ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

THE CONCEPT OF THE WORD FLOWER IN PUBLIC USAGE

KEYWORDS: corpus, survey, meaning, shade of meaning, definition, flower.

INTRODUCTION

This article is the second in a series of articles on the concept of the word flower. The subject of the first article in the series, “The Concept of Flowers in Explanatory Dictionaries” (General Language 91, 2018), was the meaning(s) of the noun flower and the definitions of its meaning(s) provided in Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian, and English explanatory dictionaries. The article sought to establish how many meanings flower may have in Lithuanian and to compare the features of the definition(s) of flower in the explanatory dictionaries of the aforementioned languages, as well as to make suggestions for the entry for this word in the Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian (hereafter BŽ). Analysis of the definitions of the meanings of flower in Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian, and English explanatory dictionaries showed that Lithuanian dictionaries should distinguish more meanings for this word, although this should be verified on the basis of corpus and survey data.

The subject of this article is precisely the usage of the word flower in the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereafter DLKT) and student survey data. The aim of the article is to investigate the semantics of the word flower in contemporary written language and contemporary perceptions of flower, based on the results of student surveys, and also to make suggestions concerning the differentiation and wording of the meanings in the definition of this word in the explanatory Dictionary of Standard Lithuanian.

Theoretical assumptions. This article combines two semantic approaches—structuralist and cognitive. The structuralist aspect of word meaning is naturally revealed by examining syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between explanatory words in specific utterances (illustrative examples), as well as their relations with their hyponyms (hypernyms) or synonyms, and so on; the links between the words under study and broader mental structures (concepts) make it possible to supplement definitions of their meanings with prototypical

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and otherwise improve the structure of the lexicographic article (Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2017: 3).

In contemporary lexicography, prototype theory is proposed as a basis for defining word meaning and for avoiding inconsistencies in the definition of meanings (for more, see Geeraerts 2006: 327–355). It should be recalled that a prototype is the most characteristic member of a category, by which the category itself can be identified (Ungerer, Schmid 2006: 10). The term prototype is associated with the experimental studies conducted by Eleanor Rosch in the twentieth century, whose findings showed that “category members are asymmetrical, as are the structures of the categories themselves” (Lakoff 1987: 63), that is, some category members possess more or fewer of the features characteristic of that category, while category boundaries themselves are not clearly defined.

In lexicography, the concept of prototype can be used and applied at two levels: 1) a word’s meaning can be defined on the basis of a prototype, and 2) the prototypical meaning of a polysemous word is considered to be the meaning that first comes to mind in the consciousness of an average speaker when they encounter that word. In the first case, defining meanings departs from the logical criteria of necessity and sufficiency, since the definition first lists the features that characterize a category’s prototypical member (Jakaitienė 2005: 82). In the second case, the different meanings of a word are structured according to the same principle as the different members of a single category; that is, the view is adopted that a word has a prototypical meaning with which less prototypical meanings are associated. According to members of the Pragglejaz group (2007: 3), prototypical meanings tend to be more concrete, refer to things that are easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell, or taste, are connected with bodily actions, and are more clearly defined; they are often historically older, but not necessarily more frequent.

Kaip teigia Rolandas Mikulskas (2009: 72), „[v]ienas pagrindinių leksikografinio apibrėžimo uždavinių yra padėti žodyno skaitytojui atpažinti žodžiais žymimų kategorijų atstovus tikrovėje“. Tai padaryti padeda prototipus apibrėžiantys požymiai. Būtent tokie gėlės požymiai remiantis DLKT ir specialiai straipsnio autorių sudaryto klausimyno (apie tai plačiau žr. skyrelį „Metodologija“) duomenimis buvo nustatomi šiame straipsnyje. Tyrimas parodė, kad gėlė pirmiausia atpažįstama pagal jos išorinius požymius, kurie suvokiami regimuoju (pvz., pagal žiedą), uodžiamuoju (pvz., pagal kvapą) ar kt. būdais. Nagrinėjant tyrimo medžiagą išryškėjo, kokie iš šių gėlės požymių yra tipiškiausi, o kokie ne tokie tipiški.

Thus, prototype theory helps dictionary authors distinguish the most typical and less typical features of a lexeme’s meaning, and also offers conceptual tools that make it possible to present the meanings of polysemous words on a consistent basis.

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Metodologija. Norint išsamiai išnagrinėti, kaip suvokiama gėlė, reikia tirti platesnę vartoseną. Tyrimui pasirinktas DLKT, sudarytas Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Kompiuterinės lingvistikos centre. Tiriamąją straipsnio medžiagą sudaro 84-i sakiniai, kuriuose pavartotas žodis gėlė (ar įvardytas konkrečios gėlės pavadinimas), ir 6-i sakiniai, kuriuose pavartotas žodis žiedas¹. Pavyzdžiai išrinkti iš DLKT (grožinės, negrožinės ir administracinės literatūros, publicistikos ir šnekamosios² kalbos). Iš viso buvo peržiūrėta³ apie 7 570⁴ DLKT sakinių, kuriuose pavartotas žodis gėlė, ir apie 12 251⁵ DLKT sakinių, kuriuose pavartotas žodis žiedas.

The examples were examined with the following questions in mind: 1) how many meanings of flower are represented by the examples in the DLKT—only one, as Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries state, or more than one; and 2) can meanings of flower such as ‘a plant that blooms beautifully’ be distinguished from flower meaning simply ‘an ornamental plant (e.g., one with attractive leaves)’?

To find out how a segment of society—young people—understands flowers, a⁶ student survey was conducted. As Kristina Rutkovska, Marius Smetona, and Irena Smetonienė (2017: 32) point out, students are chosen because of the diversity of their composition, as they can represent society as a whole. The authors note that “[o]f course, non-students can also be surveyed, but students are usually the group that has retained the perspectives of their parents and grandparents while already acquiring new perspectives at school and university; most importantly, they are more connected with the present, have easier access to information through the latest technologies, social networks, and the media” (Rutkovska et al. 2017: 32). Thus, it may be assumed that a student survey should convey contemporary understandings of flowers.

A total of 100 students from different study cycles and faculties at two Lithuanian universities—the Vilnius Gediminas Technical University and Šiauliai University—participated in the survey⁷. Representatives of the natural sciences accounted for 50 percent of all respondents, while those in the social sciences

¹ More sentences were examined, but the most representative examples were selected for the article.

² Most of the DLKT consists of written-language texts belonging to various genres. The DLKT contains few spoken-language texts; therefore, this article refers in general terms to the language under study as contemporary written language.

³ The material was collected from the DLKT in February 2018.

⁴ Among these sentences (7,570), there are slightly fewer forms of the word flower, because the noun gėlė and the verb gėlė (meaning ‘to sting’) have identical forms.

⁵ It is difficult to give an exact count of sentences in which the word blossom is used to mean ‘the reproductive organ of a plant from which fruit or seeds develop, usually the colorful part of a plant’ (BŽ), because žiedas has a homonym meaning: 1. ‘a circular ornament worn on a finger’; 2. ‘a circular-shaped object, detail, or part’; 3. ‘a circular well-lining section, usually made of concrete’; 4. ‘a circular closed road or intersection, a roundabout’; 5. ‘a circular part of an organ’; 6. ‘a sweet, crisp ring-shaped pastry’; 7. ‘a circular arrangement of people, animals, or similar’; 8. ‘a thin circular-shaped mass of dust and meteoroids surrounding a planet’ (BŽ).

⁶ The survey was conducted in April–May 2018.

⁷ The authors sincerely thank associate professor Dr. Rasuolė Vladarskienė, a lecturer at Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, and associate professor Dr. Jolanta Vaskelienė, a lecturer at Šiauliai University, for helping conduct the student survey.

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representatives – 36 percent, representatives of the humanities field – 14 percent (see Table 1). Women accounted for 48 percent (representatives of the exact sciences field accounted for 10 percent, of the social sciences field – 60 percent, and of the humanities field – 30 percent), while men accounted for 52 percent of all respondents (representatives of the exact sciences field accounted for 87 percent, of the social sciences field – 13 percent, and of the humanities field – 0 percent). Women who spent their childhood and early youth in the countryside accounted for 42 percent of all women surveyed, while men accounted for 40 percent of all men surveyed. Women who spent their childhood and early youth in a city accounted for 58 percent of all women surveyed, while men accounted for 60 percent of all men surveyed (see Table 1).

TABLE 1. Distribution of respondents by sex and field of study, percent

Field

Sex

Women

Men

Total

from the countryside

from a city

from the countryside

from a city

Exact sciences field

0

5

20

25

50

Social sciences field

12

17

1

6

36

Humanities field

8

6

–

–

14

Total 48

Total 52

100

By age, women are approximately 20 to 24 years old, while men are 21 to 24 years old. There are also older women in the humanities (see Table 2).

TABLE 2. Distribution of respondents by age

Women

Men

Physical sciences field

22–23

21–24

Social sciences field

20–24

21–22

Humanities field

21–23, 25, 27, 33, 36, 47, 53

–

Total of 100 respondents

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The survey included two open-ended questions (see 1–2), for which respondents had to enter an answer formulated in their own words, and seven closed-ended questions (see 3–8 and 10), which respondents had to answer yes or no. The survey also included one mixed-format question (see 9), which respondents had to answer yes or no; if they answered yes, they had to justify their answer by entering several examples.

