

any of a kingdom (Plantae) of multicellular eukaryotic mostly photosynthetic organisms typically lacking locomotive movement or obvious nervous or sensory organs and possessing cellulose cell walls

‘living’, ‘multicellular’, ‘performs photosynthesis’, ‘does not move from one place to another’, ‘has no obvious sensory organs’, ‘cell walls made of cellulose’

OXFORD

a living organism of the kind exemplified by trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, ferns, and mosses, typically growing in a permanent site, absorbing water and inorganic substances through its roots, and synthesizing nutrients in its leaves by photosynthesis using the green pigment chlorophyll

‘living’, ‘usually grows in a fixed location’, ‘absorbs water and inorganic substances through its roots’, ‘synthesizes nutrients in its leaves through photosynthesis, using the green pigment chlorophyll’

MACMILLAN

a living thing that grows in soil, has leaves and roots, and needs water and light from the sun to live

‘living’, ‘grows in soil’, ‘has leaves and roots’, ‘water and sunlight are essential for life’

COLLINS

a plant is a living thing that grows in

‘living’, ‘grows in the ground’, ‘has

¹⁶ Cf.: organism – “a living being capable of existing independently – an animal or plant” (BŽ); organism – “a living being – an animal or plant” (DŽ_7i); organism – “a living being that has various organs to sustain its life” (LKŽ_e).

¹⁷ The vast majority of plants possess this characteristic, although some feed on insects (insectivorous plants) (VLE II: 192).

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the earth and has a stem, leaves, and roots

stem, leaves, and root’

CAMBRIDGE

a living thing that grows in earth, in water, or on other plants, usually has a stem, leaves, roots, and flowers, and produces seeds

‘living’, ‘grows in the ground, ‘in water or on other plants’, ‘usually has a stem, leaves, roots, flowers, and produces seeds’

English dictionaries (and indirectly Lithuanian ones) identify being ‘alive’ as the main characteristic of a plant. Two approaches can then be discerned—the traditional (more scientific) and the cognitive. The WEBSTER dictionary (and, in part, the OXFORD dictionary) records more scientific characteristics of plants, namely, ‘multicellular’, ‘cell walls made of cellulose’, ‘performs photosynthesis’, ‘feeds on inorganic substances’, ‘does not move from one place to another’ (lacks locomotion¹⁸), ‘has no obvious sensory organs’, ‘absorbs water and inorganic substances through its roots’. It is true that the OXFORD dictionary, unlike the others, also lists in its definition of the word plant the types encompassed by the category of plants: trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns, and mosses. Other English dictionaries (MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE) primarily record in their definitions prototypical characteristics of plants related to their appearance and/or growing location, namely, plants have ‘roots’, ‘leaves’, a ‘stem’ (‘trunk’), ‘flower’, ‘produce seeds’, ‘grow in soil’ (‘ground’), ‘in water’, and so on.

In this case, the compilers of the BŽ chose a traditional (but simpler than WEBSTER’s or OXFORD’s) definition for plant, because plants come in many kinds, and it would be difficult to define the word, for example, by citing the characteristics of just one particular kind or only those describing a prototypical plant. It is well known that plants usually have roots, stems/trunks (branches), and leaves, but Lithuanians are very familiar with conifers, which have needles rather than leaves, and mosses also grow in Lithuania (i.e. they are not some exotic, unfamiliar plants), yet they have no roots. MACMILLAN and COLLINS dictionaries state that plants grow in soil, but most people are also very familiar with aquatic plants, such as reeds, water lilies, and others; and in the forest we see mosses growing on tree trunks.

¹⁸ Locomotion is the movement of humans and animals by which they change their position in space (VLE XVIII: 580).

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TABLE 9. Plant definition in Russian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word plant (Russian растение)

Characteristics of realia recorded in definitions

CEM

an organism that obtains nourishment from the air through photosynthesis and from the soil (less often—from another nutrient medium) to which it is attached

‘living’, ‘obtains nourishment through photosynthesis and from the soil’ (less often—from another nutrient medium), ‘attached to one place or another’

МАКС

an organism that feeds on inorganic substances from the air and soil, is capable of producing organic substances from inorganic ones, and is usually attached to the place where it lives

‘living’, ‘feeds on inorganic substances from the air and soil’, ‘capable of producing organic substances from inorganic ones’, ‘usually attached to one place’

ТСОШ

an organism that usually develops in a stationary state and obtains nourishment (unlike animals) from the air (through photosynthesis) and soil

‘living’, ‘usually grows without changing location’, ‘feeds (unlike animals) through photosynthesis and from the soil’

All three Russian-language dictionaries define a plant in very similar terms: it is ‘living’, ‘usually attached to one place’, and ‘feeds through photosynthesis’ (MAKC: ‘from substances in the air’). MAKC also mentions ‘inorganic substances’, while TCOII notes that this way of feeding distinguishes plants from animals. These dictionaries do not specify characteristics related to the structure or form of plants. The dictionaries record where plants grow (‘soil’), but emphasize it more as a medium for nourishment.

A comparison of the definitions of the meaning of plant reviewed in the dictionaries of all three languages (Tables 7–9) reveals the following strategies for defining the meaning. The WEBSTER dictionary definition is very comprehensive and scientific. The remaining English-language dictionaries define plants differently, focusing more on external, visually observable characteristics or naming the most prototypical members of the category; here, the application of prototype theory can already be recognized. Compared with WEBSTER, the Russian-language dictionaries’ definitions also record scientific facts, but present them more simply. Lithuanian

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language dictionary definitions are closest to those in Russian-language dictionaries, which are more traditional.

4.2. Next, we will look at how Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries define another superordinate category—animal (Table 10).

TABLE 10. Animal definition in Lithuanian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word animal

BŽ

(1) an organism that feeds on organic substances, responds to its environment, and is usually capable of moving by itself (2) any living creature (usually a mammal), as opposed to a human being (3) a mammal, as opposed to a bird, fish, insect, or reptile

DŽ_7i

an organism that moves, responds, and feels by itself, and feeds on substances found in nature

LKŽ_e

a living being with sensory organs

The definitions of the word animal vary somewhat more across the dictionaries examined than do the definitions of the word plant. First of all, BŽ distinguishes not one meaning but three. In the view of the BŽ authors, when we say the word animal, we do not always mean the same thing. Examples¹⁹ found using the Google search engine confirm that there is reason to distinguish the three aforementioned meanings of the word animal.

(1) Humans are the only animals that feel unsafe with themselves. Birds are the only animals with feathers. Fish are cold-blooded vertebrates that live in the depths and in seawater. Reptiles are land-dwelling animals. Insects make up the largest group of animals on earth.

(2) Humans have domesticated animals. A mortally wounded animal looks a person in the eyes. People simply abandoned the wandering animal.

(3) How are Lithuania’s birds and animals faring through the winter? The vision of animals, insects, or reptiles differs greatly. In order to limit the monopolistic rise in prices of food fish and marine animals and their products <...>.

The examples in the first group (1) include all animals—humans, birds, fish, reptiles, insects, and so on. The examples in the second group (2) could be assigned to the second meaning in BŽ: the contrast with humans is clearly evident; moreover, examples of this type usually indicate a mammal and

¹⁹ Viewed 2017 09 05, examples shortened.

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a human in contrast (and not, for example, an insect and a human, or the like); this is therefore indicated in parentheses in the definition. This is also evident from these specific examples: domesticated are usually mammals, abandoned and wanders is apparently also a domesticated mammal; into a person’s eyes, it is also unlikely that an ant looks. Now, examples from the third group (3) reveal a different contrast: animals and birds, animals and insects, animals and reptiles, (marine) animals and fish.

However, in the present case, the definition of the first meaning in BŽ is important (as the broadest), and it can be compared with the definitions in other dictionaries. The most important characteristic of an animal recorded in dictionaries is that it is a ‘living creature’. Another characteristic in BŽ and DŽ_7i is ‘nutrition’. BŽ states that animals ‘feed on organic substances’, while DŽ_7i says ‘natural substances’. But this raises questions, since nature, according to that same DŽ_7i, is ‘the living and non-living world’; in other words, both organic and inorganic substances are found in nature or formed there. The third characteristic of an animal in all three dictionaries is ‘response to the environment’ (LKŽ_e: ‘has sensory organs’). BŽ also states that an animal can usually (i.e., not always) ‘move by itself’.

Thus, to sum up, it can be said that in Lithuanian dictionaries the first characteristic recorded in definitions of plants and animals is the same: they are ‘living’. The next part of the definitions of these words shows how plants differ from animals: the former, as mentioned, feed on inorganic substances and require light, whereas the latter feed on organic substances. Another distinguishing characteristic of plants and animals is that plants usually grow in a stationary position (LKŽ_e), while animals are able to respond to their environment and can generally move (BŽ)²⁰. This may seem very general and abstract, but plants and animals alike form two very large and diverse categories, and the characteristics given in the definitions apply to almost all plants or animals and show their essential difference²¹. Let us examine how English dictionaries define an animal (see Table 11).

