AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

NAMES OF PROPERTIES

IN THE DATABASE OF NEW WORDS OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

KEYWORDS: neologism, derivative, names of properties, word formation.

All languages of the world change over time—this is a normal and necessary phenomenon (Crystal 2005: 31), ensuring the full functioning of language in a globalizing world. The most dynamic layer of language—lexicon—changes under the influence not only of the passage of time but also of people (Jakaitienė 2018: 3), for example, creators of new words. The current stage in the development of Standard Lithuanian, owing to the uninterrupted process of neologism creation, that is, the creation of new words, is called the “age of new formations” (Naktinienė 2002: 47), or a “neologism boom” (Girčienė 2005: 78). For this reason, in the autumn of 2011, work began at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language on compiling the Database of New Words of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter ND), which records new linguistic units (words, phrases, and abbreviations) that appeared in Lithuanian in the late 20th and early 21st centuries and are in public use. Data are selected according to a criterion recognized in the theory and practice of neologism studies—the recording of words and their meanings in dictionaries; that is, words and meanings not included in the selected reference dictionaries are considered neologisms¹. The database is “not only a source of new linguistic phenomena, but also one of the tools for studying the current state and development of words, providing, in addition to the neologisms themselves, information about them that is important for word-formation research” (Murmulaitytė 2016: 24). To examine the productivity of the word-formation category of names of properties (abstract nouns).

¹ This Dictionary of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereafter DŽ), the online Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ), and the Dictionary of International Words (hereafter TŽŽ). Although in works of Lithuanian linguistics a neologism is usually defined as a word that has newly appeared in the language (Urbutis 2009: 36–37; Jakaitienė 2010: 205; Girčienė 2011: 165), the concept of a neologism presented in scholarly literature nevertheless varies (for a fuller discussion, see Girčienė 2012: 6): some regard the impression of novelty and unusualness it creates as the distinguishing feature of a neologism (Palionis 1985: 212), while others treat neologisms as words not previously included in reference dictionaries (Miliūnaitė 2015: 169). The “aura of novelty” attributed to neologisms is debated by scholars, since “novelty can sometimes be understood too subjectively: a word may seem familiar to some language users, while others may not yet understand it” (Popova 2005: 9–13, quoted in Jakaitienė 2010: 205; see also Kazlauskaitė, Župerka, Macienė 2013: 91). The criterion of selection against reference publications is more reliable, although in the case of Lithuanian it is not entirely dependable—reference dictionaries contain lexicographic gaps, and the problem of their lack of systematicity arises (Miliūnaitė 2015: 169).

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To assess the productivity of the word-formation types to which neologisms belong, a continuously updated neologism database was selected. The word-formation analysis of ND material was compared with descriptions in grammars of Lithuanian from the second half of the 20th century and in the principal grammars of the Lithuanian language (Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKG); Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DLKG)), in which names of properties are grouped according to the productivity of their word-formation affixes.

The ND material is collected manually and, of course, does not provide a completely objective and comprehensive picture of the number, spread, word formation, etc. of neologisms (Miliūnaitė 2012: 10; for a fuller discussion of the subjective method of identifying new lexemes, see Mikelionienė 2000: 68). To make that picture statistically representative, computer-based neologism detectors should be used² (cf. Miliūnaitė 2015: 171; see also Murmulaitytė 2016: 5), and corpora should be consulted, especially the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DLKT). A corpus (in this case, DLKT) is “a comprehensive data bank for word-formation research and an effective tool not only for describing patterns in the distribution of morphemes in words, but also for identifying the structure of word-formation models, affix productivity, and the frequency of derivatives” (Inčiuraitė-Noreikienė 2017: 23). On the other hand, ND is unique precisely because it is in practice created not only by professional language researchers but also by the public, who rely on their linguistic intuition and knowledge of their native language to recognize new linguistic phenomena and send them to the creators of ND. Thus, it cannot be claimed that ND was compiled too subjectively or that the information it provides is excessively biased.