1. In your opinion, what is the main characteristic(s) of a flower?

2. In your opinion, what part (organ) must a plant have for you to call it a flower?

3. In your opinion, can a flower lack a (visibly apparent) bloom?

4. In your opinion, is a non-flowering ornamental plant (e.g., one with decorative leaves) a flower?

5. In your opinion, does a flower always have an upright stem?

6. In your opinion, is a flowering climbing plant a flower?

7. In your opinion, is a flowering aquatic plant a flower?

8. In your opinion, is a flowering cactus a flower?

9. In your opinion, is a flowering shrub (subshrub) a flower? If so, give at least one example.

10. In your opinion, are the plants listed below flowers? The names of the plants and pictures of them were provided:

yarrow

poinsettia

carnation

sunflower

olive

rose

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Open-ended questions sought to find out how young people perceive a flower and which key features they distinguish, while closed-ended questions were intended to test certain assumptions raised in the analysis of DLKT data and of the definitions and illustrative examples of the word gėlė provided in explanatory dictionaries of Lithuanian and other languages.

As already mentioned, respondents were asked which of the listed plants (shown in pictures) they considered to be flowers. The plants included in the survey were selected deliberately. Analysis of DLKT data showed that the concept of a flower is understood in various ways, so it was decided to choose atypical members of this category, such as shrubs (subshrubs), plants that bloom in muted colors, and so on. Efforts were made to ensure that the pictures showed a plant’s flower and ornamental leaves. In this way, the aim was to find out which plants respondents consider flowers and which they do not. It was assumed that if a flower was depicted, respondents would consider that plant a flower, and vice versa. However, as the survey results showed, a flower is not always necessarily associated with a flower.

The survey data were processed manually. The answers are presented in the article in numerical and percentage terms, with responses differentiated according to respondents’ field of study and gender and, where relevant, according to whether respondents spent their childhood and early youth in the countryside or in a city.

Research methods: semantic analysis, comparative method, calculation, and surveys.

1. USE OF THE WORD GĖLĖ IN THE CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE CORPUS

In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ_e) and the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DŽ_7i), the word gėlė is defined as follows: ‘a beautifully flowering or ornamental plant, herb’ (LKŽ_e) and ‘a plant that blooms beautifully or has beautiful leaves’ (DŽ_7i). An examination of how gėlė is defined in Latvian, English, and Russian explanatory dictionaries⁸ revealed that gėlė has more than one meaning in the dictionaries of these languages⁹. Several illustrative examples recorded in LKŽ_e and DŽ_7i also indicated that gėlė may have more than one meaning in Lithuanian: the word gėlė

⁸ Cambridge Dictionary (hereafter CAMBRIDGE), Collins English Dictionary (hereafter COLLINS), Macmillan Dictionary (hereafter MACMILLAN), Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus (hereafter MERRIAM-WEBSTER), Oxford Dictionaries (hereafter OXFORD); Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca (hereafter LLVV), Mūsdienu latviešu valodas vārdnīca (hereafter MLVV); Словарь русского языка (hereafter МАКС), Русский семантический словарь (hereafter СЕМ), Толковый словарь живого великорусского языка (hereafter СЛОВАРЬ ДАЛЯ), Толковый словарь русского языка by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova (hereafter ТСОШ).

⁹ Apie kitus tyrimo rezultatus plačiau žr. Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018.

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in lexicographic entries. It is true that those illustrative examples are presented under one sense alongside examples corresponding to that sense (in both LKŽₑ and DŽ₇ᵢ).

An examination of the DLKT examples revealed that the concept of a flower is not as concrete or unambiguous as it might seem at first glance. To formulate a more comprehensive definition of this word than those provided in LKŽₑ and DŽ₇ᵢ, the most characteristic and typical features of a flower must first be identified on the basis of the DLKT examples.

1.1. The DLKT examples show that, first and foremost, a flower is perceived as a living plant:

1.1.1. Like all plants, a flower needs the following essential conditions to grow: soil, water, sunlight, etc. (see sentences 1–6).

(1) It is very important <...> to properly prepare soil for the aforementioned flowers (here and henceforth, emphasis added by the article’s authors).

(2) Soil for flowers and fertilizer are becoming extremely popular products.

(3) A good mood and tenderness are to a person what dew and sunshine are to flowers.

(4) These flowers bloom profusely when growing in a sunny, bright spot.

(5) Some flowers store water reserves during the rainy season.

(6) No flowers like drafts.

1.1.2. A flower can grow and live on its own—it grows, spreads, survives, withers, etc. (see sentences 7–12), or it can be cultivated by people—sown, propagated, planted, etc. (see sentences 13–16):

(7) Flowers grew in the ground of Dreñojė park, along with grasses.

(8) A stolen item is easier to carry; a stolen flower grows better.

(9) The latter [the bushes—author’s note], by blocking the light, prevent these flowers from spreading rapidly.

(10) Manau, kad ne tik žmogus, bet net gėlė privalo išgyventi visą laiką nuo gležno daigelio iki šalnos pakąsto stagaro.

(11) Tyliai vysta lentynoje vazos gėlių.

(12) Flower, look, it just goes and withers.

(13) Laikas į dėželes sėti ilgos vegetacijos gėles.

(14) Flowers of different species in the same genus reproduce differently from seed.Tos pačios genties skirtingų rūšių gėlės sėklomis dauginamos skirtingai.

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(15) Turning thousands of delicate seedlings into healthy, vigorous flower bushes is hellishly difficult.Tūkstančius gležnų daigų paversti sveikata trykštančiais gėlių krūmeliais yra pragariškai sunku.

(16) Planting flowers begins at the edge of the flower bed.Gėlės sodinti pradedamos nuo gėlyno krašto.

1.1.3. A flower can grow a) in fields or forests (a wild flower) (see sentences 17–20), b) in gardens or flowerbeds (planted by people) (see sentences 21–23), c) indoors (planted by people, as a houseplant) (see sentences 24–27):

(17) Gomphrena (Gomphrena), a sun-loving, undemanding meadow flower in the amaranth family (Amaranthaceae).Gomfrena (Gomphrena) – burnotinių (Amaranthaceae) šeimos saulėmėgė nereikli pievų gėlė.

(18) Novelty is like a field flower: it blooms, then withers the next day.Naujumas kaip laukų gėlė: pražydo, kitądien – nuvyto.

(19) A splendid flower growing on a ditch slope catches the eye from afar with its sturdy stem, long, dense inflorescence, and the fact that it is the only one of its kind in the entire woodland edge.Griovio šlaite auganti puošni gėlė iš tolo traukia žvilgsnį savo stipriu stiebu, ilgu tankiu žiedynu bei tuo, kad ji – vienintelė tokia visoje pamiškėje.

(20) The flower, growing out of a rotten branch stump, found itself an especially convenient spot.Gėlė, auganti iš po apipuvusio ra stigalio, surado sau itin parankią vietą.

(21) He planned and made a huge heart-shaped flowerbed.Jis suplanavo ir padarė didžiulę širdies formos lys vę – klombą gėlėms.

(22) The walnut tree has a toxic effect on other nearby garden plants, flowers, and grass.Toksinį poveikį greta augantiems kitiems sodo augalams, gėlėms, žolei turi graikinis riešutmedis.

(23) The most exotic flower, the giant arum, has bloomed in the Royal Botanic Gardens of Britain.Britanijos karališkajame botanikos sode pražydo bene egzotiškiausia gėlė – milžiniškasis arunas.

(24) Compost can be used... to grow houseplants.Kompostą galima <...> naudoti kambarinėms gėlėms auginti.

(25) Even if the flower does not particularly like our room conditions, it can still adapt as it grows and bloom.Jei ir nelabai patiks gėlei mūsų kambario sąlygos, ji dar gali augindama žiedus prisitaikyti ir pražysti.

(26) Not a single flower bloomed on the windowsill.Nė viena gėlė nežydėjo ant palangės.

(27) The two of them <...> knew where they would put the pot with the flower.

1.1.4. A flower is most often recognized by its most typical external feature—the ‘blossom’—that is, it is a flowering plant (see sentences 28–32). However, a flower’s external (visually perceived) features also include ‘leaves’ (see sentences 33–34) or a ‘stem’ (see sentences 35–36). In this case, the stem may not necessarily be obvious (it is not mentioned directly in the examples), but one can infer its presence from, for example, the fact that the flower grows upwards (see sentence 35). Another feature of a flower, perceived by smell, is its ‘scent’ (see sentences 37–39):

(28) The flower bloomed white.

(29) Apparently, the flower closed its blossoms for the night.

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(30) The earth will begin to adorn itself with the first shoots, with flower blossoms.

(31) This is a flower of the amaranth family flower, whose inflorescence resembles a cockscomb.

(32) For flowers that form long spikes, the flowers (spike-forming varieties) have the tips of their inflorescences shortened.

(33) If the soil is too wet, the flower may also shed its leaves.

(34) The curtains were drawn, <...> and the broad-leaved flower on the low table continued to languish alone in the dark.

(35) Such slenderness! The woman grew upwards like a flower.

(36) And not just any girl, but a little lily. She <...> is in bloom, a vertical garden flower.

(37) Išneškite iš kambario stiprų aromatą skleidžiančias gėles.

(38) Combinations of various essential oils give flowers their characteristic scent.

(39) The night is fragrant with flowers and the river.