²⁰ In this case, BŽ and LKŽ_e indicate what typically distinguishes an animal from a plant, although, as VLE states: “plants have no nervous system, but they are responsive” (VLE II: 192), while algae move by using flagella or secreting mucus (cf. VLE V: 198).

²¹ Dictionary definitions are often criticized for being too scientific. Here, too, one might say that organic and inorganic substances are terms more suited to an encyclopedia. However, in the view of the BŽ authors, it is hardly possible to define such a complex category more simply without compromising its essence or making the definition utterly simplistic. Dictionaries already omit many important characteristics provided by encyclopedias (VLE II: 192; LTE I: 444)—plants have a rigid cellulose cell wall, most plants are autotrophs, and so on.

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TABLE 11. Animal definitions in English dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word animal (Lith. animal)

Features of realia recorded in definitions

WEBSTER

any of a kingdom (Animalia) of living things including many-celled organisms and often many of the single-celled ones (such as protozoans) that typically differ from plants in having cells without cellulose walls, in lacking chlorophyll and the capacity for photosynthesis, in requiring more complex food materials (such as proteins), in being organized to a greater degree of complexity, and in having the capacity for spontaneous movement and rapid motor responses to stimulation

‘living’, ‘multicellular’ or ‘unicellular’, distinguished from plants by the fact that ‘their cell walls lack cellulose’, ‘they lack chlorophyll’, ‘they do not photosynthesize’, ‘more complex food (such as proteins) is necessary’, ‘they can move of their own accord’, ‘they can respond rapidly to stimuli’

OXFORD

1 A living organism which feeds on organic matter, typically having specialized sense organs and nervous system and able to respond rapidly to stimuli. 1.1 A living organism other than a human being. 1.2 A mammal, as opposed to a bird, reptile, fish, or insect.

‘living’, ‘feeds on organic matter’, ‘has sensory organs and a nervous system’, ‘can respond rapidly to stimuli’; ‘living, but not human’; ‘a mammal, but not a bird, reptile, fish or insect’

MACMILLAN

any living thing that can move independently and that has senses for recognizing and reacting to the environment around it. a. any living thing that is not a human, a plant, an insect, a bird, or a fish b. any living creature, including humans

‘living’, ‘can move independently’, ‘has senses’, ‘recognizes and responds to its surroundings’; ‘living, but not a human, insect, bird or fish’; ‘any living creature, including a human’

COLLINS

1. An animal is a living creature such

‘living, but not a bird, fish,

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as a dog, lion, or rabbit, rather than a bird, fish, insect, or human being. 2. Any living creature other than a human being can be referred to as an animal. [...] 3. Any living creature, including a human being, can be referred to as an animal.

‘insect or human’; ‘living creature, but not a human’; ‘all living creatures’

CAMBRIDGE

A1 something that lives and moves but is not a human, bird, fish, or insect B2 anything that lives and moves, including people, birds, etc.

‘alive’, ‘moves, but is not a human, bird, fish or insect’; ‘anything that is alive and moves, including a human and a bird’

As with plant, the definitions in two dictionaries (WEBSTER and, in part, OXFORD) record more scientific characteristics describing an animal, i.e. ‘multicellular’ or ‘unicellular’, ‘capable of moving by itself’, ‘reacts quickly to stimuli’ and ‘feeds on organic substances’. The WEBSTER dictionary’s definition further emphasizes that an animal differs from a plant in that it lacks ‘chlorophyll’, ‘does not perform photosynthesis’, its ‘cell walls contain no cellulose’, and it ‘requires more complex food, such as proteins’. However, in other English-language dictionaries (henceforth, including OXFORD), after emphasizing that an animal is ‘alive’ and ‘moves’, several meanings of the word animal are distinguished, as in BŽ, namely that animals may be all living creatures, that animals may be all living creatures except humans, and that animals are mammals only. In addition, for one of the meanings it distinguishes, the COLLINS dictionary lists typical mammals whose characteristics presumably form the prototype’s core for that meaning. Thus, English-language dictionaries, with the exception of WEBSTER, follow a cognitive strategy of meaning when defining an animal. Below we present the definitions of animal formulated in Russian-language dictionaries (see Table 12).

TABLE 12. Definitions of animal in Russian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word animal (Russian животное)

Real characteristics recorded in definitions

CEM

1. A living organism, a creature possessing (with the exception of sponges, coral polyps and some others) the ability

‘alive’, ‘(with the exception of corals and certain other species) capable of moving’, ‘feeds on organic substances’; ‘a living creature, but

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moving and feeding, unlike most plants, on ready-made organic substances. 2. A living being, as opposed to a human being (usually referring to mammals).

‘not a human being’

МАКС

1. Any living being except plants. || A living being as opposed to a human being.

‘everything that is alive, except plants’; ‘a living creature, but not a human being’

ТСОШ

1. A living organism, a being capable of moving and feeding, unlike plants, on ready-made organic compounds. 2. Such a living being, as opposed to a human being.

‘alive’, ‘capable of moving’, ‘feeds on organic substances, unlike plants’; ‘a living creature, but not a human being’

Russian dictionaries indicate the main characteristics of an animal: ‘alive’, ‘moving’, and ‘feeds on organic substances’. Furthermore, like English-language dictionaries and the BŽ, Russian dictionaries contrast animals with humans. However, these dictionaries do not distinguish mammals from other living creatures (fish, birds, insects, reptiles), with the exception of the CEM dictionary, which notes that mammals are usually meant. The definition of the word gyvūnas in the latter dictionary is more detailed than those in the other two: it also lists the living beings (sponges, coral polyps) that ‘cannot move’.

Comparing the definitions of the meaning of gyvūno reviewed in dictionaries of all three languages, we can see the following strategies for defining meaning. Lithuanian dictionaries (LKŽe and DŽ₇ᵢ) follow the traditional meaning strategy when defining an animal. The BŽ’s first definition of this word is also traditional, but the distinction and definition of the second and third meanings reflect everyday rather than scientific categorization determined by the cultural environment, and are therefore associated with the cognitive strategy of defining meaning. The same is true of Russian dictionaries.

WEBSTER’s definition of gyvūnas is traditional (more scientific). The other English dictionaries (OXFORD, MACMILLAN, COLLINS, CAMBRIDGE), similarly to the BŽ, distinguishing

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by listing several animal meanings and typical mammals (COLLINS) follow a more cognitive strategy for defining meaning.

5. DEFINITIONS OF TREE MEANINGS

Words belonging to the categories of plants and animals are defined somewhat differently. Let us compare how dictionaries define three trees—birch, aspen, and pine. These trees were chosen because they are highly characteristic of the Lithuanian landscape, and it is likely that their features largely shape the prototype of the tree category in this geographical region and, more broadly, in the linguistic consciousness of inhabitants at the same geographical latitude. Table 13 lists the definitions of the word birch found in the main Lithuanian-language dictionaries.

TABLE 13. Definitions of the word birch in Lithuanian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word birch

BŽ

deciduous tree, usually with white, easily peeling bark, flowering in catkins and yielding sap in spring (Betula)

DŽ_7i

deciduous tree with white bark (Betula)

LKŽ_e

deciduous tree with white bark (Betula)

All three dictionary definitions first indicate that birch belongs to the category of trees, then mention an external feature of birch recognizable to everyone²² that distinguishes it from other trees—‘white bark’. The BŽ definition of the word birch also includes features recognizable to Lithuanians: ‘the bark peels easily’ and it ‘flowers in catkins’. In addition, BŽ gives one more feature: birch ‘yields sap’. Table 14 presents definitions of the word under study in English-language dictionaries.

TABLE 14. Definitions of the word birch in English-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word birch (English birch)

Real-world features recorded in definitions

WEBSTER

any of a genus (Betula of the family Betulaceae, the birch family) of monoecious deciduous trees or shrubs

‘monoecious’, ‘deciduous’, ‘tree or shrub’, ‘leaves with simple petioles’,

²² External features are those features that are perceived or felt through sight, touch, or other means.