ND is continually expanded, and its data are clarified and updated. On July 3, 2018, the database contained 4,708 lexicographically described linguistic units. The neologisms examined from a word-formation perspective are native-language coinages and formations involving mixed word formation (hybrids); other linguistic units—new quotations, abbreviations, as well as semantic formations, revived words, and phrases—are outside the scope of this article. ND contained 142 suffixal derivatives. The research results are presented in Table 1, which shows that the ND data do not correspond to the order of productivity of word-formation affixes presented in grammars.

² One such neologism detector was provided in 2015 by Vytautas Magnus University as part of the project “Lithuanian Language Syntactic-Semantic Analysis System for the Corpus, Lithuanian Internet, and Public-Sector Applications” (https://www.raštija.lt/semantika-lt). When this article was being written, the detector was not operational (cf. Miliūnaitė 2015: 171).

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TABLE 1. Names of properties by derivational affixes

In Contemporary Lithuanian Grammar and the Database of Neologisms of the Lithuanian Language³

No. Suffix No. of neologisms in ND No. (DLKG) words (ND) 1. -umas 30 3. 2. -ybė 17 4. 3. -ystė 47 1. 4. -enybė 0 – 5. -uma 0 – 6. -ovė 1 6. 7. -ulys 1 6. 8. -atvė 0 – 9. -atis 0 – 10. -yba 1 6. 11. -astis 0 – 12. -ata 0 – 13. -(i)ava 0 – 14. -umė 0 – 15. -ra 0 – 16. -izmas⁴ 41 2. 17. -ūra 2 5. -esys (LKG) 2 5.

Note: In the first column, derivational affixes are ranked by productivity (number of derivatives) according to DLKG data⁵; in the last column, they are ranked by the number of neologisms in ND.

³ Plg. Daivos Murmulaitės (2016: 13–14) analogišką lentelę įrankių pavadinimams pagal darybos afiksus aprašyti.

⁴ “Although the suffix -izmas is readily distinguishable in many international words, new derivatives are generally not formed with it in Lithuanian itself” (DLKG 2006: 103).

⁵ “Descriptions of the current state of word formation in the language take productivity of derivational types very much into account—it underpins the arrangement of derivational types (from the most productive to the least productive, though greater weight is given to the number of derivatives than to the openness of the types) in V. Urbutis’s descriptions of noun formation, as well as in his and other authors’ chapters on word formation in ‘The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language’ <...> and ‘The Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian’ (Keinys 1999: 25–26).

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Pagal ND duomenis tiriamuoju laikotarpiu produktyviausios ypatybių pavadinimų (vardažodžių abstraktų) kategorijos priesagos yra -ystė, -izmas ir -umas. Gramatikose teigiama, kad iš šios kategorijos priesagų tikrai darnios yra vos trys, t. y. -umas, -ybė ir -ystė (LKG 1965: 306; DLKG 2006: 100). Kaip matyti iš 1-oje lentelėje pateiktų duomenų, ND vyrauja trečios pagal darumą gramatikose laikytos priesagos -ystė vediniai (47 leksemos), padaryti iš daiktavardžių (asmenų pavadinimų) ir žymintys „pagrindiniu žodžiu pasakytam asmeniui būdingą ypatybę, būvį, padėtį, verslą, pasielgimą“ (DLKG 2006: 102), pvz.: mažaspalvystė (: mažaspalvis, -ė) „būsena, kai yra mažai spalvų“, saulininkystė (: saulininkas, -ė) „saulės energetikos verslas“, suaugystė (: suaugęs, -usi) „amžius, kai žmogus yra jau suaugęs“ (plg. paauglystė), taikdarystė⁶ (: taikdarys, -ė) „pastangos įvesti taiką, ką sutaukyti“⁷, žemgrobystė (: žemgrobys, -ė) „nelegalus nuosavybės teisės į žemę įgijimas“. Duomenyne apstu novatoriškas ir tradicines ūkio šakas, verslą žyminčių naujadarų, pvz.: antreprenerystė (: antrepreneris, -ė) „verslo idėjų generavimas“, barzdaskutystė (: barzdaskutys, -ė) „barzdų skutimo amatas“, klumpdirbystė (: klumpdirbys, -ė) „klumpių dirbimo amatas“⁸, kubilininkystė (: kubilininkas, -ė) „kubilų dirbimo amatas“⁹ ir kt. Plg. naujadaro balkonininkystė (: balkonininkas, -ė) „daržininkystė balkone“ interneto paieškos sistemoje Google (toliau – G) pateikiamus pamatinio žodžio balkonininkas, -ė vartosenos pavyzdžius¹⁰ [čia ir kitur paryškinta straipsnio autorės]:

For example, for now I would fit in with the balcony gardeners, since I grow and sprout things at home, but little by little I’ll move outside with the herbs and vegetables. (supermama.lt 2010 03 31)

Hello, girls. I’m addressing the women of Vilnius who are balcony gardeners—would any of you like to show your little garden to the general public? That is, an article on balcony gardening will be written for the magazine "Mano namai", and they would be happy to photograph as many of your gardens as possible ☺. (supermama.lt 2009 07 07)

Five usage examples of the neologism balkonininkas, -ė were found online¹¹, while no examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]. Incidentally, online usage contains isolated examples of the use of the morphologically shorter neologism—the working variant—balkonininkas, -ė (about the same

⁶ In the article, neologisms are marked with stress or left unmarked (if their stress is not yet clear) as presented in ND.

⁷ The definitions of all the neologisms discussed in the article are taken from ND.

⁸ Cf. the note included in ND: “the business is old, but this name for it is absent from the reference dictionaries.”

⁹ Cf. LKŽ: kubilininkybė ‘the craft of making tubs’; DŽ: kubil(i)us ‘a tub maker.’

¹⁰ The language of the usage examples quoted in the article has not been edited.

¹¹ The quantitative data presented here and elsewhere are based on usage examples for the neologism’s complete paradigm, with repetitions excluded.

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For formations with the (alternating) suffixes -ininkas, -ė and -(n)inkas, -ė, see DLKG 2006: 114–115; for a fuller discussion of working variants, see Vaskelienė 2013: 206):

Aaagnex, thanks for the link to the form balkonin-kų. (supermama.lt 2010 05 13)

My gardening experience as a balkonin-kė continues. I’d say it’s going quite well: the little tomatoes are thriving, although they are already finishing their harvest; the herbs are growing, some even flowering (they got overgrown before I could use them up), and best of all, both the cucumbers and tomatoes are setting fruit. (ciliukas.lt 2012 07 08)

Only three instances of the new formation balkonin-kas, -ė have been recorded in Internet usage; no examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]. Cf. the derivative of this base word, balkonininkystė:

we won’t be digging around in a garden, but will take up the art of balkonininkystės-sodininkystės and grow onions not in a garden, but on the windowsill:D and that is a huge joy too! (justinospalvos.blogspot.com 2012 04 25)

Balkonininkystė – gardening on the balcony <...>. (lzin ios.lt 2017 08 29)

A separate group consists of derivatives with this suffix that have become relatively widespread in usage quite recently and cover different diets: vaisiavalgystė (: vaisiavalgis, -ė) “a diet (a branch of veganism) in which only raw fruit is eaten” (cf. English fruitarianism), visavalgystė (: visavalgis, -ė) “eating all kinds of food, without excluding any category,” žaliavalgystė (: žaliavalgis, -ė) “a system (worldview and practice) of eating food, usually plant-based, that is uncooked or processed at temperatures up to 40–42 °C.” Occasional, ephemeral coinages¹² are also created by analogy with the words vaisiavalgystė, visavalgystė ir žaliavalgystė, for example, klaidavalgystė (: *klaidavalgis, -ė) “an unhealthy diet that harms one’s health.”