1.1.5. As already mentioned, LKŽ_e and DŽ_7iflower is described as a plant that blooms beautifully or is decorative (has beautiful leaves). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia (hereafter VLE_e) describes a flower similarly to the dictionaries mentioned, but in much greater detail; cf. flowers “annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, less often shrubs, grown for decorative purposes outdoors, indoors, or in greenhouses, with decorative flowers, leaves, stems <...>”¹⁰. In this case, it is important that the three sources mentioned distinguish two external (perceptible by sight) characteristics of a flower: 1) ‘a flower is a flowering plant’, that is, one that has a bloom, and 2) ‘a flower is simply a decorative plant’, not necessarily having a (clearly visible) bloom, but distinguished, for example, by beautiful leaves.

1.1.5.1. Before this study, it seemed that in the mind of the average speaker, a flower nevertheless had to have a blossom. This is also confirmed by the DLKT examples examined, which show that a flower is a flowering plant whose most typical external feature is the ‘blossom’; cf.:

(40) Every flower grows so that it may bloom.

(41) After all, for a flower it is good to bloom, for a tree—to turn green, for grass—to sprout!

(42) For everything has already been covered in snow <...>, when there was not yet a trace of that spring: for the earth—grass or grain, for the tree—a leaf, for the flower—a bloom.

(43) Knowing a flower means becoming a flower, being a flower, that is, experiencing the flower's blossoming, rejoicing in sunrises.

¹⁰ For more, see VLE_e: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/geles-43169.

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How a flower is understood can also be illustrated by sentences found in DLKT, which show what is not a flower; cf.:

(44) As with all shrubs and climbing plants, the owners allowed the flower to grow wherever it wanted.

(45) A variety bred by him of flower or ornamental plant would be fitting on a botanist's grave.

(46) Min ios she greets, strewing herbs and flowers beneath her feet.

(47) It is said that a flower or a little shrub senses who loves and cares for it.

(48) <...> leaving room for a perennial flower or a beautifully flowering shrub.

(49) One can decorate with garlands and ornaments a flower pot, but even better—a cactus.

Thus, from the examples mentioned, one might conclude that ‘a flower is not a shrub and is not a climbing plant’ (see sentence 44), ‘a flower is not an ornamental plant’ (see sentence 45), ‘a flower is not a herb’ (see sentence 46), ‘a flower is not a shrub’ (even one that flowers beautifully) (see sentences 47–48), and ‘a flower is not a cactus’ (see sentence 49).

1.1.5.2. However, analysis of the DLKT material also revealed a wealth of other examples that contradict the idea expressed above (in subsection 1.1.5.1) about how a flower is understood. First of all, attention should be drawn to sentences such as these:

(50) In the gardens of homesteads and isolated farmsteads, flowers—roses, carnations, chrysanthemums—bloom.

(51) <...> he will likewise have no doubt that a tulip will indeed grow from a planted tulip bulb, and not, by some whim of nature, a rose or some other flower.

These examples indeed confirm VLE_e’s claim that although a flower is usually a herbaceous plant, it can also be a shrub, since a rose is a shrub.¹¹

Cf. also the following examples:

(52) Having gazed closely at the huge, sharp, quietly growing cactus. – The rejected and ridiculed flower finally received fair understanding.

¹¹ Cf. VLEₑ: rose “<...> Summer-green, rarely evergreen shrubs with thorny shoots and branches. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/rozes-81249).

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(53) Smidras¹² – gėlė ir daržovė.

(54) Asparagus has been known in Lithuania since ancient times, but only as a garden flower – in the past, one could not imagine a bride’s bouquet without asparagus.

(55) Dracena – kambarinė lapinė gėlė.

(56) After starting to look in books, she learned that her flower was fragrant dracaena. Most interestingly, even books about caring for them say absolutely nothing about the flowers.

Thus, ‘a flower is a cactus’ (see sentence 52). Asparagus is a perennial herb or subshrub¹³, so ‘a flower is a herbaceous plant’ and ‘a flower is a subshrub’. Asparagus is an ornamental plant¹⁴, hence ‘a flower is an ornamental plant’ (see sentences 53–54). VLEₑ states that dracaena is a shrub or tree¹⁵, meaning ‘a flower is a shrub’, perhaps even ‘a flower is a tree’, and also ‘a flower is a foliage plant’ and ‘flowers do not need to have blossoms’ (see sentences 55–56).

1.1.5.3. Thus, the examples presented in subsection 1.1.5.2 paint quite the opposite picture: a flower need not have blossoms, and cacti, ornamental plants, subshrubs, shrubs, and perhaps even trees are also called flowers. What matters is that the plant called a flower be ornamental, for example, have decorative leaves; in other words, an external (visually perceived) feature is important. Sometimes, reading the DLKT examples, one gets the impression that almost any more interesting plant can be called a flower; cf.:

(57) We will assess some flowers’ preference for light. In sunny rooms: agave, aloe, pineapple, <...> cacti, kalanchoe, coffee plant.

To summarize the DLKT material examined so far, there is no unequivocal answer as to how a flower is understood in written language.

1.2. The DLKT sentences illustrate several emerging shades of meaning of ‘flower as a living plant’: 1) wild flowers, 2) flowers grown in flowerbeds or gardens, and 3) flowers grown indoors

¹² Medicinal asparagus is sometimes also called sparrow grass; cf. Wikipedia: https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaistinis_smidras.

¹³ Cf. VLE: asparagus “<...> A perennial herb or subshrub with a short rhizome, sometimes with a tuberous root. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/smidras-87791).

¹⁴ Cf. VLE: asparagus “<...> Many asparagus species are grown in flowerbeds in warm-climate regions, and elsewhere indoors as ornamental plants (e.g., African asparagus). <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/smidras-87791).

¹⁵ Cf. VLE: dracena “<...> Shrubs or trees up to 20 m tall. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/dracena-50235).

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flowers. These shades may also encompass 1) flowers distinguished by an eye-catching bloom and often having an upright stem¹⁶ (see sentences 35–36), and 2) flowers whose bloom is unremarkable or even inconspicuous, but whose leaves are beautiful or which have another visually perceptible distinguishing feature. It would seem that the BŽ should distinguish these shades, since the examples provided by the DLKT attest to them, especially as some dictionaries of foreign languages also list them; cf. Latvian dictionaries: 1. <...> Dekoratīvs lakstaugs telpu izdaļošanai <...> (underlining here and below by the article’s authors) (lit. a decorative herbaceous plant adorning the home¹⁷) (MLVV); 1. Dekoratīvs, ziedošs (krāšņuma vai savvaļas) lakstaugs, arī puskrūms <...> | Dekoratīvs (ziedošs vai neziedošs) telpu augs <...> (lit. a decorative flowering (garden or wild) herbaceous plant, also a subshrub <...> | a decorative (flowering or non-flowering) houseplant¹⁸ (LLVV).

However, the DLKT contains many other examples in which these shades of meaning of gėlė are not apparent, so distinguishing them would be artificial or ambiguous; cf.:

(58) Flower opens toward the sun and its roots extend deep into the earth.

(59) Beside the school’s main entrance stands a large white pot with a flower.

(60) He liked <...> the faint light of the desk lamp, the drawn curtains, and the leaves of the houseplant flower, softly illuminated.

Sentence 58 refers not to a houseplant (since its roots extend deep into the earth), but it is unclear whether this flower is wild or cultivated in a field by people. Sentence 59 mentions a planted flower, not a wild one. Houseplants usually grow in pots, but the pot mentioned in sentence 59 stands outdoors, so at least in theory one might ask what to call such a flower—an indoor plant or an outdoor-growing one? Sentence 60 refers to a houseplant, but it is unclear whether it has a beautiful bloom or ornamental leaves (that is, whether it is simply an ornamental plant). It was mentioned earlier that flowers often have an upright stem. However, the examples show that this is not always the case. Neither climbing plants (see sentence 61) nor aquatic plants (see sentence 62) have such stems, yet some of them are nevertheless called flowers; cf.:

¹⁶ The upright-stem feature presumably arises in the consciousness of the average speaker because flowers are often associated with picking them, and flowers that are picked usually have upright stems.

¹⁷ Here and below, translated into Lithuanian by the article’s authors.

¹⁸ Krāšņumaugs is translated in Latvian dictionaries not as “garden” but as “ornamental plant.” However, given that the word dekoratīvs, which occurs earlier in the definition, also means “decorative” or “ornamental,” the translation would be “decorative, flowering (ornamental or wild).” It was therefore decided that the opposition expressed in the phrase krāšņuma vai savvaļas, “ornamental or wild plant,” can also be conveyed by the phrase “garden or wild plant.”

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(61) Repotted passionflowers¹⁹ are placed in a bright spot. These flowers bloom profusely when growing in a sunny, bright spot.

(62) The lotus²⁰ symbolizes the feminine principle in Buddhist tradition, but in the East this flower also has further semantic meanings.

1.3. As already mentioned, LKŽ_e and DŽ_7i define flower as a plant that blooms beautifully or is decorative (has beautiful leaves). However, the three illustrative examples given in these dictionaries’ entries for the word flower raise the question of whether this definition really applies to them; cf.:

(63) She put all the flowers in water (LKŽ_e).

(64) A bouquet of flowers (LKŽ_e).

(65) Put the flowers in water (DŽ_7i).