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having simple petioled leaves and typically a layered membranous outer bark that peels readily

‘bark that peels off easily’

OXFORD

a slender, fast-growing tree that has thin bark (often peeling) and bears catkins

‘slender’, ‘grows quickly’, ‘bark that peels off easily’, ‘flowering with catkins’

MACMILLAN

a tall tree with thin branches and an outer layer that comes off in thin strips like paper

‘tall’, ‘thin branches’, ‘bark that peels off easily (as if in paper strips)’

COLLINS

is a type of tall tree with thin branches

‘tall’, ‘thin branches’

CAMBRIDGE

a tree with smooth, often white bark (= outer covering) and thin branches

‘smooth’, ‘usually white bark’, ‘thin branches’

As in Lithuanian dictionaries, in the English-language dictionaries cited, the definition of birch is already different from those of plant or animal. The English-language dictionaries do not list scientific features of the birch (except WEBSTER, which gives ‘family’, ‘monoecious’, ‘deciduous’), but rather the most typical external features of this tree: ‘bark that peels off easily’ (in three dictionaries), ‘thin branches’ (in three dictionaries), and ‘tall’ (in two dictionaries). Other external features of the birch are mentioned only in one or another individual dictionary: ‘slender’, ‘grows quickly’, ‘flowers in catkins’, ‘usually white bark’, ‘smooth bark’. The latter feature might perhaps surprise Lithuanians somewhat, since the bark of birches growing in Lithuania is more often fissured than smooth. It is also interesting that only one CAMBRIDGE dictionary mentions the whiteness of the birch trunk—although birch trunks are not necessarily white, the downy birch and silver birch growing in Lithuania²³ are distinguished precisely by their white trunks, and for Lithuanians this is a distinguishing feature of birches. We do not consider this tree particularly tall either²⁴, which is why the feature ‘tall’ is not given in Lithuanian dictionaries. Let us compare the definitions of birch in Russian-language dictionaries (see Table 15).

²³ There are other birch species in Lithuania, but these are the most widespread.

²⁴ Cf. https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karpotasis_ber%C5%BEas.

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TABLE 15. Definition of the word birch in Russian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word birch (Russian берёза)

Features of referents recorded in definitions

CEM

deciduous tree or shrub of the birch family with white (more rarely dark) bark and heart-shaped leaves

'deciduous', 'tree or shrub', 'white bark (more rarely dark)', 'heart-shaped leaves'

МАКС

deciduous tree with white bark

'deciduous', 'white bark'

ТСОШ

deciduous tree with white (more rarely dark) bark and heart-shaped leaves

'deciduous', 'white bark (more rarely dark)', 'heart-shaped leaves'

As can be seen from Table 15, for Russian-language dictionaries, as for Lithuanian-language dictionaries, the most important external feature of the birch is ‘white bark’ (birchbark), probably because our neighbours’ birches resemble ours. Another feature recorded in Russian-language dictionaries is ‘heart-shaped leaves’. This feature is absent from BŽ, as are the ‘slender branches’ mentioned by some English-language dictionaries. This is simply because the definition in BŽ already contains enough typical features to identify a birch, namely ‘white birchbark’, ‘easily peeling birchbark’ and ‘flowers in catkins’.

The fact that in Lithuanian almost exclusively birch bark²⁵, usually its upper, peelable layer (although cf. tošis ‘the cork tissue of birch bark’ (VLE XXIV: 50)), has its own distinct name—tošis—(cf. the many derivatives: tošėti, tošiauti, tošininkas (-ė), tošinė, tošinukas, etc. (LKŽ)), should probably be linked to the role of birchbark in the daily life of the traditional Lithuanian village; cf.: Sometimes clay vessels were wrapped in birchbark to make them more durable (DLKT). We go from one beehive to another, marvelling that the birchbark placed under the roof of a beehive forty years ago has not rotted at all <...> (DLKT). Various baskets and boxes were woven from birchbark; tar, tanning materials, and other things were made from it.

As already mentioned, the BŽ definition records another feature of the birch not found in foreign dictionaries²⁶—that in spring it ‘yields sap’. Evidently, the feature mentioned in the BŽ definition is important and recognizable to Lithuanians, who used to tap (and still may tap) trees for sap in spring and drink it,

²⁵ However, sometimes, by analogy, the bark of other trees may also be called *tošis*; cf. the example recorded in LKŽ: Vyžikės būdavo iš liepos tošų Erž.

²⁶ A search for the word sap ‘tree sap’ in the English dictionaries under examination shows that only the CAMBRIDGE dictionary (see http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sap?a=british)) mentions maple sap in an example; this is (especially) much more popular than birch sap in America and Canada. According to the English and German WIKIPEDIAS (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_sap, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkensaft),), birch sap is more widely used in our neighboring countries and northern China.

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cf.: A bucketful of sap dripped down, that sweet joy of spring J.Marcin²⁷ (LKŽₑ). Since ancient times, Lithuanian peasants have used sap as a drink, less often for cooking soup or fermenting beets MLTEIII340 (LKŽₑ). No more cold winters, no more sweet sap Šts (LKŽₑ). A. Gudavičius (2007: 22) also mentions this characteristic of birch, along with many others; cf. “the white color of the bark, the conical shape of the foliage, the heart-shaped leaves, the slenderness of the branches, its characteristic presence in the Lithuanian landscape, and the fact that people drink its sap in spring, and so on.”

Incidentally, two of the dictionaries discussed—WEBSTER and CEM—state in their definitions that a birch may also be a shrub. BŽ (like the other dictionaries) does not mention this characteristic, although dwarf birch and slender birch, which are shrubs, grow in Lithuania²⁸. However, in the consciousness of the average (Lithuanian) speaker, a birch is nevertheless a tree, which is why the authors of BŽ do not mention shrubs in the definition. Thus, by orienting the definition to the consciousness of the average speaker, this entry already observes the approach to the everyday categorization of the reality around us repeatedly emphasized by cognitive linguists, according to which the descriptive features of word meanings are selected primarily from the characteristics of prototypical members of a category. Apart from WEBSTER and CEM, the English and Russian dictionaries discussed follow a similar approach. Let us now see how Lithuanian, English, and Russian dictionaries define another common tree in Lithuania—aspen (drebulė; see Tables 16–18).

TABLE 16. Definition of the word drebulė in Lithuanian dictionaries

Dictionary Definition of the word drebulė BŽ a tall tree with almost round leaves on long stalks that tremble in the slightest breeze (usually common aspen, Populus tremula); synonym: epušė DŽ₇ᵢ a tree with gray or grayish-green bark and trembling leaves (Populus tremula), epušė LKŽₑ such a tree with trembling leaves, epušė (Populus tremula)

As in the definition of birch, the dictionaries identify the aspen as a tree. They then record one of the aspen’s distinctive external features: ‘trembling (quivering) leaves’. The LKŽₑ definition is limited to this²⁹. BŽ also describes what the leaves look like—‘almost round’, ‘on long stalks’—and what makes them tremble, namely ‘in the slightest breeze’ (an external feature). These characteristics are presumably the most typical ones and the first to be associated with this tree (after all, the motivation for the tree’s very name is connected with one of the characteristics mentioned—‘trembling’). The DŽ₇ᵢ definition gives another external feature of the aspen: ‘bark color’, which is gray or

²⁷ Abbreviations for sources and locations are as in LKŽₑ.

²⁸ Cf. VLE III: 121–122 and https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ber%C5%BEas.

²⁹ The Lithuanian part of the definition is meant here. Latin names, that is, supplementary information in the definition, will be discussed later.

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grayish green. The BLK does not provide the bark color feature in its definition, since the bark color of this tree changes as it grows³⁰, but it indicates another external feature—that the aspen is a ‘tall’ tree³¹.

TABLE 17. Definition of the word drebulė in English-language dictionaries

Dictionary | Definition of the word drebulė (English aspen, quaking aspen) | Features of the referent recorded in the definitions WEBSTER | (Populus tremuloides) chiefly ‘grows in the USA and Canada’, ‘small’, ‘almost round leaves’, ‘with flattened petioles’ and ‘toothed edges’, ‘tremble in the slightest breeze’ OXFORD | a poplar tree with rounded, long-stalked, and typically coarsely toothed leaves that tremble in even a slight breeze | ‘rounded, toothed leaves’, ‘with long stalks’, ‘tremble in the slightest breeze’ MACMILLAN | a tall thin tree that grows in North America and Europe and has leaves that rustle (=make a noise as they rub against each other) in the wind | ‘grows in North America and Europe’, ‘tall, thin’ (tree), ‘leaves tremble in the wind’ COLLINS | an aspen is a tall tree with leaves that move a lot in the wind | ‘tall’ (tree), ‘leaves tremble a lot in the wind’ CAMBRIDGE | a tree of the poplar family, with leaves that shake even when there is only a little wind | ‘leaves that tremble in the slightest breeze’

The most typical features of aspen recorded in the definitions of this word in the English dictionaries mentioned above are: ‘tall’, ‘thin’ (tree), ‘small’, ‘almost round leaves’, ‘with flattened petioles’ and ‘toothed edges’, ‘leaves with long stalks’. The ‘trembling of the leaves in the slightest wind’ is also mentioned in all the definitions of this word. Two dictionaries also indicate where this

³⁰ WIKIPEDIA provides the following information: “The bark of young trees is smooth, pale, greenish-gray with spots; later it cracks and darkens. The bark of mature trees, several meters above the ground, is grayish-brown, spotted and rough; higher up it is smooth and even, greenish or whitish green” (for more, see https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drebul%C4%97).