¹² Incidentally, works on Lithuanian linguistics discuss only types of neologisms—established, adopted formations, and occasional formations—that is, expressive neologisms that depart from the word-formation system and are fixed in an individual context (Blažinskaitė 2004: 59; Urbutis 2009: 323–324; Jakaitienė 2010: 207). These are also referred to by such terms as authorial, individual, stylistic, situational, contextual, one-off, and unusually formed neologism, as well as a formation not recorded in dictionaries (Mikelionienė 2000: 67; 2002: 74; Jakaitienė 2010: 207; Kazlauskaitė, Župerka, Macienė 2013: 92; Miliūnaitė 2014: 247), overlooking a very important stage in a neologism’s emergence and establishment in usage. The distinguished literary theorist, writer, philosopher, and cultural scholar Mikhail Epstein proposed a new term—protologizmas (English protologism < from Greek protos “first, foremost” + logos “word”). A protologism is a newly created and not widely disseminated linguistic unit intended to fill a lexical gap that has arisen. According to Mikhail Epstein, every newly created linguistic unit is a protologism, which later becomes a neologism and eventually becomes established in the core vocabulary. Although, as acknowledged, it is difficult to draw a clear distinction between a protologism and a neologism, the number of users is nevertheless regarded as the principal distinguishing feature of these new linguistic units at different stages of development. It is emphasized that a protologism is typically used by individuals (usually only by its author); therefore, a protologism that enters widespread usage (newspapers, magazines, books, websites, etc.)

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Among abstract nouns with the suffix -ystė that are not derived from names of persons, the ND records only a few (cf. DLKG 2006: 102): naujažodystė (: naujažodis) ‘the creation of new words’, pakaitalystė (: pakaitalas). Cf. the neologism dvikainystė (: dvikainis, -ė) ‘indicating prices in two different currencies (in this particular case, referring to the transitional period from the litas to the euro)’; usage examples of the base word dvikainis, -ė¹³ are provided online (G – 29); no examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]:

A dual-rate tariff is a charge for one kilowatt /kW/ of active power declared by the consumer during the hours of maximum load in the energy system-* and for one kilowatt-hour /kWh/ of active electricity supplied to the consumer. (e-seimas.lrs.lt 1995 04 28)

The following electricity tariffs were approved for residents as of July 1: users of the single-rate tariff will pay 35 ct, while those who had benefited from cheaper electricity because they had an electric stove, a dual-rate tariff, and high levels of energy consumption will also pay 2 ct less. (alfa.lt 2009 06 30)

The smallest group consists of the neologisms dvisantuokystė (: *dvisantuokis, -ė?) ‘having two spouses (wives, husbands) at the same time’ and protgėdystė (: *protgėdys, -ė? / protgėdus, -i?) ‘shame due to one’s intellect’, which, from a purely formal perspective, could be classified among derivatives in -ystė formed from potential adjectives (cf. DLKG 2006: 102). Dvisantuokystė was probably formed by compounding and suffixation (: dvi santuokos ‘two marriages’ + the suffix -ystė), ‘where the formant consists of a suffix together with a compounding form (a compound juncture)’ (Urbutis 2009: 341). In the case of the neologism protgėdystė, compounding and suffixation can likewise be discerned more readily (: proto gėda ‘intellectual shame’ + the suffix -ystė).

Although the ND does not aim to provide a morphologically comprehensive picture of a neologism (Murmulaitytė 2016: 4), it would nevertheless be useful for the database to include the derivational family of a neologism and consistently record words with the same root (see Table 2). During the period under study, excluding derivational opposition pairs recorded in the ND, e.g., bulvininkystė (: bulvininkas, -ė¹⁴) ‘the potato-growing business’; derivational oppositions with a potential (implicit) base, e.g., subinšaldystė¹⁵ (: *subinšaldys, -ė) ‘freezing of the buttocks’; and derivational oppositions with a base word recorded in reference dictionaries—such as what is regarded as a neologism, that is, a newly coined word which, beyond its creator, other people also choose to use in public discourse (Andreescu 2012: 72; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protologism).

¹³ Two more examples of dvikainio, -ės were found in Internet usage, in which the neologism is used with another meaning not recorded in the ND.

¹⁴ ND: bulvininkas, -ė ‘potato grower; potato seller’.

¹⁵ Admittedly, in this case, too, compounding and suffixation can be discerned (: subinė šaldė ‘she froze her buttocks’ + the suffix -ystė).