In sentences 63–65, the reference is not to living, rooted plants, but to cut flowers—without roots. It can be said that here the subject is no longer the whole plant, but only a part of it. Explanatory dictionaries of Latvian, Russian, and English record this distinct meaning of flower (for further discussion, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018).²¹

The examples examined from DLKT confirm that the aforementioned meaning of flower also exists in Lithuanian; cf.:

(66) Prepare vases in advance for putting the gifted flowers in.

(67) He skillfully shortened the stems for the flowers with scissors.

(68) The girl hides a hand holding a flower behind her back.

(69) Others explained that they wanted to throw flowers from Lithuania flowers.

(70) [The chair] was covered with flowers.

(71) Government representatives will place flowers by the <...> monument.

Clearly, in the examples given above, the intended meaning is ‘a flower without roots’: no one would shorten the stem of a growing flower, place flowers with roots by a monument, or put them in water

¹⁹ Cf. VLee: passiflora “<...> A perennial climbing herb, liana, rarely a shrub or tree. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/pasiflora-2483).

²⁰ Cf. VLee: lotosas “<...> a genus of perennial aquatic plants. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/lotosas-17658).

²¹ In this case, the authors consider a living plant to be one that is still growing, still part of the natural life cycle, or similar. Sometimes any flowers are called living plants, in contrast to artificial flowers, e.g.: There are vases with fresh flowers (DLKT). She did not squander her hard-earned money on fresh flowers in the living room (DLKT).

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of such flowers in vases. Thus, it can be seen that the second meaning of flower is just as common and has as varied a semantic environment as the first meaning, and the two meanings can easily be distinguished.

1.4.

Another meaning of flower found in usage, but not recorded in Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries, is ‘blossom’. Here we can speak of a metonymic²² transfer of meaning, in which the whole is named by reference to a part (flower – blossom). This metonymic meaning is also included in explanatory dictionaries of Latvian, Russian, and English (for further discussion, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018).

Let us examine examples found in DLKT:

(72) He suggested a new symbol of masculine elegance – a flower in the lapel of a jacket.

(73) As soon as the red carnation emerged as the party emblem, another flower took its place in the buttonhole – the white lily, the emblem of a member of the Christian Socialist Party.

(74) He <...> bragged that he could arrive in a limousine with a flower in the lapel.

(75) How a flower unfolds from a bud.

(76) <...> lets words unfold like flowers.

(77) <...> a scene of madness – a denouement blossoming into flowers of vivid charm flowers.

(78) The door ornament is a rosette. It is a circular, stylized flower or star radiating from the center.

(79) As the meadow flowers turned yellow, yellow wagtails appeared too.

(80) Carotenoids give shades of red, orange, and yellow to edible fruits and berries, vegetables, and mushrooms, as well as to flowers.

In the sentences presented, what is meant is the flower of a plant: neither a whole plant with roots nor a cut flower with a stem can be in a jacket lapel or a buttonhole—only a blossom²³ (see sentences 72–74); it is not the plant that unfolds, but the blossom (especially from a bud) (see sentences 75–77); the plant itself is not circular, only its flower, so the ornament resembles a flower’s blossom (see sentence 78); and the yellow, red, and orange colors belong not to the entire plant (flower), but only to one part of it—the blossom (see sentences 79–80).

²² Metonymy is understood as “the highlighting of different aspects of the same situation, in which things and phenomena are connected by spatial, temporal, causal, and other relations” (Gudavičius 2009: 124).

²³ In this case, the intended meaning is that a flower without a stem is pinned to a jacket lapel (unless the flower may have a very short part of the stem, a stalk).

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It is clear that the meaning ‘flower’ of gėlė should appear in Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries, and therefore in BŽ as well. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there are also usage examples in which the meaning ‘flower’ and the meaning ‘plant’ of gėlė are mixed, cf.:

(81) And the little blue flower became the rye’s flower.

(82) A white flower of astonishing beauty, with a yellow centre, bloomed; it is called a daffodil.

(83) The valley is lush and green too, blooming with many-coloured flowers, which you can pick straight through the jeep windows.

(84) <...> a first-grader with a red flower.

In sentence 81, blue means ‘flower’, but it is not ‘flower’ that became the rye flower, but rather ‘a flower with a blue bloom’. In sentence 82, white flower with a yellow centre means ‘flower’, but it is probably a ‘plant’, not a ‘flower’, that blooms; daffodil, too, is called a ‘plant’, not a ‘flower’. In sentence 83, many-coloured means ‘flowers’, but it is ‘flowers (plants)’ that bloom, and what is picked is a ‘plant’, not a ‘flower’. In sentence 84, red means ‘flower’, but it is obvious that the first-grader is carrying not a ‘flower’, but a ‘plant’. This usage can probably be regarded as a sense nuance, and perhaps such a nuance should be distinguished in BŽ and defined as ‘a plant bearing a flower of a particular colour’.

1.5. If gėlė can mean ‘flower’, the question arises whether the reverse is possible—that žiedas can mean ‘plant’? Data from DLKT and explanatory dictionaries indeed show that žiedas can mean ‘flower’.

1.5.1. According to DLKT and internet usage²⁴ data, žiedas most often means ‘cut flower’. For example:

(1²⁵) A single beautiful rose bloom or a modest little bouquet of wildflowers.

(Google).

(2) Naturalists say that spring flowers found in forests, for example, hepatica flowers wilt very quickly, so, they say, one should not pick too many of these flowers. In their opinion, it is enough to take one or two little flowers home. (Google).

(3) One flower bloom is better, but given at the right time and place. (DLKT).

(4) They presented all the city council members with framed certificates of remembrance and a rose each.

(DLKT).

²⁴ Usage examples were searched for using the search engine Google.

²⁵ Sentences are numbered from the beginning because another word is being discussed—flower.

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(5) Porelėmis po Laisvės alėją vaikštinėjantys studentai perka šiek tiek brangesnes, ne centus, o visą litą kainuojančias puokšteles ar rožės žiedą. (DLKT).

(6) There are already many daffodils, so <...> are pleased if they manage to get 15–20 cents for a flower. (DLKT).

The examples given contain expressions such as rose flower and little bouquets of wildflowers (1); flowers or such blooms, picked and brought home (2); a flower given as a gift (3); gave each person a rose flower (4); buy little bouquets or a rose flower (5); manage to get 15–20 cents for a flower (6). These show that the word here does not mean ‘the reproductive organ of a plant from which fruit or seeds develop, usually the colorful part of the plant’ (BŽ), but specifically ‘a cut flower’, since surely one would hardly give, buy, bring home, and so on, a single blossom (without a stem or leaves).

1.5.2. According to DLKT data, flower can also mean ‘a flower as a living plant’, for example:

(7) Those walking along the reserve’s paths and off the paths should know the value of the forest, meadow, and spring-fed flowers, and understand that the beauty of naturally flourishing plants is incomparable, and that not a single such flower could you ever grow yourself or buy at the market.

(8) Hurrying passers-by can buy quite cheaply a modest bouquet of wildflowers, or a more impressive one—flowers grown in gardens—a bouquet.

Sentences 7–8 show that the passage refers to the process of a flower’s growth, that is, to the fact that a flower is a living plant; compare: flowers—naturally flourishing plants—such flowers (7). In this sentence, flowers and flowers are used as synonyms. Sentence 8 discusses bouquets, that is, cut flowers, but the expression flowers grown in gardens denotes a growing process, and thus the plant is rooted.

1.5.3. In LKŽₑ and BŽ, the meaning ‘flower’ is recorded for žiedas (this meaning is absent from DŽ₇ᵢ); cf.:

(LKŽₑ) 2. flower: <...> Oh, beautiful flowers in the garden! She gathers flowers and all kinds of herbs [to make wreaths for the cows]. <...> The women went before God with flowers.

(BŽ) 2. flower: A bridesmaid’s bouquet of three flowers. A box of sweets and a few rose blossoms—what’s wrong with that as a gift?

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In the dictionaries mentioned, the second meaning of žiedas is explained simply by the word gėlė (that is, flower in general). In this case, one can speak of a metonymic shift in meaning, whereby a part is used in place of the whole (blossom—flower). However, the examples examined from DLKT and usage on the internet show that, in the cases under consideration, the intended meaning may even more often be ‘cut flower’. Therefore, Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries should probably distinguish between žiedas meaning ‘plant’ and žiedas meaning ‘cut plant’.

2. ANALYSIS OF THE STUDENT SURVEY RESULTS

As already mentioned, the survey involved 100 students from different levels of study and faculties at two Lithuanian universities (for more details, see the section “Methodology”).

In response to the first survey question—“In your opinion, what is the main characteristic (or characteristics) of a flower?”—approximately half of the respondents across all fields of study and genders (52, i.e. 52%) answered that a flower’s main characteristic is its blossom (responses included: blossoms, flowering, bloom, petals). Sometimes, in addition to blossom, respondents also mentioned a visually perceived characteristic of the blossom, e.g.: a bright, beautiful blossom; the blossom is a color other than green.

Other respondents answered that the main characteristic of a flower is

scent (response: fragrance) (8, i.e. 8%);

beauty (4, i.e. 4%) (response: aesthetic beauty);

leaves (1, i.e. 1%);

shape²⁶ (1, i.e. 1%).