³¹ It grows up to 35 m tall (cf. VLE V: 134).

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the tree grows—in the USA and Canada (WEBSTER) or in North America and Europe (MACMILLAN). Incidentally, this tree is in fact found not only in North America and Europe, but also in North Africa and Asia (see the Bank of Terms of the Republic of Lithuania—hereafter LRTB: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result). In two dictionaries, a scientific feature is given: the tree belongs to the poplar (family)³².

TABLE 18. Definition of the word drebulė in Russian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word drebulė (Russian осина)

Features of the referent recorded in the definitions

CEM

a deciduous tree related to the poplar, with smooth gray bark and leaves that are constantly trembling on thin, long petioles

‘deciduous’, ‘related to the poplar’, ‘smooth gray bark’, ‘leaves with long stalks’, ‘leaves constantly trembling’

МАКС

a deciduous tree of the poplar genus, with smooth greenish-white bark

‘deciduous tree’, ‘related to the poplar’, ‘greenish-white smooth bark’

ТСОШ

deciduous tree related to the poplar

‘deciduous tree’, ‘related to the poplar’

First of all, Russian-language dictionaries indicate that aspen is a ‘deciduous tree’ and ‘related to the poplar’ (cf. English poplar (family)). Indeed, both aspen and poplar belong to the willow family. This information is not included in the definitions of these words in BŽ, as it is considered secondary and can be found by consulting the Latin name provided in BŽ. The seemingly obvious external feature of ‘quivering leaves’ is mentioned only in the CEM dictionary, which gives the most comprehensive definition of aspen among the Russian-language dictionaries examined. Two dictionaries identify ‘bark color’ as a typical feature—gray in one and greenish-white in the other. As already noted, BŽ does not include this feature and therefore does not indicate that the color varies (see footnote 30).

A review of dictionaries in all three languages (Tables 16–18) suggests that the definition of the word aspen in BŽ is similar to the definitions given in both Russian- and English-language dictionaries and is generally no less comprehensive. Let us also examine the definition of the word pine (see Tables 19–21).

³² Poplar in Lithuanian is tuopa, and family is šeima. In Lithuania, aspen is classified in the willow family (see LRTB: http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result).

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TABLE 19. Definitions of the word pine in Lithuanian-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word pine

BŽ

evergreen coniferous tree with long needles arranged in bundles, round cones, and abundant resin (Pinus)

DŽ₇ᵢ

tree with brown bark, long needles, and round cones (Pinus)

LKŽₑ

evergreen tree with long needles and round cones

In the definition of the word pine, all three Lithuanian-language dictionaries (see Table 19) first indicate that it is an ‘evergreen’ tree. The dictionaries then record the external features of the pine that are recognizable to everyone—‘long needles’ and ‘round cones’. BŽ also specifies another external feature—‘needles arranged in bundles’—and adds the feature ‘produces abundant resin’.

TABLE 20. Definitions of the word pine in English-language dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word pine (English pine, pine tree)

Properties of realia recorded in definitions

WEBSTER

any of a genus (Pinus of the family Pinaceae, the pine family) of coniferous evergreen trees that have slender elongated needles and include some valuable timber trees and ornamentals

‘evergreen’, ‘produces cones’, ‘long, thin needles’, ‘valuable wood’, ‘some tree species are ornamental’

OXFORD

an evergreen coniferous tree that has clusters of long needle-shaped leaves. Many kinds are grown for their soft timber, which is widely used for furniture and pulp, or for tar and turpentine

‘evergreen’, ‘produces cones’, ‘needles clustered in bunches’, ‘valuable wood’, ‘resin and turpentine are extracted’

MACMILLAN

a tall tree with thin sharp leaves called needles that do not fall off in winter, and hard brown fruits called cones

‘evergreen’, ‘tall’, ‘thin, sharp needles’, ‘brown cones’

COLLINS

a pine tree or a pine is a tall tree which has very thin, sharp leaves and a fresh smell. Pine trees have leaves all year round

‘evergreen’, ‘tall’, ‘thin, sharp needles’, ‘fresh fragrance’

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CAMBRIDGE | an evergreen tree (= one that never loses its leaves) that grows in cooler areas of the world | ‘evergreen’, ‘grows in colder regions’

English-language dictionaries’ definitions of the word pušis (‘pine’) specify the following most typical characteristics of this conifer: ‘evergreen’, ‘tall’ (tree), ‘long thin needles’ and ‘brown cones’. The BŽ also states that a pine has ‘long needles’ and ‘(round) cones’; in addition, it includes a characteristic mentioned only in the OXFORD dictionary but considered important by the compilers of the BŽ—that the needles are arranged not just anyhow, but in ‘clusters’. This very external characteristic is one of the visual features that distinguishes a pine from another conifer common in Lithuania, the spruce.

The cited English-language dictionaries provide more different characteristics of the pine; cf. ‘growing location’, ‘what it is used for’ and ‘fresh scent’. The pine’s growing location is not indicated in Lithuanian-language dictionaries, because for Lithuanians the pine is one of the most familiar trees (cf. pine forests in Lithuania account for almost 40 percent of the country’s forest area³³). We would probably be hard pressed to find anyone living in Lithuania who has never touched a pine trunk or seen or smelled its resin. Therefore, as already mentioned, when defining the pine, the authors of the BŽ focused not on the characteristics ‘growing location’ and ‘what it is used for, i.e. purpose’, but chose external characteristics of this tree—‘needles arranged in clusters’ (a feature not mentioned in other Lithuanian-language dictionaries, and mentioned among the English-language dictionaries only by OXFORD) and ‘produces a lot of resin’. The latter characteristic of the pine is quite salient and easily recognizable, since we have probably touched pine resin or smelled its scent more than once. It may be argued that the characteristic ‘fresh scent’ of the pine recorded in the COLLINS dictionary is typical of pines and pine forests and is worth including in the definition of this word.

TABLE 21. Definitions of the word pušis (‘pine’) in Russian-language dictionaries

Dictionary | Definition of the word pušis (Russian сосна) | Real-world characteristics recorded in the definitions | CEM | вечнозеленое хвойное дерево (реже стелющийся кустарник) сем. сосновых с длинными иглами и округлыми шишками | ‘evergreen’, ‘conifer’, ‘long needles’, ‘round cones’ | MAKC | вечнозеленое хвойное дерево с небольшими шишками | ‘evergreen’, ‘conifer’, ‘small cones’ | ТСОШ | вечнозелёное хвойное дерево (реже – стелющийся кустарник) с длинными иглами и округлыми шишками | ‘evergreen’, ‘conifer’, ‘long needles’, ‘round cones’

³³ See in more detail https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paprastoji_pu%C5%A1is.

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Russian-language dictionaries (see Table 21) give the following characteristics of the pine: ‘evergreen’, ‘conifer’, ‘long needles’ and ‘round cones’. Thus, nearly the same characteristics are given as in the BŽ (except for ‘needles arranged in clusters’ and ‘resin’). Neither the pine’s growing location nor its uses are indicated in Russian-language dictionaries, just as they are not in Lithuanian-language dictionaries.

It can be concluded that both Lithuanian and foreign dictionaries define most trees according to a similar scheme: they state the class to which a tree belongs (evergreen, deciduous, coniferous), and then often list the external and/or internal characteristics (wood structure, resin, sap) of that tree that are most typical and easiest for dictionary readers to recognize. Thus, they follow the cognitive strategy of definition. Of course, many characteristics could be listed, but definitions often select the most typical ones, which are the first to be associated with the tree being described³⁴. Indeed, the choice of characteristics in definitions depends on national and cultural specificities; that is, the characteristics recorded may be related to the activities, customs, and so on of people in a particular region where one or another tree species is widespread. Therefore, some characteristics of trees found in Lithuanian-language dictionaries may not necessarily be found in English- or Russian-language dictionaries, and vice versa.

6. DEFINITIONS OF THE MEANINGS OF FRUIT SHRUBS AND FRUIT TREES

It should be noted that not all trees and shrubs are defined according to the same scheme in Lithuanian dictionaries. For example, let us take the category of fruit trees (and fruit shrubs) and look at how the words apple tree, lemon tree and apricot are defined in BŽ, DŽ₇ᵢ and LKŽₑ (Table 22).

³⁴ Of course, lexicographers do not always succeed equally well in tackling this task, and this applies not only to Lithuanian dictionaries but also to the foreign dictionaries cited. For example, judging by the definition in the COLLINS dictionary, “a tall tree with thin branches,” it is unlikely that everyone would recognize a birch so easily.