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cross-making (: cross-maker, -¹⁶) “the making of crosses, a part of Lithuanian folk art”; 8 suffixal abstract pairs forming derivational oppositions were found to be missing, with only the derivative included in ND while the derivational base is left out, e.g.: -ystė dual-passport-holding¹⁷ (: dual-passport holder, -¹⁸) “iron. holding passports from two different countries”, dual-surname-having¹⁹ (: dual-surnamed, -²⁰) “having a surname spelled in two ways on an identity document”, fur-switching²¹ (: fur-switcher, -²¹) “changing one’s fur (i.e. views, values)”, tub-making craft²² (: tub-maker, -²²) “the craft of making tubs”, bear-slayer²³ (: bear-slayer, -²³) “the killing of a bear”, few-colouredness²⁴ (: few-coloured, -²⁵) “a state in which there are few colours”, and others.

¹⁶ LKŽₑ: kryždirbys, -ė; kryždirbis, -ė “one who makes crosses”.

¹⁷ The neologism dvipašystė could also be considered a mixed-formation derivative (: two, passport + suffix -ystė).

¹⁸ Only one example of dvipašio, -ės was found in online usage: The troubles of dual-passport holders: Israel demands the return to the Armenian army of a mobilised IDF soldier [headline] (facebook.com 2015 10 18). No examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02].

¹⁹ The neologism dvipavardystė could also be considered a mixed-formation derivative (: two, surname + suffix -ystė).

²⁰ Four examples of dvipavardžio, -ės were found in online usage, in which the neologism is used with another meaning not recorded in ND: Healthy girls, those about to become or already being -ienė, -ė, "double-surnamed", or those who are and will remain with their maiden surname. (supermama.lt 2012 01 14); “<...> Therefore, willingly or unwillingly, the younger Kazimieras, a Sudovian, when writing about translation, literature or articles on translation criticism, would tack on a “tail”—Sasnava. This is how the dvipavardis came about—Kazimieras Ambrasas-Sasnava. I have most often signed my scholarly works and quite a few articles with this double surname.” (aidas.lt 2018 May (no later than). No examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02].

²¹ Six examples of the usage of the neologism kailiakeitys, -ė were found online: I wonder which of them is the kailiakeitys? (traders.lt 2018 01 27); What a great memory. Thanks for clarifying. I remember the first one was Lithuanian. Perhaps you confused him with the one you kept? Because usually only “fur-changers” suspect everyone like that. (greitas.eu 2018 May (no later than). No examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02].

²² Only two examples of the usage of the neologism kubilininkas, -ė “tub-maker; tub seller” were found online: Kubilininkas A. Kundrotas invited people to buy tubs, spoons and other wood carvings. (zasliuck.lt 2018 May (no later than); Our district’s traditional craftspeople also made a fine appearance at the festival: Jurgita Treinyte, master of straw weaving; Onutė Raudeliūnienė, šakotis cake baker; and the kubilininkas Arvydas Kundrotas <...>. (zasliuck.lt 2018 May (no later than). On other websites, the neologism kubilininkas, -ė is used to mean “a follower of Lithuanian politician Andrius Kubilius”. No examples with the meaning “tub-maker; tub seller” were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02].

²³ Only one example of the usage of the neologism lokiažudys, -ė was found online: “Lāčplēsis” (Latvian Lāčplēsis, approximately meaning ‘bear-slayer’) is a Latvian epic poem created by the poet Andrejs Pumpurs, based on Latvian folk tales and legends about the strongman Lāčplēsis. (lt.wikipedia.org 2018 May (no later than). No examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]. Cf. the word lokiamušys, -ė “bear hunter”, included in LKŽₑ.

²⁴ In the case of the neologism mažaspalvystė, a derivational method combining composition and suffixation can likewise be discerned (: few colours + suffix -ystė).

²⁵ Eight examples of the usage of the neologism mažaspalvis, -ė were found online: This is the few-coloured, freezing world I am listening to now—the biting-frost stories are told to me by the duo of moths, “Nadja”. (bernardinai.lt 2009 07 10); I think that if the flag wears out so much that it becomes unsuitable for honourable display, then its status will no longer be that of a state flag. Faded red will no longer be red, and destroying or throwing away such a few-coloured rag should not be considered desecration of state symbols. (newsgroups.lt 2009 06 25). No examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02].