There were also respondents who listed not just one, but two or even three characteristics of a flower:

leaves and blossoms (7, i.e. 7%) (responses included: blossom(s) and/or leaves; it has a blossom or leaves that are a color other than green; green leaves and blossoms, usually a color other than green; petals, leaves);

stem and blossom (5, i.e. 5%) (response: it has a stem and a blossom);

color, scent (3, i.e. 3%);

blooms and smells fragrant (2, i.e. 2 percent) (variant: fragrant, vivid flower colour);

flower, colour²⁷ (1, i.e. 1 percent);

petals and stem (1, i.e. 1 percent);

²⁶In this case, it is not very clear what the respondent meant—whether the shape of the flower, the shape of the plant, or something else. ²⁷ It is not very clear what is meant here and below—whether the vivid colour of the flower, or a flower colour that stands out from its surroundings, or something similar.

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leaves, colour (1, i.e. 1 percent);

colour, shape, scent, distinctiveness (1, i.e. 1 percent);

beauty, colour, scent (1, i.e. 1 percent);

colour, scent, flowering periodicity (1, i.e. 1 percent);

scent and appearance (1, i.e. 1 percent);

flowers, leaves, stem (1, i.e. 1 percent).

There were a few isolated responses that stood out from the others and were somewhat puzzling; for example, for some respondents the main characteristic of a flower is that

a flower grows out of the ground, has flowers, but not on branches (1, i.e. 1 percent);

a flower’s roots are underground (1, i.e. 1 percent);

the green colour of a flower (1, i.e. 1 percent);

a flower grows all the time (1, i.e. 1 percent);

a flower blooms longer than a tree (1, i.e. 1 percent).

The answers provided raise doubts as to whether the respondents really understand what a flower is (or perhaps the question itself), since a) not only flowers grow from the ground, and b) not only their roots are underground, but those of trees, shrubs, and most plants in general; c) flowers are not the only things that are green, since trees, shrubs, and so on are green too (moreover, green is usually only the color of a flower’s stem and leaves); d) flowers have a limited lifespan, so it is inaccurate to claim that they are always growing, as if this were an ongoing process; e) some trees, such as apple trees, can flower for longer than certain kinds of flowers.

Some respondents from the exact sciences (men) noted somewhat different characteristics of a flower, cf.:

a flower is a plant without woody tissue (1, i.e. 1%);

a flower is a plant shorter than a tree that bears a flower (1, i.e. 1%);

a flower has nectar (1, i.e. 1%).

In fact, a) wood²⁸ is the part of a tree (not a flower) between the cambium and the pith (DŽ_7i); b) a flower is a plant shorter than a tree²⁹; and c) nectar³⁰ is found not only in flowers but in all flowering plants.

²⁸ Cf. LRTB: wood “lignocellulosic material located between the bark and the pith of a tree or shrub” (see http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result).

²⁹ Cf. LRTB: tree “a large perennial plant (usually no less than 2 m tall), with a woody stem and roots, branches forming a crown, and a terminal shoot” (see http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result); VLE: tree “a perennial plant at least 3 m tall, with a distinct main woody stem and roots. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/medis-13511).

³⁰ Cf. VLE: nectar “a liquid produced and secreted by the glands of plants belonging to the division Magnoliophyta. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/nektaras-101105); LRTB: nectar “a sweet liquid secreted by the nectar glands of plants” (see http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result).

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The listed respondent characteristics can be classified as scientific (a, c) and cognitive³¹ (b) characteristics.

One respondent indicated not a characteristic of a flower, but its purpose³²; cf.: a flower is meant to decorate the home (1, i.e. 1 percent).

In summary, it can be said that, for survey participants, the main (and thus most typical) characteristic of a flower is most often its blossom, which is usually bright, beautiful, and distinctive. Other characteristics cited somewhat more frequently by respondents—scent, beauty, and colour—are also likely associated with the flower’s blossom. Respondents also named leaves and stems as characteristics of a flower; these are most often mentioned together with the blossom, cf.: leaves and blossoms, stem³³ and blossom. Thus, in this case, the DLKT and survey data coincide; cf. the DLKT material examined: a flower is most often identified by its most typical external feature—the ‘blossom’—but a flower’s external (visually perceived) features also include ‘leaves’ or ‘stem’. Another characteristic of a flower is distinguished as well, one perceived by smell: ‘scent’ (for more, see Section 1.1.4).

In response to the second survey question—“In your opinion, what part (organ) must a plant have for you to call it a flower?”—respondents most often (68, i.e. 68 percent) answered that it must have a blossom (variants: blossoms, petals, an inflorescence, must bloom: a blossom that does not resemble green leaves). Other parts (organs) of a flower were mentioned considerably less often:

stem (6, i.e. 6 percent);

root (3, i.e. 3 percent);

petals (1, i.e. 1 percent);

pistil³⁴ (1, i.e. 1 percent).

There were also respondents who named not just one, but two, three, or even four characteristics of a flower, for example:

stem and blossom (6, i.e. 6 percent) (variants: stem and blossoms; blossom and stem; stem with blossoms; blossom, green stalk; blossom / stem);

blossoms, leaves (5, i.e. 5 percent) (variants: leaves and blossom; blossom or ornamental foliage; blossom or leaves; blossom is the first thing that comes to mind, but it can also be just leaves);

³¹ The cognitive characteristic—that a flower is a plant shorter than a tree—is also mentioned by the COLLINS dictionary; cf. flower 3. (flower as a plant) ‘a small plant’, ‘not a tree, shrub, or vegetable’ (for more, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018).

³² Incidentally, this characteristic is also noted in some foreign-language dictionaries—Latvian, English, and Russian; cf. ‘a plant for decorating the home’ (MLVV, LLVV); ‘a plant grown for its (beautiful) flowers’ (COLLINS), ‘[a plant] used as decoration’, ‘used as a gift’ (OXFORD); ‘kept for its flowers’ (СЛОВАРЬ ДАЛЯ) (for more, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018).

³³ In the phrase stem and blossom, a vertical stem is apparently meant.

³⁴ Cf. VLE.: pistil “the female organ located in the middle of the flower of plants in the division of magnoliophytes (Magnoliophyta). <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/piestele-4460).

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• stem, leaves, flowers³⁵ (3, i.e. 3 percent) (variants: petals, leaves and stem; stem, leaves, petals);

• pistil, stamen³⁶ or simply a flower (1, i.e. 1 percent);

• stem, flowers, bud, leaves (1, i.e. 1 percent).

There were a few individual responses that stood out from the others and were not entirely clear, for example,

• a flower must have a stem and must also perform photosynthesis (1, i.e. 1 percent);

• a flower has the thing that makes pollen (1, i.e. 1 percent);

• a flower has a stebūlas (1, i.e. 1 percent),

• a flower has padalus (1, i.e. 1 percent).

It should be noted that photosynthesis³⁷ is essential not only for flowers but also for the vast majority of plants; it sustains life on Earth. The respondent who answered that a flower “has the thing that makes pollen” probably had the stamen or pistil in mind. And what the respondents who answered “stebūlas” and “padalus” had in mind is difficult to say.

One respondent (i.e. 1 percent) was unable to describe what part or organ a plant must have for it to be called a flower.

Thus, most survey participants believe that a plant can be called a flower if it has a flower. Somewhat fewer respondents answered that the plant must have a stem and leaves, and fewer still said it must have roots in order to be called a flower.

To the third survey question—“In your opinion, can a flower lack a (clearly visible) flower?”—respondents answered as follows:

a) most respondents in the exact sciences answered that a flower can lack a clearly visible flower (women—5 out of 5; men—35 out of 45);

b) female respondents in the humanities also answered that it can lack one (13 out of 14);

c) the opinions of respondents in the social sciences differed somewhat: women (23 out of 29) and a man from a rural area (1 out of 1) believe that it can lack one, whereas men from the city think that it cannot lack one (4 out of 6).

Thus, in the opinion of most respondents, a flower can lack a clearly visible flower (79 percent). Only 21 percent of all respondents answered that it cannot lack one. The opinions of men and women

³⁵It should be noted that this description applies not only to a flower, but also to a tree and a shrub.

³⁶Cf. VLEe: stamen “the male reproductive organ of the flower of plants in the magnoliid division. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/kuokelis-24064).

³⁷Cf. VLEe: photosynthesis “<...> a process in which organisms (chlorophyll-containing plants, green and purple bacteria) use energy from the visible portion of the solar spectrum to synthesize high-energy compounds. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/fotosinteze-41233). Cf. LRTB: “<...> During photosynthesis, the radiant energy of sunlight is converted into the chemical energy of organic compounds, which all organisms use for metabolism and other functions” (for more detail, see http://terminai.vlkk.lt/pls/tb/tb.result).

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barely differ; cf.: 85% of women and 73% of men answered that a flower may not have a clearly visible flower, while 15% of women and 27% of men answered that it cannot be without one.

Respondents’ answers to the first, second, and third survey questions contradict one another. On the one hand, respondents (most often) state that the main feature of a flower is its flower and that, for a plant to be called a flower, it must (most often) have a flower; yet, when asked the third question—“In your opinion, can a flower be without a (clearly visible) flower?”—respondents most often answer that it can be without one. Such answers show that the same respondents do not have a settled understanding of what a flower is. Perhaps, without giving it much thought, they name the feature of a flower that first comes to mind, that is, the prototypical one; when they think about it more deeply, however, these features begin to vary—they begin to try to categorize and structure the data.