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TABLE 22. Definitions of fruit trees (fruit shrubs) in Lithuanian dictionaries

Dictionary

Definition of the word apple tree

Definition of the word lemon tree

Definition of the word apricot

BŽ

fruit tree bearing apples (Malus)

1. fruit tree or shrub of warm regions, bearing sweet, sweet-and-sour, or sour fruits (Citrus). 2. A fruit tree of warm regions bearing lemons (usually the true lemon tree, Citrus limon)

2. a small fruit tree of warm regions bearing such fruits³⁵ (usually the common apricot, Armeniaca vulgaris)

DŽ₇ᵢ

fruit tree of the Rosaceae family (Malus)

lemon plant (lemon – a fruit tree of warm regions belonging to the Rutaceae family and bearing juicy, sour fruits (Citrus limon))

fruit tree of warm regions in the Rosaceae family, bearing juicy fruits with a longitudinal groove and a round stone (Armeniaca)

LKŽₑ

fruit tree (Malus)

citrus plant of warm regions (Citrus)

apricot tree (apricot tree – fruit tree of warm regions (Armeniaca))

In the view of the authors of the BŽ, these plants—apple tree, lemon tree and apricot tree—are best known (or most important) to people because they bear particular fruits, rather than because of their appearance (external characteristics). In this case, the BŽ authors’ choice to define the aforementioned fruit trees by the fruits familiar and relevant to the linguistic community tends toward a cognitive strategy for defining meaning, that is: 1) the plant is assigned to a particular category—fruit trees or fruit-bearing shrubs; 2) the plant’s specific (distinguishing) characteristics are indicated—‘bears a particular fruit’.

³⁵ What “such a fruit” is, the dictionary explains in the first sense of the word: “a round, fleshy stone fruit with yellowish-orange, often downy skin, resembling a peach.” The BŽ follows this approach in all analogous cases: the fruit is described under the first sense, and the plant that bears it under the second. This is done because the “fruit” meaning is generally more relevant to people; they may not even know which plant the fruit was picked from.

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For fruit trees not native to (or not growing in) Lithuania³⁶, the BŽ definitions also indicate where they grow³⁷, e.g., apricot tree, lemon tree—fruit trees of warm regions. DŽ_7i and LKŽ_ė chose somewhat different definition schemes, which are not always applied consistently. In LKŽ_ė, the apple tree and apricot tree are trees, whereas the lemon tree is a plant; the fruit borne by the plant under discussion is specified only when the plant and fruit names coincide (see apricot). In DŽ_7i, the fruits borne are identified only for plants not native to or not growing in Lithuania (see lemon).

7. PRESENTATION OF TAXONOMIC GROUPS IN DEFINITIONS

The BŽ definitions of plants (and animals) do not specify their taxonomic groups, i.e. families, genera, and so on. This is because such information tells nonspecialists very little, since these concepts are not part of the average speaker’s awareness (for more, see Gudavičius 2009: 89). Let us compare several specific examples (see Table 23).

TABLE 23. Definitions of plants and animals in Lithuanian dictionaries

Word

BŽ definition

DŽ_7i definition

LKŽ_ė definition

morel

Edible mushroom with a wavy, wrinkled cap (Gyromitra)

edible mushroom of the class Pezizomycetes with a wavy, wrinkled cap (Gyromitra, Helvella)

1. a fungus of this kind, morel (Morchella) 2. a fungus of this kind with a wrinkled cap (Helvella) 3. a fungus of this kind, chanterelle, girolle (Cantharellus cibarius) 4. a fungus of this kind, truffle (Tuber cibarium).

bee

a flying, social insect with brown and yellow stripes that collects nectar and pollen and produces honey (Apis)

a social, honey-producing insect of the order Hymenoptera (Apis)

a honey-producing insect (Apis mellifica)

³⁶ Foreign and native realia will be discussed further on.

³⁷ The same information is provided in the definitions of analogous trees; cf. baobab – a tree from Africa, bertolètija – a tree from South America.

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hornet

a large insect with a black-and-yellow striped body that delivers a painful sting (Vespa crabro)

a large insect of the genus wasp (Vespa crabro)

an insect of the family Vespidae (Vespa crabro)

sparrow

a small bird with brown and gray feathers, living in villages near houses and in cities, usually the house sparrow (Passer domesticus)

a finch-family garden and city bird (Passer domesticus)

a small finch-family bird of gardens and cities (Passer)

As can be seen, the definitions in BŽ do not include the class of ascomycetes, the order of hymenopterans, the family of finches, the genus of wasps, or the family of paper wasps, because, as mentioned, these terms mean nothing to the average speaker³⁸. Of course, such concepts are needed when discussing scientific matters, but that is the domain of specialist dictionaries or encyclopedias; therefore, names for such entities, such as the examples from LKŽₑ mentioned below, are simply not included in BŽ. Cf. from LKŽₑ:

acid-flowered <...> an order of plants in the subclass Archichlamydeae of the class Dicotyledonae;

sharks <...> three suborders of predatory fish in the subclass Elasmobranchii: true sharks (Selachoidei), cow sharks (Hexanchoidei), and bullhead sharks (Heterodontoidei).

Thus, the BLW adopts the following cognitive strategy for defining meaning: priority is given to the features of the denotatum identified when categorizing the everyday reality around us (and therefore readily recognizable to dictionary readers).

8. PRESENTATION OF LATIN TERMS IN DEFINITIONS

In the BLW, Latin terms are provided as a supplement to a word definition, as they are in other dictionaries. In the authors’ view, Latin names are useful because similar plants or animals (often given the same name) cannot always be identified from a definition. This information should be particularly useful to translators. For example, the English word elk means moose to the British, but elk to Americans³⁹; rabbit may refer to either a rabbit or a hare⁴⁰; hedgehog can mean either a hedgehog, or

³⁸ It should be emphasized that this is not a criticism of DŽ₇ or LKŽₑ; these dictionaries simply chose to define this type of word in this way. As the examples show, DŽ₇ follows this system consistently, whereas LKŽₑ does not.

³⁹ Cf. CAMBRIDGE (see http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/elk), WEBSTER (see https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elk).

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spiny rat⁴¹, and even (probably unfamiliar to Lithuanians) the greater gymnure⁴². As for whether English refers to a cranesbill, a pelargonium, a begonia, or a stork’s-bill, it would be impossible to tell without the Latin name (see Table 24).

TABLE 24. Begonia, stork’s-bill, pelargonium, cranesbill

Dictionary WordANGLONAS²geranium <...> 1. cranesbill 2. pelargonium (also fish geranium); beefsteak geranium begonia; cranesbill <...> cranesbill begonia <...> begonia pelargonium <...> pelargonium stork’s-bill <...> 1. stork’s-bill 2. pelargonium

As can be seen from Table 24, the word pelargonium has three English equivalents (geranium, pelargonium and stork’s-bill), begonia has two (begonia, beefsteak geranium), cranesbill has two (geranium, cranesbill), while stork’s-bill has one (stork’s-bill, which also means pelargonium). However, when we start searching for the word using their Latin names, everything falls into place. The Latin names of these plants are: cranesbill – Geranium, pelargonium – Pelargonium, begonia – Begonia, stork’s-bill – Erodium.

These names are just as confusing in English dictionaries: the English words listed here each have several botanical meanings. These dictionaries, too, address the problem in the same way—by giving the Latin names. Compare one of these names in Table 25.

TABLE 25. Geranium definitions in English-language dictionaries

DictionaryGeranium definition⁴³COLLINS 1. any cultivated geraniaceous plant of the genus Pelargonium (here and throughout the table, emphasis added by the authors), with showy scarlet, pink, or white flowers. See also pelargonium, rose geranium, lemon geranium

⁴⁰ Cf. WEBSTER (see https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rabbit), OXFORD (see https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/hare), (see https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/rabbit).⁴¹ Cf. WEBSTER (see https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hedgehog), OXFORD (see https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/hedgehog).⁴² Cf. COLLINS (see https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/hedgehog).⁴³ These English definitions are not translated into Lithuanian, since only their Latin names are relevant in this case.

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2. any geraniaceous plant of the genus Geranium, such as cranesbill and herb Robert, having divided leaves and pink or purplish flowers

AMERICAN HERITAGE

1. Any of various plants of the genus Pelargonium, native chiefly to southern Africa and widely cultivated for their rounded, often variegated leaves and showy clusters of red, pink, or white irregular flowers. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves of some species. Also called pelargonium, storksbill. 2. Any of various plants of the genus Geranium, having palmately divided leaves and pink or purplish regular flowers. Also called cranesbill. <...>

INFOPLEASE

1. any of numerous plants of the genus Geranium, which comprises the crane's-bills. 2. the wild geranium, G. maculatum⁴⁴, of eastern North America, having loose clusters of lavender flowers. 3. Also called any of various plants of the allied genus Pelargonium, native to southern Africa, having showy flowers or fragrant leaves, widely cultivated in gardens and as houseplants. <...>

Thus, it is clear that Latin names can in some cases be treated not merely as supplementary information, but as essential information.