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TABLE 2. A cluster of root-related words with abstract nouns missing the suffix -ystė²⁶

No. | Neologism | Base word | Recorded in ND | Root-related words listed in ND; 1. antreprenerystė | antrepreneris, -ė | + | −; 2. balkonininkystė | balkonininkas, -ė | − | −; 3. barzdaskutystė | barzdaskutys, -ė | 0 | barzdakirpė, barzdaskutykla; 4. bulvininkystė | bulvininkas, -ė | + | −; 5. citatmeldystė | *citatmeldys, -ė | 0 | citatatonija; 6. dvikainystė | dvikainis, -ė | − | −; 7. dvip asystė | dvipasis, -ė | − | −; 8. dvipavardystė | dvipavardis, -ė | − | −; 9. entreprenerystė | entrepreneris, -ė | + | −; 10. filibusterystė | filibusteris, -ė | + | −; 11. hipsteryštė | hipsteris, -ė | + | hipsterija, hipsteriškai; 12. kailiakeitystė | kailiakeitys, -ė | − | −; 13. kinkadrebystė | kinkadrebys, -ė | 0 | −; 14. kitamanyštė | kitamanis, -ė | 0 | −; 15. klumpdirbystė | klumpdirbys, -ė | 0 | −; 16. korepetitorystė | korepetitorius, -ė | 0 | korepetitoriauti, korepetitoriavimas; 17. kryždirbystė | kryždirbys, -ė | 0 | −; 18. kubilininkystė | kubilininkas, -ė | − | kubilizmas, kubiloidas²⁷; 19. laisvadarbystė | laisvadarbis, -ė | + | −

²⁶ Tables 2 and 3 present not only data directly related to the research conducted (neologisms and their base words), but also supplementary material useful for further research (root-related words recorded in ND).

²⁷ The base word of these neologisms is the surname Kubilius. Cf. kubilizmas “derog. the ideology promoted and policies pursued by Andrius Kubilius”; kubiloidas “pejor. a follower of Lithuanian politician Andrius Kubilius”.

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No.

Neologism

Base word

Recorded in ND

Root-related words listed in ND

20.

lokiažudystė

lokiažudys, -ė

–

–

21.

mamystė

mama

0

mamadienis, mamiškas, -a, mamyčiukas, -ė, sumamėjimas, supermama, supermamytė

22.

mažaspalvystė

mažaspalvis, -ė

–

–

23.

newbornhood

newborn, -

0

–

24.

neologismhood

neologism

0

neologism dictionary, to use neologisms

25.

substitutionhood

substitute

0

–

26.

tracking

tracker, -

0

–

27.

profit-seeking

profit-seeker, -

0

–

28.

rangerhood

ranger, -

+

–

29.

solar cultivation

solar grower, -

+

sunshades

30.

signatory status

signatory, male or female

0

–

31.

snail farming

snail farmer, male or female

+

–

32.

roof climbing

roof climber, male or female

+

–

33.

adulthood

adult, male or female

0

–

34.

ass-freezing

*ass-freezer, male or female

0

–

35.

peacemaking

peacemaker, male or female

0

–

36.

vanity

vain person, male or female

0

–

37.

tutorship

tutor, male or female

+

–

38.

fruitarianism

fruitarian, -a (noun)

+

–

39.

organ-building

organ builder, -a

+

–

40.

guiding

guide

0

–

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Serial no.

Neologism

Base word

Words with the same root provided in ND

Recorded in ND

41.

singleness

lonely, -a / loner, -a

0

to be lonely, to live in solitude

42.

omnivory

omnivore, -e (noun)

+

–

43.

raw-foodism

raw-foodist, -e (noun and adjective)

+

to eat raw food, raw-foodist, raw-foodism

44.

grave-robbing

grave robber, -e

+

–

45.

human husbandry

*human farmer, -e

0

–

46.

love of humanity

lover of humanity, -e

0

–

47.

lexicography

lexicographer, -ess²⁸

0

–

Note: Column 3 marks base words included (+) and not included (–) in the ND, as well as impossible cases (0)—words recorded in reference dictionaries and not considered neologisms, or merely potential, conjectural words (*).

Most of these abstract derivatives formed with the suffix –ystė are based on isolated base words that have not become established in usage, and therefore could not be presented in the ND—even though the aim was not to provide a morphologically exhaustive picture of neologisms. Some base words are attested in internet usage later than their derivatives, for example: dvipasis, -ė (2015) and dvipasystė (2013), kailiakeitys, -ė (2013) and kailiakeitystė (2012). Nevertheless, on the basis of the material presented in the article, the database could be supplemented in the future with missing base words.