The fourth survey question was phrased as follows: “In your opinion, is a non-flowering ornamental plant (e.g., one with decorative leaves) a flower?” The answers were as follows:

a) Some respondents from the exact sciences answered that a non-flowering ornamental plant is not a flower (4 out of 5 women and 11 out of 20 men from rural areas), while some men from urban areas answered that a non-flowering ornamental plant is a flower (15 out of 25);

b) Women respondents from the humanities also consider a non-flowering ornamental plant to be a flower (13 out of 14);

c) Respondents from the social sciences likewise answered that a non-flowering ornamental plant is a flower (20 out of 29 women; 5 out of 7 men).

Thus, the prevailing opinion is that a non-flowering ornamental plant (e.g., one with decorative leaves) can be considered a flower (yes answered 63% of respondents, while no was the answer of 37%). The opinions of women and men are quite similar: yes answered 71% of women and 56% of men.

Again, respondents’ answers to the first and second, and to the third and fourth survey questions contradict one another: on the one hand, it is most often stated that the main feature of a flower is its flower; on the other hand, a non-flowering ornamental plant is also considered a flower. However, some examples from DLKT confirm that a flower is not essential to a flower (for more detail, see subsection 1.1.5.2). It is important that a plant called a flower be ornamental, for example, have decorative leaves.

To the fifth survey question—“In your opinion, does a flower always have an upright stem?”—respondents answered as follows:

a) Respondents from the exact sciences almost unanimously answered that a flower does not always have an upright stem (4 out of 5 women; 44 out of 45 men);

b) The opinions of women respondents from the humanities differed: women from rural areas stated that this is not always the case (7 out of 8), while those from urban areas said it is always the case (6 out of 6);

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c) Representatives of the social sciences almost unanimously say that a flower not always has an upright stem (women – 25 out of 29, men – 7 out of 7).

A somewhat different answer was expected when this question was asked: that the prototypical flower stem is upright³⁸ (quite a few respondents mentioned the stem as an essential organ of a flower; cf. the answers to the first and second survey questions). However, as can be seen, the majority (87 percent) of respondents believe that a flower not always has an upright stem. The opinions of men and women coincide. In their view, a flower not always has an upright stem (75 percent of women and 98 percent of men answered this way).

If we compare the DLKT data, we would note that the material presented in the corpus also offers no unequivocal answer. Some DLKT examples show that flowers often have upright stems, while others show that this is not always the case. Neither climbing plants nor aquatic plants have upright stems, yet some of them are nevertheless called flowers (for more detail, see Section 1.2).

The sixth survey question was as follows: “In your opinion, is a flowering climbing plant a flower?” The respondents answered as follows:

a) The opinions of representatives of the exact sciences were almost evenly divided – women (4 out of 5) and men from rural areas (11 out of 20) believe that a flowering climbing plant is a flower, whereas men from urban areas believe that it is not a flower (13 out of 25);

b) The women representatives of the humanities answered that a flowering climbing plant is a flower (12 out of 14);

c) The opinions of representatives of the social sciences, like those of the exact sciences, were divided: women from rural areas believe that a flowering climbing plant is a flower (9 out of 12), while women from urban areas do not think so (10 out of 17); men from rural areas answered that a flowering climbing plant is a flower (1 out of 1), while the opinions of men from urban areas were evenly divided – it is a flower (3 out of 6) and it is not a flower (3 out of 6).

Thus, 59 percent of all respondents believe that a flowering climbing plant is a flower. The majority of women (67 percent) and men (52 percent) surveyed believe that a flowering climbing plant is a flower. However, the results show that the proportion of those who believe that a flowering climbing plant is a flower is not that large. Thus, respondents have doubts about whether a flowering climbing plant is a flower.

Respondents answered the seventh survey question – “In your opinion, is a flowering aquatic plant a flower?” – as follows:

³⁸ In fact, a flower not always has an upright stem; cf. flower “<...> For example, according to the place where they are grown, they are divided into indoor flowers and outdoor flowers; according to flowering time, into those that bloom in spring, summer, or autumn; and according to growth habit, into dwarf, climbing, twining, and other types. <...>” (for more detail, see VLEe: https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/geles-43169).

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a) Representatives of the exact sciences almost unanimously stated that a flowering aquatic plant is a flower (women – 5 out of 5; men – 38 out of 45);

b) Female representatives of the humanities also believe that a flowering aquatic plant is a flower (10 out of 14);

c) Representatives of the social sciences almost unanimously answered that a flowering aquatic plant is a flower (women – 27 out of 29; men – 7 out of 7).

Thus, 87% of all respondents believe that a flowering aquatic plant is a flower. Of the women, 81% believe that a flowering aquatic plant is a flower; among men, the figure is 87%. In this case, respondents probably picture a water lily³⁹ or a lotus⁴⁰.

Respondents were also asked, “In your opinion, is a flowering cactus a flower?” The answers were distributed as follows:

a) Representatives of the exact sciences have no consensus on this question: some answered that a flowering cactus is a flower (women – 2 out of 5; men – 26 out of 45), while others said it is not a flower (women – 3 out of 5; men – 19 out of 45);

b) Most representatives of the humanities believe that a flowering cactus is a flower (13 out of 14);

c) The opinions of representatives of the social sciences, as with those of the exact sciences, were somewhat divided, especially among women from rural areas and women from urban areas. Women from rural areas believe that a flowering cactus is a flower (11 out of 12), whereas the opinions of those from urban areas were distributed as follows: 12 out of 19 believe that it is a flower, and 7 out of 19 believe that it is not a flower; most men believe that a flowering cactus is not a flower (5 out of 7).

Thus, the answers were distributed as follows: 66% of respondents answered that a flowering cactus is a flower. The proportion of women who believe that a flowering cactus is a flower was somewhat higher (79%) than that of men (53%). If we compare the answers with DLKT data, we can see that in the corpus, too, the cactus as a flower is assessed ambiguously, although some cacti can be considered flowers (for more detail, see subsections 1.1.5.1 and 1.1.5.2).

Respondents answered the ninth survey question — “In your opinion, is a flowering shrub (subshrub) a flower?” — as follows:

³⁹ Cf. VLEe: water lily “<...> Flowers bisexual, large, raised above the water. Water lilies in northern latitudes have white flowers; tropical water lilies have flowers of various colors—red, blue, and yellow. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/vandens-lelija-99595).

⁴⁰ Cf. VLEe: lotus “<...> Flowers large, solitary. <...> Both lotus species are grown as ornamentals, and their fruiting heads are used in bouquets. <...>” (see https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/lotosas-17658).

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a) Representatives of the exact sciences (women) do not share a common opinion—3 out of 5 think that a flowering shrub (subshrub) is a flower; 2 out of 5 answered that it is not a flower; representatives (men) likewise answered that a flowering shrub (subshrub) is not a flower (37 out of 45);

b) The opinions of representatives of the humanities differed—women (from rural areas) unanimously stated that a flowering shrub (subshrub) is not a flower (8 out of 8), while women (from the city) answered both that it is a flower (3 out of 6) and that it is not a flower (3 out of 6);

c) According to almost all representatives of the social sciences, a flowering shrub (subshrub) is not a flower (women—25 out of 29; men—7 out of 7).

In total, 82 percent of respondents answered that a flowering shrub (subshrub) is not a flower (79 percent of the women surveyed and 85 percent of the men surveyed think so).

Respondents' answer that a flowering shrub (subshrub) is not a flower somewhat contradicts the definition of a flower given in VLE_e (see subsection 1.1.5 for more details). Moreover, DLKT data show that some shrubs (subshrubs) are considered flowers, for example, the rose (see subsections 1.1.5.1 and 1.1.5.2 for more details).

The tenth survey question was formulated as follows: “In your opinion, are the plants listed below flowers?” Let us look at which plants respondents consider to be flowers and which they do not.

1) Yarrow:

a) The opinions of representatives of the exact sciences differed: women think that yarrow is not a flower (4 out of 5); the opinions of men from rural areas differed—some say it is not a flower (11 out of 20), others say it is a flower (9 out of 20), while men from the city say it is not a flower (18 out of 25);

b) The women representatives of the humanities also think that yarrow is not a flower (11 out of 14);

c) The opinions of women representatives of the social sciences from rural and urban areas differed—women from rural areas think that yarrow is a flower (11 out of 12), while women from the city say it is not a flower (14 out of 17). According to most male representatives of the social sciences, yarrow is a flower (4 out of 7).

Thus, most respondents (62 percent) think that yarrow is not a flower. In total, 63 percent of all women surveyed and 62 percent of all men surveyed answered that yarrow is not a flower.

2) Poinsettia:

a) women representing the exact sciences stated that the poinsettia is a flower (3 out of 5); 26 men (out of 45) believe that it is a flower, while 19 men (out of 45) believe that it is not a flower;

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b) women representing the humanities unanimously replied that the poinsettia is a flower (14 out of 14);

c) representatives of the social sciences almost unanimously stated that the poinsettia is a flower (women – 24 out of 29; men – 5 out of 7).

Overall, 72% of respondents answered that the poinsettia is a flower. Of all women surveyed, 83% and of all men surveyed, 62% believe that the poinsettia is a flower.