9. DEFINITIONS OF DOMESTIC / FOREIGN REALIA

Kalbėdamas apie tautinį apibrėžčių aspektą A. Gudavičius (2009: 85) teigia, kad žodžio reikšmių tautinę specifiką lemia ir pavadinamo daikto ar reiškinio ryšiai su visu materialiuoju ir dvasiniu tautos gyvenimu, žodžio sužadinamos emocijos ir vaizdiniai. Laikantis tautiškumo principo, pasak A. Gudavičiaus (2009: 86), artimų žodžių (su kuo tauta gyveno ir gyvena) reikšmės turėtų turėti išsamesnes, platesnes apibrėžtis negu svetimų kultūrų. Ir remdamasis DŽ pavyzdžiais teigia, kad šiame žodyne ir daugelyje rusų kalbos aiškinamųjų žodynų dažniausiai matomas atvirkščias vaizdas, o anglų kalbos žodynai vienodai detaliai apibrėžia ir savas, ir nesavas realijas (Gudavičius 2009: 86–88).

Let us look at how the three Lithuanian dictionaries mentioned above define plants that are native to Lithuania (domestic realia) and plants that arrived in Lithuania relatively recently (foreign realia).

⁴⁴ Spotted cranesbill.

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9.1. First, let us discuss the definitions of domestic realia (plants common in Lithuania)—apple, rose hip, potato, and beet (see Table 26). Since the words bulvė and runkelis have two meanings—the plant itself and its tuber/root—the latter meanings alone will be compared.

a) Definitions of domestic realia

TABLE 26. Definitions of vegetables and fruits grown in Lithuania

Word

BŽ definition

DŽ⁷ⁱ definition

LKŽ_e definition

apple

round, firm, juicy fruit of the apple tree, with green, yellow, or red skin and small seeds

fruit of the apple tree

the fruit of an apple tree

rose hip

the fruit of a rose (sense 1) – an elongated or round red or orange vitamin-rich, sweet-and-sour berry with many seeds

the fruit of a rose, a berry

the fruit of a rose, a berry

potato

a round or oval starchy tuber with a very thin white, yellowish, red, or violet skin, eaten as a vegetable⁴⁵

(a vegetable whose tubers contain a lot of starch (Solanum tuberosum)); its tuber

(a vegetable whose tubers contain a lot of starch (Solanum tuberosum); the tuber of that vegetable

beet

a white, yellowish, or dark red round or elongated root vegetable, used for food, fodder, and as a source of sugar

(a garden plant of the goosefoot family with a round or elongated root (Beta); its root vegetable

(a root vegetable with a thick, fleshy root, beet (Beta)); its tuber

The words apple and rose hip are defined very succinctly in DŽ⁷ⁱ and LKŽ_e; we learn only which plants they are the fruits of. The definitions of these words in BŽ are quite different; there,

⁴⁵ The second meaning of this word is “a garden plant with a branching stem that produces such tubers (usually the edible potato, Solanum tuberosum”. In BŽ, such cases (the plant and its fruit) were consistently separated everywhere into two meanings—the plant and its fruit.

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not only what plant the fruits come from is indicated, but their most typical external features are also described in detail—shape (apple – ‘round’; rose hip – ‘elongated’ and ‘round’), color (apple – with a ‘green’, ‘yellow’ or ‘red’ peel; rose hip – ‘red’ or ‘orange’), and internal⁴⁶ features of the fruits are also given—taste and consistency (apple – ‘firm’, ‘juicy’; rose hip – ‘sweet and sour’).

The definition schema for the words potato and beet in BŽ is essentially the same: external features are mentioned—shape (potato – ‘round’ and ‘oval’; beet – ‘round’ and ‘elongated’), color (potato – with a ‘white’, ‘yellowish’, ‘red’ or ‘violet’ peel)—as well as an internal feature (of the potato), ‘starchiness’; only the purposes for which they are used are additionally specified (potato – ‘eaten as a vegetable’, beet – ‘used for food, fodder, and as a source of sugar’)⁴⁷. The latter feature is given instead of taste, since vegetables are usually eaten in various forms—raw, fried, boiled, stewed, and so on. The taste of a vegetable changes accordingly depending on how it is prepared.

If we compare the definitions of all four words in DŽ_7i and LKŽ_e, it is clear that the definitions of potato and beet are more detailed. However, the schemas of these latter two definitions also differ: the external features (appearance) are specified for beet, whereas an internal feature, namely its ‘starchiness’, is specified for potato; thus, the approach is inconsistent. The definitions in DŽ7i and LKŽ_e differ from BŽ also in that the properties of the root vegetable or tuber are added in these two dictionaries when describing the plant; that is, the properties of one object are explained under another object⁴⁸.

b) Defining foreign referents

When describing foreign referents (plants that do not grow under the usual conditions in Lithuania), as when describing native referents, it is not the plant itself that is defined, but its fruit (see Table 27).

⁴⁶ Internal features are those that are unrelated to the visible form of plants, but reveal their internal characteristics associated with taste, consistency, and so on.

⁴⁷ For the words potato and beet, the plant that produces them is not specified, since this is clear from the second sense: potato <...> 2. a garden plant with a branching stem that produces such tubers (usually the edible potato, Solanum tuberosum); beet <...> 2. a garden plant with large leaves that produces such a root vegetable (Beta).

⁴⁸ In analogous cases, when referring to a plant and its fruit, DŽ_7i and LKŽ_e generally follow this same practice, whereas BŽ gives the definition of the fruit (root vegetable, tuber, and so on) where it logically belongs—in the description of the root vegetable or tuber.

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TABLE 27. Definitions of vegetables and fruit that do not grow in Lithuania

Word

BLD definition

DŽ_₇i definition

LKŽ_e definition

aubergine

a cylindrical, pear-shaped or spherical fruit with a shiny, usually dark violet skin, eaten as a vegetable

(a warm-climate plant of the nightshade family, bearing elongated or pear-shaped fruit (Solanum melongena);) its fruit

(a plant of the nightshade family with edible fruit resembling cucumbers (Solanum melongena)); the fruit of this plant

apricot

a round, fleshy, sweet-and-sour stone fruit with a yellowish-orange, often downy skin, resembling a peach

(a warm-climate fruit tree of the rose family, bearing juicy fruit with a longitudinal groove and a round stone (Armeniaca); its fruit

(1. apricot tree.) 2. the fruit of an apricot tree

date

a small, oval, dark, fleshy, sweet fruit of the date palm with one seed

(a palm bearing sweet edible fruit (Phoenix dactylifera)); its fruit

(palm tree with edible fruit (Phoenix dactylifera)); the fruit of that tree

fig

a soft, fleshy, sweet, onion- or pear-shaped fruit of the fig, usually eaten dried

(a fruit tree of warm regions belonging to the mulberry family, bearing soft, edible fruit (Ficus carica)); its fruit

(a tree of tropical regions belonging to the mulberry family (Ficus carica)); and its fruit

The words baklažanas, abrikosas, datulė ir figa in the BŽ are defined essentially in the same way as indigenous referents: their external features are highlighted—shape (baklažanas ‘cylindrical, pear-shaped, or spherical’; abrikosas ‘round’; datulė ‘small, oval’; figa ‘pear-shaped’), color (baklažanas ‘shiny, usually dark-purple skin’; abrikosas ‘yellowish-orange, often downy skin’; datulė ‘dark’); internal features are also emphasized—taste (abrikosac ‘sweet and sour’; datulė ‘sweet’; figa ‘sweet’) or use (baklažanas ‘eaten as a vegetable’; figa ‘usually eaten dried’). In DŽ₇i, the definitions of all four words are fairly comprehensive, but they rely on different criteria: baklažanas—appearance (an external feature); abrikosas—appearance (an external feature) and consistency (‘juicy’—an internal feature); datulė and figa—taste or consistency (‘sweet’, ‘soft’—internal features). In LKŽₑ, baklažanas is defined by its appearance and identified as an edible fruit, whereas abrikosas, datulė, and figa are defined very concisely, following the same pattern as obuolys or erškėtuogė (i.e., whose fruit it is).

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comprehensive, but rely on different criteria: baklažanas—appearance (an external feature); abrikosas—appearance (an external feature) and consistency (‘juicy’—an internal feature); datulė and figa—taste or consistency (‘sweet’, ‘soft’—internal features). LKŽₑ defines baklažanas by its appearance and indicates that it is an edible fruit, but abrikosas, datulė, and figa are defined very concisely, according to the same pattern as obuolys or erškėtuogė (i.e., as the fruit of a particular plant).