Second in productivity is the suffix -izmas (41 lexemes), which the DLKG explicitly assesses as unproductive: “[a]lthough the suffix -izmas is readily identifiable in many international words, new derivatives are generally not formed with it in Lithuanian itself” (2006: 103; on this international suffix, see also https://www.etymonline.com/word/-ism; Marchand 1969: 306–308; Baeskow 2004: 14–33). The ND records as many as 27 loanwords containing this foreign suffix: akvateizmas ‘the theory that water has

²⁸ Cf. the form žodynininkas, -ė ‘dictionary compiler, lexicographer’, included in the LKŽ.

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a certain memory’ (cf. English aquatheism), džihadizmas ‘the movement of Muslims waging the holy war against non-believers—the jihad’ (cf. English jihadism > Arabic džihad ‘struggle’), rašizmas ‘the ideology and practice of the Russian regime in the early twenty-first century’ (cf. Russian рашизм < Раша ‘the English name for Russia, based on its pronunciation’ + фашизм ‘fascism’), sarkozizmas ‘the policy pursued by former French president Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–2012)’ (cf. French sarkozysme), and many others. In recent times, however, the international suffix –izmas has become fairly productive in Lithuanian: it is used to form both conventional, established words and occasional, ephemeral neologisms (see also Mikelionienė 2000: 69), e.g.: bukizmas²⁹ (: bukas, –a) ‘narrow-minded trampling of moral values’, dabartizmas (: dabartistas, –ė³⁰) ‘a worldview centered on focusing on the present moment’ (cf. English presentism), navakarorizmas³¹ [formed from the surname of Kęstutis [Navak]as and the pen name of [R]ollandas [Ras]tauska, RoRa] ‘the sugary style of certain contemporary Lithuanian essayists (used ironically)’, vadizmas³² (: vadas) ‘the cult of leaders’, and others. Most nouns with the suffix –izmas recorded in the ND are names of “philosophical, religious, artistic, scientific, and political movements and systems, and social and political orders” (DLKG 2006: 103), e.g.: homosovietizmas (: homosovietas, –ė³³) ‘the totality of views, thought, behavior, and lifestyle shaped by the Soviet order’, krokodilizmas³⁴ (: krokodilas) ‘iron. a system of beliefs that regards the crocodile as the supreme value’, and others.

The neologism invisizmas (: invisistas, –ė) belonging to this group, meaning ‘an ideology of hatred arising from the view that nothing can change for the better, and based on the desire for everything we dislike simply to disappear’, cannot be considered a loanword, since no equivalents of invisizmo could be found.

²⁹ Although the ND provides only one example of the neologism bukizmas in use, considerably more examples—33—are available on the internet, e.g.: Perhaps this is a minor matter, but by opening up this gap in accountability we allow this moral bukizmas to permeate everyday life. (15min.lt 2015 08 30, Mažvydas Karalius); that’s why I never watch the “love me, love me not, I can’t stand it” stuff posted by my fellow countrymen affected by bukizmo. (banga.tv3.lt 2018 May (no later than)); and others. No examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 05].

³⁰ Indeed, in such cases it is difficult to discern derivational relationships; therefore, “[i]f in individual cases one can still speak of derivation, then more often, it seems, it is mutual rather than unidirectional” (Urbutis 2009: 151), i.e. dabartistas, –ė ↔ dabartizmas. It seems that the neologism dabartizmas may be considered both a calque (cf. English presentism) and a hybrid derivative.

³¹ Strictly speaking, the base word *NavakaRoRas is probably possible. The occasional derivative was most likely formed by the derivation-by-suffixation method, which seems more convenient in this case [Navakas and RoRa + suffix –izmas].

³² Bendrinės kalbos normų atžvilgiu šį naujadarą vertinusi Inga Mataitytė (2013: 11) mano, kad vadizmas, kuris buvo vartojamas jau ir prieškariniu Vinco Mykolaičio-Putino romane Krizė, galėtų būti semantinis vertinys iš rusų k. вождизм.