3) Asparagus. Nearly all respondents answered that asparagus is not a flower; cf.:

a) nearly all representatives of the exact sciences answered that it is not a flower (women – 4 out of 5; men – 38 out of 45);

b) nearly all women representing the humanities also answered that asparagus is not a flower (12 out of 14);

c) representatives of the social sciences also almost unanimously stated that asparagus is not a flower (women – 28 out of 29; men – 6 out of 7).

Thus, 88% of all respondents believe that asparagus is not a flower. Of all women surveyed, 92% and of all men, 85% stated that asparagus is not a flower. It should be noted that, according to DLKT data, asparagus is considered a flower in some cases (for more details, see subsection 1.1.5.2).

4) Sunflower. Nearly all respondents believe that the sunflower is a flower; cf.:

a) representatives of the exact sciences answered that it is a flower (women – 5 out of 5; men – 39 out of 45);

b) women representing the humanities also answered that it is a flower (12 out of 14);

c) representatives of the social sciences almost unanimously stated that the sunflower is a flower (women – 27 out of 29; men – 7 out of 7).

Thus, 80% of all respondents believe that the sunflower is a flower; of these, 92% of all women surveyed and 88% of all men surveyed share this view.

5) Lilac. Respondents' opinions about lilac differed somewhat:

a) Most representatives of the exact sciences believe that lilac is not a flower (4 out of 5), while the opinions of male representatives of the exact sciences were divided. Most men from rural areas believe that lilac is not a flower (14 out of 20), while the opinions of men from the city were divided: 14 (out of 25) consider lilac a flower, while 11 (out of 25) do not consider lilac a flower;

b) The opinions of female representatives of the humanities were also divided: most women from rural areas believe that lilac is not a flower (7 out of 8), while the opinions of women from the city were split evenly: 3 (out of 6) believe that lilac is a flower, and 3 (out of 6) believe that lilac is not a flower;

c) The opinions of representatives of the social sciences were also divided; cf.: 16 women (out of 29) answered yes, 13 (out of 29) – no; 5 men (out of 7) – yes, 2 (out of 7) – no.

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Overall, 54 percent of all respondents believe that lilac is not a flower, while 46 percent believe that lilac is a flower. The women’s responses were distributed as follows: 56 percent of the women answered that lilac is not a flower, while 44 percent answered that it is a flower. The opinions of the men surveyed were distributed as follows: 52 percent of the men answered that lilac is not a flower, while 48 percent answered that it is a flower.

6) Rose. Respondents’ answers were as follows:

a) Female representatives of the exact sciences believe that the rose is a flower (5 out of 5), while the men’s opinions were divided: men from rural areas believe that the rose is a flower (20 out of 20), whereas men from the city believe that the rose is not a flower⁴¹ (24 out of 25);

b) Female representatives of the humanities unanimously stated that the rose is a flower (14 out of 14);

c) Representatives of the social sciences likewise unanimously stated that the rose is a flower (women – 29 out of 29; men – 7 out of 7).

Overall, 76 percent of all respondents believe that the rose is a flower. Of these, 100 percent of all women surveyed believe that the rose is a flower, while only 54 percent of all men surveyed think the same. The remaining men (46 percent) answered that the rose is not a flower. One can only speculate why they see it that way. Perhaps men associate the rose with a shrub and therefore do not consider it a flower. Such respondents’ answers raise questions and prompt reflection on whether the meaning of the word rose ought to be examined in greater detail.

3. FLOWER LEXICOGRAPHIC ENTRY

Having examined the DLKT and student survey data, a possible lexicographic entry for the word flower, intended for the BŽ, is presented below; cf.:

flower noun (4) [bot.] 1. a small wild plant or one cultivated in gardens or at home, that bears flowers or has decorative leaves, often characterized by a pleasant scent: Meadow [field, forest] flowers. Annual [biennial, perennial] flowers. Flowers and grass sprouted in the damp earth of the park. It is time to sow [plant] flowers. Water the flowers. I grow indoor plants. A large white pot with a flower stands beside the school door. Surely a flower is glad to bloom, a tree to turn green, and grass to sprout! The flower closed its blossoms for the night. The most popular flower is the rose. The night is redolent of flowers and the river. 2. the flower of this plant, with its stem, intended as a gift, to express respect, decorate a home, or the like: A bouquet of dried flowers. He gave me flowers. Put the flowers in a vase. With scissors, she deftly trimmed the flower stems. The girl hides the hand holding a flower behind her back. Officials will lay flowers at the monument [on the grave]. 3. the flower of this plant: He proposed a new symbol of men's elegance—a flower in

⁴¹The response from men in the city that a rose is not a flower is quite perplexing, since in the city (probably more often than in the countryside) men give roses to women. Moreover, other respondents consider the rose a flower.

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the lapel of a jacket. The meadow flowers turned yellow. Carotenoids give fruits, berries, and flowers shades of red, orange, and yellow. | This plant, bearing a flower of a particular color: A beautiful white flower with a yellow center—a daffodil—bloomed. A first-grader walks along with a red flower in his hand.

As already mentioned in this article, there could be more shades of meaning for flower, for example, a) a wild flower and b) a flower planted (sown) by people and growing in gardens or at home. However, not all the examples found in the DLKT could be distinguished, so it was decided to combine these shades of meaning into a single sense, indicating their differences through the definition and corresponding examples⁴²; cf.:

(1) Meadow [field, forest] flowers.

(2) Flowers and grass sprouted in the damp earth of the park.

(3) It is time to sow [plant] flowers.

(4) Water the flowers.

(5) I grow indoor plants.

(6) A large white pot with a flower stands beside the school door.

Sentences 1–2 show that flowers are wild plants that grow naturally, while sentences 3–6 show that flowers may be planted (sown), cultivated, and cared for by people. In addition, sentence 6 illustrates that flowers can grow not only in natural soil (cf. sentence 2), but also in pots.

It should be noted that the first definition formulated for flower does not specify whether a flower is a herbaceous plant (as in some dictionaries) or a shrub (subshrub). Examples from the DLKT and survey data show that it is unclear what type of plant this is—a flower may refer to a cactus, a shrub, a climbing plant, an aquatic plant, and so on. Therefore, this feature—that a flower is a herbaceous plant—is not mentioned in the definition.

It was expected that examining the DLKT and survey data would make it possible to distinguish two other shades of meaning of flower: 1) a plant for which a flower is an essential feature, and 2) a plant for which this feature is not essential and which need only have decorative leaves. It turned out that these two shades are closely intertwined in the mind of the average speaker. The survey data confirmed this: for example, respondents answered that a flower is both required and not required. Therefore, these two shades should not be distinguished in the BŽ entry either, although the distinction is indicated in the first sense's definition; cf. a plant that bears flowers or has decorative leaves. Probably a flowering plant is the prototypical flower, whereas a foliage plant, whose main feature is not its flower, would be

⁴²Examples taken from the DLKT, edited.

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a non-prototypical flower. It is quite difficult to mention all the nuances of meaning when defining a word in an explanatory dictionary; therefore, in such cases, the meaning is illustrated with numerous examples to provide as broad a picture as possible of the word being defined.

(7) After all, for a flower it is good to bloom, for a tree—to grow green, for grass—to sprout!

(8) The flower folded its petals for the night.

(9) The most popular flower is the rose.

(10) Foliage flowers.

(11) The night stinks of flowers and the river.

In sentences 7–8, the flower’s blossom (prototypical flower) is emphasized, whereas example 10 mentions non-prototypical flowers. Example 9 shows which flower is one of the most typical. This example is also mentioned because the rose is a shrub, thus indirectly indicating that a flower can also be a shrub. Example 11 illustrates one of the flower’s distinctive features—its scent.

When discussing the second meaning of flower, it is probably important to describe not only the flower’s appearance (that it is without roots), but also to indicate its purpose. In those foreign-language explanatory dictionaries in which the purpose of a flower is also mentioned in its definition (for more details, see Gaidienė, Liutkevičienė 2018), it is usually stated that a) flowers can be given as gifts, and b) flowers can be used to decorate homes. In defining the second meaning of flower, the BŽ proposes indicating one further purpose—to express respect. This particular purpose of flowers is discernible in sentences 17 and 18 presented below.

(12) A bouquet of dried flowers.

(13) He gave me flowers.

(14) Put the flowers in a vase.

(15) She skillfully used scissors to shorten the flower stems.

(16) The girl hides her hand with a flower behind her back.

(17) Government representatives will lay flowers by the monument [on the grave].

(18) Min ios greets her, scatters herbs beneath her feet, and flowers.

The purpose can also be inferred from sentences 12 and 13. Although it is not discussed directly in sentence 12, a bouquet of dried flowers can be considered, for example, a decorative element. The remaining sentences (14–16) are included in the proposed lexicographic entry for flower because they clearly illustrate a flower without roots.

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Why a third meaning and an additional shade of meaning are distinguished, and why precisely these examples were chosen in the formulated lexicographic entry for flower, was discussed in Section 1.4 of this article.