Thus, an examination of the definitions of the meanings of the words mentioned above in three Lithuanian dictionaries (Table 27) shows that the BŽ treats all cases uniformly: the definitions are comprehensive, no distinction is made between indigenous and foreign referents, and they follow a particular pattern: whose fruit (root vegetable, etc.), appearance (shape, color), most characteristic internal properties (taste, consistency, etc.), and/or (especially for vegetables) use. DŽ₇ᵢ adopts three different approaches in this respect: the meanings of indigenous and foreign vegetables are defined in sufficient detail and similarly; the meanings of indigenous fruits are defined very concisely, whereas those of foreign fruits are defined in greater detail, but according to varying criteria—some by appearance and taste, others only by taste, and so on. LKŽₑ is more systematic, although that system also raises questions: the meanings of vegetables (indigenous and foreign) are defined fairly comprehensively, while those of fruits (indigenous and foreign) are defined very concisely. Of course, it should be borne in mind that these assumptions were made only after examining a few examples.

9.2. Another category—animals—can also be considered from this perspective.

a) Definition of native realia

Table 28 presents definitions of native realia (animals living in Lithuania) in Lithuanian dictionaries.

TABLE 28. Definitions of animals living in Lithuania

Word

Definition in BŽ

Definition in DŽ₇ᵢ

Definition in LKŽₑ

fox

predatory, valuable-furred animal with a pointed muzzle and a long, bushy tail (usually the red fox, Vulpes vulpes)

predatory, valuable-furred little animal

predatory little animal of the dog family (Vulpes)

horse

large, strong domestic animal with a flowing mane and tail, used for heavy work

working animal

domestic single-hoofed animal used for work, driving, and riding (Equus

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for transporting heavy objects, riding, and the like.

(Equus caballus)⁴⁹

caballus)

goose

a large, adeptly swimming wild or domestic waterfowl with a long neck and broad bill (usually the greylag goose, Anser)

a large wild and domestic waterfowl (Anser)

a large wild and domestic waterfowl (Anser)

In BŽ, as in other dictionaries, definitions of the words under consideration first indicate the class to which the animal belongs, cf.: fox – ‘wild animal’, horse – ‘domestic animal’, goose – ‘wild or domestic waterfowl’, and distinguishing features, cf.: fox – ‘a predatory animal with valuable fur’, horse – ‘large and strong’, goose – ‘large and adept at swimming’. However, BŽ definitions focus most on the animal’s appearance (external features), which is important for identification, since this is what we notice first, cf.: fox – ‘with a pointed muzzle and a long, bushy tail’, horse – ‘with a flowing mane and tail’, goose – ‘with a long neck and a broad bill’. When describing domestic animals, their purpose is also indicated, cf. horse – ‘used for transporting heavy objects, riding, and the like’.

b) Defining foreign realia

Table 29 presents definitions of foreign realia (animals from other countries, living in Lithuania only in zoos or similar settings) in Lithuanian dictionaries.

TABLE 29. Definitions of animals from other countries

Word

BŽ definition

DŽ⁷ definition

LKŽ_e definition

elephant

a huge animal of Africa and South Asia with a long trunk and two tusks (Loxodonta)

a large warm-region trunked mammal (Elephas ir Loxodonta)

a large trunked mammal of warm regions (Elephas)

flamingo

a whitish-pink water bird of warm regions

a whitish-pink water bird of warm regions

a kind of water bird of warm regions, with pinkish

⁴⁹ It is not yet entirely clear to the BŽ editors whether such a Latin name should indeed be retained. In LRTB, Equus caballus means wild horse. In describing domestic horses, VLE states that they descended from wild horses (probably from the Przewalski’s horse and the tarpan), but does not give a Latin name (VLE I: 779). In its definition of horse, WEBSTER gives the same Latin name, Equus caballus, and states that horses were domesticated long ago and indicates their uses; thus, it can be understood that the reference is to the domestic horse, not the wild horse. In describing the domestic horse, VIKIPEDIJA gives the Latin name Equus ferus caballus (for more details, see https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naminis_arklys).

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a bird with long legs, a long neck, and a downward-curving beak (Phoenicopterus) feathers (Phoenicopterus roseus) (Phoenicopterus roseus) zebra an African animal resembling a horse, with black-and-white stripes a striped African animal resembling a horse (Equus zebra) a striped single-toed animal of the order Perissodactyla, family Equidae (Equus zebra)

In the BŽ, exotic animals are defined in the same way as familiar ones, that is, their appearance is described in detail; cf.: elephant – ‘with a long trunk and two tusks’, flamingo – ‘white-pink’, ‘with long legs, a long neck, and a downward-curving beak’, zebra – ‘resembling a horse’, ‘with black-and-white stripes’. The BŽ also additionally indicates where these animals live⁵⁰; cf.: elephant – ‘in Africa and South Asia’, flamingo – ‘in warm regions’, zebra – ‘in Africa’.

In the DŽ_7i, these animals are defined in a very similar way (a fairly concise description of their appearance and habitat is given). The LKŽ_e takes a similar approach. However, if the external feature ‘striped’ were not specified in the LKŽ_e definition of the word zebras, it is doubtful that a non-specialist would understand which animal is meant; cf. the scientific classification given in the definition of zebra: family Equidae, order Perissodactyla, a single-toed animal. Likewise, if someone who had never seen an elephant came along, it is doubtful that the information that an elephant is a proboscidean mammal would help them (this definition was also adopted by the DŽ_7i). One might infer that the word proboscidean means ‘having a trunk’; however, the DŽ_7i does not contain this word at all, while in the LKŽ_e proboscidean, -an means ‘1. belonging to the order of proboscidean mammals; 2. belonging to the order of proboscidean beetles’. And the word Proboscidea is explained as ‘1. an order of higher mammals; 2. an order of beetles’. Thus, once again, we have been able to see that the most suitable and clearest definition for the average speaker would not be one that provides encyclopedic knowledge, but one based on everyday understanding, which forms the foundation for categorizing the everyday reality around us.

Thus, as can be seen, when defining animals (whether living in Lithuania or elsewhere), the BŽ editors essentially follow the same scheme: the animal’s membership in a certain higher-level everyday category is recorded; its appearance is described from a prototypical perspective (other Lithuanian dictionaries often do not mention an animal’s appearance at all); and, if it is a domestic animal, its purpose is stated. Definitions of animals of foreign origin mention where they live.

⁵⁰The same approach is also used to describe exotic plants (see apricot tree, lemon tree).

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CONCLUSIONS

1. An examination of the definitions of several words denoting plants and animals shows that the authors of the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (hereafter BŽ) often combine traditional (more scientific) and cognitive definitions of word meaning.

2. In explaining the meanings of the words plant and animal, which denote general categories (the first meaning of the word animal is intended), the BŽ authors chose a traditional (more scientific) definition of word meanings: the most typical characteristics of plants and animals are recorded, namely, that plants and animals are ‘organisms’; that plants feed on ‘inorganic substances’, while animals feed on ‘organic substances’; that plants require ‘light energy’; and that animals ‘usually can move from one place to another’. Since many plant and animal species are known in nature, it would be difficult to define these words, for example, by referring to the features of their most prominent prototypical members: such a definition would inevitably be schematic and uninformative, and would hardly suffice for a dictionary entry. However, the distinction and definitions of the second and third meanings of the word animal in the BŽ are already associated with a cognitive strategy for defining meaning.

3. When defining the meanings of words belonging to the categories of plants and animals, such as birch, pine, potato, fox, goose, the BŽ authors first indicate the class to which the word being described belongs, then usually list several of the most typical and readily identifiable external and/or internal characteristics of these plants and animals—thus following a cognitive strategy for defining meaning. The purpose of plants and animals and their location or growing environment are often indicated, especially when these features help identify the denotatum. It should be noted that fruit bushes and fruit trees are defined differently in the BŽ: not by their most typical external and/or internal characteristics, but by the fruit they bear, by which people generally recognize them.

4. The choice of the most typical features when defining words for plants and animals often depends on national specificity; that is, the features recorded in word definitions may be connected with people’s activities, habits and customs, the country’s landscape, and so on. Therefore, some features of plants and animals recorded in the BŽ definitions of these words are not necessarily included in the definitions of the same words in English or Russian dictionaries, and vice versa.

5. Unlike the other explanatory Lithuanian dictionaries discussed in the article, the BŽ does not specify taxonomic groups—families, genera, and so on—when defining the meanings of nouns denoting animals and plants. This is because this information is of little use to the average speaker (who is neither a botanist nor a zoologist).

6. The BŽ, like some other explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language, provides Latin terms for plants and animals. In the view of the BŽ authors, Latin terms

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The presentation in dictionary entries is useful in cases where it is difficult to identify similar plants or animals from a word’s definition.

7. An examination of the definitions of the meanings of some fruits and vegetables revealed that, unlike other explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language, the BŽ treats native and foreign realia in the same way: word definitions are detailed and follow a similar pattern—for example, they indicate what something is the fruit (or root vegetable, etc.) of, describe its appearance (shape, colour), and give its most characteristic internal properties (taste, consistency, etc.) and/or (especially for vegetables) state its use. In other words, no distinction is made between native and foreign realia; both are described in equally thorough detail.

8. An examination of definitions for words naming plants and animals in the BŽ and in explanatory dictionaries of English and Russian revealed that the BŽ definitions are no less comprehensive and systematic than those in the dictionaries mentioned.

9. In summary, it can be said that the authors of the BŽ take a more confident cognitive approach, that is, they often dispense with the scientific or encyclopedic definitions typical of explanatory dictionaries, which are of little use to ordinary users of the standard language. When defining the words examined in the article, the authors of the BŽ focus more on the most typical, characteristic, and readily identifiable features of realia, which are perceived or sensed visually, through touch, and in other ways. In this way, word definitions become clearer, more comprehensible, more informative, and unambiguous for dictionary readers.

10. It would be difficult to draw any indisputable conclusions about the BŽ as a whole on the basis of only a few examples from two categories (plants and animals). It would therefore be appropriate to conduct a similar study of another category (or categories) and compare the results obtained with those of this study. This would allow for more robust conclusions and for the prospects of further improvements to the dictionary to be identified.

ŠALTINIAI

AMERICAN HERITAGE – The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language.

Prieiga internete: https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html.

ANGLONAS² – B. Piesarskas. Kompiuterinis anglų – lietuvių kalbų žodynas, UAB „Fotonija“.

BŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Redaktorių kolegija: D. Liutkevičienė (vyr. redaktorė), G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosilytė, J. Zabarskaitė. (rengiamas). – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt.

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CAMBRIDGE – Cambridge Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/.

COLLINS – Collins English Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/.

DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/.

DŽ_6p – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: 6-as patais. ir papild. leid., kompak­tinė plokštelė. Vyr. red. Stasys Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2006.

DŽ_7i – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: 7-as patais. ir papild. leid. Vyr. red. Stasys Keinys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2012; elektroninis variantas, 2015 (atnaujinta versija, 2017). Prieiga internete: http://lkis.lkli.lt/dabartinis.

INFOPLEASE – Infoplease Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.infoplease.com/dictionary.

LKŽ_e – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (t. I–XX, 1941–2002): elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: Gertrūda Naktinienė (vyr. redaktorė), Jonas Paulauskas, Ritutė Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė.Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2008). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt.

LRTB – Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt.

LTE I – Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976.

MACMILLAN – Macmillan Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/.

OXFORD – Oxford Dictionaries. Prieiga internete: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/.

VIKIPEDIJA – Laisvoji enciklopedija. Prieiga internete: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagrindinis_puslapis.

VLE I – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2001.

VLE II – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 2, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2002.

VLE III – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 3, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003.

VLE V – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 5, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2004.

VLE X – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 10, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2007.

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VLE XVIII: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 18, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2013.

VLE XIX: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 19, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2013.

WEBSTER: Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus. Prieiga internete: https://www.merriam-webster.com/.

WIKIPEDIA: Die freie Enzyklopädie. Prieiga internete: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Hauptseite.

WIKIPEDIA: The Free Encyclopedia. Prieiga internete: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.

МАКС: Словарь русского языка. Под ред. А. П. Евгеньевой. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

СЕМ: Русский семантический словарь. Отв. Ред. Н.Ю. Шведова. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

ТСОШ: Толковый словарь русского языка С. И. Ожегова и Н. Ю. Шведовой. Prieiga internete: http://slovari.ru/search.aspx?s=0&p=3068.

Interneto tekstų ištekliai naršyti paieškos sistema Google. Prieiga internete: https://www.google.lt.

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SPECIFICS OF DEFINING MEANING IN THE DICTIONARY OF THE STANDARD LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE (BENDRINĖS LIETUVIŲ KALBOS ŽODYNAS): PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Summary

This article deals with the specifics of defining the meaning of several particular nouns denoting plants and animals. The nouns were picked out of the manuscript of The Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (DSLL) (Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas) and the section of it that is already available online. In the article, the definitions of the meaning of the nouns chosen are compared to the definitions of the matching nouns available in other Lithuanian glossaries and some English and Russian dictionaries. The article attempts to identify the definition (traditional or cognitive) of a word that is typically used in defining the general names of the categories of plant and animal and the words falling into these categories.

1. Investigation of the definitions of several words denoting plants and animals shows that, as often as not, the authors of DSLL navigate between the traditional (rather scientific) and the cognitive definition of the meaning of a word.

2. In defining the meanings of the words plant and animal (in the original meaning of the latter word) that stand for the two general categories, the authors of the DSLL have opted for the traditional (rather scientific) method to define the meaning of words, registering the most typical attributes of a plant and an animal, such as that plants and animals are ‘organisms’, plants feed on ‘non-organic substances’ and animals on ‘organic substances’, that plants require ‘solar energy’ to survive, that animals ‘can usually move from one place to another.’ Since plant and animal species in nature are plenty, it would be difficult to define these words through, say, the characteristics of their most prominent prototypical representatives; this kind of definition would inevitably be schematic, lacking in information, and hardly adequate for the purposes of a dictionary entry. Nonetheless, the distinction and definition of the second and third meaning of the word animal already has to do with the cognitive strategy of definition.

3. In defining the meanings of words falling into the categories of plants and animals, such as beržas (birch), pušis (pine), bulvė (potato), lapė (fox), žąsis (goose), the DSLL authors first of all indicate the class the word being described belongs to and then usually follow with a list of several most typical, easily recognisable external and/or internal features of these plants and animals, hence sticking to the cognitive strategy of their definition. Quite often, they

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specify the purpose of plants and animals, their habitat, especially if such traits are instrumental in identifying the denotation. It should be said that the DSLL defines fruit bushes and trees under a different approach: not by their most typical external and/or internal attributes but rather by the fruit that their bear, which helps people recognise them in most cases.

4. Usually, the selection of the most typical characteristics for the purposes of definition of words denoting plants and animals depends on the national specifics: the attributes registered in the definitions of words may connect to human activity, habits and customs, the landscape, and so on. Therefore, some of the characteristics of plants and animals registered in the DSLL definitions of these words may not necessarily be present in the definitions of the matching words in the English or Russian dictionaries, and vice-versa.

5. Contrary to the other Lithuanian glossaries referred to in the article, when it comes to defining the meanings of nouns denoting plants and animals, the DSLL does not specify their taxonomical groups, such as families, genera, and such. This is because this type of information has little use to the average speaker (who is not a botanist or zoologist).

6. Just like in some of the other Lithuanian glossaries, the DSLL, too, provides Latin terms of plants and animals. The authors of the DSLL believe that providing Latin terms in dictionary entries is useful when the definition of a word alone makes it hard to identify similar plants or animals.

7. Examination of the definitions of some fruits and vegetables has revealed that, contrary to other Lithuanian glossaries, when it comes to defining own and foreign realities, the DSLL follows a non-discriminative approach: the definitions of words are thorough and are based on a similar scheme, for instance, the type of fruit (such as root-crop), appearance (shape and colour), the typical internal characteristics (taste, texture, and so on), and/or purpose (with vegetables in particular). In other words, the definition of realities does not differentiate between own and foreign but rather follows a non-discriminatively thorough approach.

8. Examination of the definitions of the words denoting plants and animals present in the DSLL and English and Russian glossaries has revealed that the DSLL’s definitions are on a par to those of the other dictionaries in terms and completeness and organisation.

9. In summary, we can say that the authors of the DSLL travel the cognitive path with more assurance, often abandoning scientific or encyclopaedic definitions so typical of glossaries that usually benefit the ordinary user of the standard language hardly at all. In defining the words (covered in the article), the authors of the DSLL rather focus on the most typical, inherent, easily recognisable attributes of the realities that can be perceived, sensed in a visual,

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www.bendrinekalba.lt

ISSN 2351-7204

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Reikšmių apibrėžimo ypatumai Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne: augalai ir gyvūnai | 47

tactile, and other ways. That way, the definitions of words become clearer, more understandable, informative, and unambiguous to the users of the Dictionary.

10. Analysis of but several examples of the two categories (of plants and animals) could hardly lead to some sure-fire conclusions about the entire Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language. As a result, one should conduct a similar investigation of another category (or other categories) and compare its results to the outcomes of this research. This would give weight to our conclusions and would allow predicting the prospects of developing the Dictionary further.

KEYWORDS: meaning, definition, cognitive definition, traditional definition, dictionary, Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language.

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ

DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

[email protected]

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