4. THE LEXICOGRAPHIC ENTRY FOR FLOWER

Section 1.5 of this article discussed the need for Lithuanian explanatory dictionaries to distinguish two meanings of flower associated with a flower: 1) ‘a plant’ (flowers) and 2) ‘a cut plant’ (cut flowers). Thus, the lexicographic entry for the word blossom in the BŽ could look like this:

blossom¹ 1. the reproductive organ of a plant from which fruit or seeds develop, usually the colorful part of a plant: Flower blossoms. A double blossom. The scent of blossoms. Linden-blossom tea. If there were blossoms, there’ll be apples too. 2. FLOWER 1: Passers-by can buy a modest bouquet of wildflowers, or a more elegant one made of blossoms grown in greenhouses. Those walking along the paths of the reserve should know the value of forest and meadow flowers, and understand that you can never grow or buy at the market any flower quite like them. 3. FLOWER 2: The bridesmaid’s bouquet consists of three flowers. A box of sweets and a few rose blossoms—what a bad gift! 4. plural the chosen best people: The flower of the nation [youth].

The study conducted once again showed how complex the lexicographer’s work is, how much material must be collected, and how carefully it must be organized and examined in order to describe a single word. Of course, lexicographers draw on research conducted by other scholars, but they must investigate most of the language data themselves.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Analysis of the DLKT and survey data revealed that the concept of flower in Lithuanian is not settled. Completely opposing views emerged. On the basis of some data, it could be argued that a flower is not a ‘decorative plant’, ‘herbaceous plant’, ‘climber’, ‘cactus’ or ‘shrub’ (even if it blooms beautifully). On the basis of other data, a flower is a ‘herbaceous plant’, ‘decorative plant’, ‘climber’, ‘cactus’, ‘aquatic plant’, ‘subshrub’ or ‘shrub’. It is noteworthy that such contradictory data came from the same sources or even from the answers of the same respondents. Reading the DLKT examples sometimes gives the impression that almost any more unusual plant can be called a flower—an agave, aloe, pineapple, kalanchoe or coffee plant, and so on.

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The absence of a clear understanding of what constitutes a flower is also evident from the survey data. For example, nearly half of the respondents consider olive to be a flower, while the other (slightly larger) half do not; nearly half of the men surveyed do not consider a rose a flower; most respondents do not consider asparagus a flower, although some DLKT examples explicitly identify asparagus as a flower, and so on.

2. The study sought to establish what the characteristics of a flower are. It emerged that some of a flower’s characteristics are shared with the most important characteristics of any plant: for example, that a flower is a living organism, needs soil, water and sunlight, performs photosynthesis, germinates, grows and wilts, and can grow both outdoors (in forests, meadows, fields, gardens, etc.) and indoors. The latter characteristic already distinguishes flowers from some other plants.

3. This study also sought to establish which characteristics of a flower are the most typical.

3.1. Analysis of the survey results showed that a flower is most often recognized by its most typical external characteristic—‘blossom’—that is, as a flowering plant. Respondents often noted that the blossom was not just any blossom, but one that stood out in some way (in color, beauty, etc.).

3.2. Another typical characteristic of a flower is its ‘stem’. When respondents were asked about the stem (In your opinion, does a flower always have an upright stem?), it was expected that their answers would show that a prototypical flower stem is upright. However, most respondents (87 percent) believe that a flower does not always have an upright stem. This is also confirmed by the DLKT material. A comparison of DLKT data showed that the corpus material, too, does not provide an unequivocal answer: some examples show that flowers often have upright stems, while others show that they do not always do so. Neither climbers nor aquatic plants have upright stems, yet some of them are still called flowers.

3.3. The study sought to determine whether a flower is only a flowering plant, or whether it is simply a decorative plant that need not have a (clearly visible) blossom but stands out, for example, through its beautiful leaves. Examination of the DLKT examples showed that this question cannot be answered unequivocally. The same applies to the survey results. Both the DLKT examples and the survey data contradict one another. Some examples and responses suggest that a flower must have a (distinctive) blossom; others suggest that a blossom is not necessary at all, and that what matters is that the plant called a flower is decorative—for example, that it has ornamental leaves. Thus, ‘leaves’ are also a typical characteristic of a flower. Such conflicting opinions show that the average speaker’s understanding of what a flower is has not become settled.

3.4. Another characteristic of a flower, associated with smell, is its ‘scent’. Although this is not a primary characteristic, it is nevertheless a highly typical one, attested both in DLKT examples and in survey responses; it must therefore be included in the definition in the lexicographic entry for flower.

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3.5. The DLKT examples show that the purpose of flowers is also important: flowers can be given as gifts, used to decorate homes, and used to express respect. This feature should also be mentioned in the definition of the lexicographic entry for flower.

4. Having analysed the DLKT material and student survey data, and also drawing on the assumptions in the authors’ previous article about the perception of flower in dictionaries, it can be stated that the Lithuanian word gėlė has three meanings: ‘plant’, ‘part of a plant’, and ‘blossom’. The following definitions of the word’s meanings were proposed for BŽ: 1. a small wild, garden-bed, or house-grown flowering plant or one with ornamental leaves, often notable for its pleasant scent; 2. the flower of this plant, with its stem, intended as a gift, to express respect, decorate a home, or the like; 3. the flower of this plant. A nuance of the third meaning of flower was also distinguished: this plant bearing a flower of a particular colour.

5. While writing the article, it became clear that BŽ should distinguish two meanings of the word žiedas related to flowers (there is currently one), cf. 1) ‘plant’ (flower) and 2) ‘cut plant’ (cut flower).

ŠALTINIAI

BŽ: Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Redaktorių kolegija: D. Liutkevičienė (vyr. redaktorė), G. Naktinienė, R. Petrokienė, D. Svetikienė, K. Vosylytė, J. Zabarskaitė. (rengiamas). – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://bkz.lki.lt.

CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/.

COLLINS: Collins English Dictionary. Prieiga internete: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/.

DLKT: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/.

DŽ_7i: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: 7-as patais. ir papild. leid. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2012; elektroninis variantas, 2015 (atnaujinta versija, 2017). Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis.

LKŽ_e: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (t. 1–20, 1941–2002): elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: G. Naktinienė (vyr. redaktorė), J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė. – Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2008). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt.

LLVV: Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca. Prieiga internete: http://www.tezaurs.lv/llvv/.

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LRTB: Lietuvos Respublikos terminų bankas. Prieiga internete: http://terminai.vlkk.lt.

MACMILLAN: Macmillan Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.macmillandictionary.com/.

MERRIAM-WEBSTER: Merriam-Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus. Prieiga internete: https://www.merriam-webster.com/.

MLVV: Mūsdienu latviešu valodas vārdnīca. Red. I. Zuicena, A. Roze. Prieiga internete: http://www.tezaurs.lv/mlvv/.

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Įteikta 2018 11 29

Priimta 2018 12 30

THE CONCEPT OF THE WORD FLOWER IN PUBLIC USAGE

Summary

The object of study of this article is the usage of the word flower (Lith. gėlė) in the Corpus of the Modern Lithuanian Language (CMLL) and data from student surveys. The goal of the article is to analyse the semantics of the word flower in the modern written language and the modern conception of flower based on student surveys, and to present suggestions to distinguish and formulate the meanings of the definition of this word in the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (DSLL).

Analysis of the CMLL and survey data has showed that the word flower does not have an established conception in the Lithuanian language. Some diametrically conflicting attitudes have become apparent. Some data suggest that a flower is not a ‘decorative plant’, ‘sward’, ‘vine’, ‘cactus’, or ‘shrub’. Other data point that a flower is a ‘herbaceous plant’, ‘decorative plant’, ‘vine’, ‘cactus’, ‘water plant’, ‘subshrub’, ‘shrub’. Notably, such conflicting data have been derived from the same sources or even from the replies of the same respondents.

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www.bendrinekalba.lt

ISSN 2351–7204

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ. Žodžio gėlė samprata viešojoje vartosenoje | 34

The study aimed to identify the most typical attributes of a flower. The surveys have showed that a flower is most often recognised by its typical exterior attribute, the ‘blossom’; it is a blossoming plant.

The study also sought to find out whether a flower is merely a blossoming plant, or a decorative plant that does not necessarily has a (clearly visible) blossom but rather stands out, say, in its lovely leaves. Some examples and answers imply that a flower must have (a unique) blossom, others, that no blossom is strictly necessary: all that matters is that the plant referred to as a ‘flower’ ought to be decorative, for instance, have extravagant leaves, which makes ‘leaves’ a typical attribute of a flower as well. Such mutually contradicting opinions indicate that the perception of what a flower is has not yet been established in the human consciousness.

Other typical attributes of a flower are a ‘stem’ and ‘smell’. The examples picked out in the CMLL show that the purpose of flowers is important, too: flowers can be given as a present, they can be used as a home decoration or an expression of respect.

Having analysed the CMLL material and survey data, as well as with reference to the presumptions brought forward in the authors’ previous article about the conception of flower in dictionaries, we can state that the word flower has three meanings in the Lithuanian language: a ‘plant’, a ‘part of a plant’, and a ‘blossom’. The following definitions of the meanings of the word were proposed for the DSLL: (1) a small wild, garden, or potted plant that blossoms or has extravagant leaves and is often distinguished by a pleasant smell; (2) the stem and blossom of this plant intended as a gift, an expression of respect, a home decoration, and so on; (3) the blossom of the plant. Furthermore, a third shade of the meaning of flower, that of a plant having a blossom of a particular colour, was identified as well.

KEYWORDS: corpus, survey, meaning, shade of meaning, definition, flower.

ANŽELIKA GAIDIENĖ, DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

[email protected]

BENDRINĖ KALBA 91 (2018)

www.bendrinekalba.lt

ISSN 2351-7204