³³ Isolated examples of the neologism homosovietas, –ė in use can be found on the internet (G – 10): lie, live a double life—the time-tested and proven “values” of today’s homosovietų. (alytausnaujienos.lt 2010 03 20); you can prove to those homosovietams a hundred times that white is white, but they will insist on the opposite without even looking. (banga.tv3.lt 2014 03 12). No examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

³⁴ The neologism belongs to the field of philosophy.

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neither English nor Russian, but it nevertheless seems that the author-coined neologism was formed in Lithuanian, modeled on today’s lingua franca. Cf. Anglone (hereafter AN), which records the English word invisible: 1. “not visible; unnoticed”; 2. “nonexistent, imaginary; hidden.” One informative example of the use of the base word invisistas, -ė of the neologism invisizmas was found online:

Anonymous commenters, whom psychoanalysts sometimes call “Internet exhibitionists” in the “Freudian” spirit, are often not merely foul-mouthed provincials. On the contrary, they are often educated people who seem to have found their place “under the sun.” They have no single enemy, but attack everyone, hoping for a reaction from the author, anger, confrontation—just like a thug provoking a fight. According to psychoanalysts, such commenters’ goal is destruction. <...> Such invisistai are often “office rats” bullied by their bosses or, as people sometimes joke, children who never had a room of their own; yet in almost every case they are decent enough people, pushed out of their own lives and their own country—in terms of influence, control, dynamics, and progress. Invisistai are also seen every day on Lithuanian roads, in the form of rude, sometimes even brutal drivers: over a blocked car or an incorrectly executed maneuver, a driver (even a woman driver) may be dragged out of a car and beaten without mercy. (delfi.lt 2009 10 31, Jaunius Špakauskas)

The ND gives one example of the use of invisizmo from an article by Jaunius Špakauskas, “Invisizmas – neapykantos ideologija” [Invisism—a hate ideology], published on the news portal delfi.lt. For the sake of consistency, the ND should include not only the neologism invisizmas, but also its base word invisistas, -ė, especially since both neologisms occur in the same article. No examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

The database records three derivatives in -izmas denoting names of social and political systems, formed on altered derivational bases: nenutaijiotizmas (: ne, nu tai jo) “ironic. a phenomenon in which, lacking a firm opinion, one simultaneously denies and agrees with the same thing”; vingiuionizmas (: Vingių Jonas [a character in the writer Žemaitė’s work]) “ironic. sluggishness of thought and action as a cultural norm”; and lddpizmas (: LDDP) “ironic. everything related to the Lithuanian Democratic Labour Party (active in Lithuania from 1990 to 2001, after renaming the Communist Party of Lithuania).” As the examples show, such neologisms are based on a wider range of bases not described in traditional grammars—phrases, word combinations, and abbreviations.

The material accumulated in the database shows that this derivational pattern is currently quite productive in Lithuanian: names of political movements, ideologies, social systems, businesses, and fields of activity are continually being coined, and ever more new potential formations may emerge (cf. Mataitytė 2013: 11): daugumizmas (: dauguma) “an opinion imposed on the minority by the majority”; karbauskižmas (: Karbauskis) “derogatory. the ideology of politician Ramūnas Karbauskis and the party he leads”,

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komunistkapitalizmas (: komunistkapitalistas, -ė³⁵) “ironic. a blend of communism and capitalism in the economy”; kubilizmas (: Kubilius) “derogatory. the ideology propagated and policies pursued by Andrius Kubilius”; putinizmas³⁶ (: Putinas) “the populist model of government of Russian president Vladimir Putin, based on unchecked rule by one person and nationalism”; putlerizmas³⁷ (: Putleris) “ironic. the ideology propagated and policies pursued by the regime of Russian president Vladimir Putin, also known as Putler”; runkelizmas (: runkelis) “derogatory. the state of people characterized by ignorance and pessimism, called runkeliai”; turbokapitalizmas³⁸ (: turbokapitalistas, -ė³⁹) “capitalism characterized by the very rapid pursuit of maximum profit”; vabalizmas (: vabalas) “interest in Volkswagen Beetle cars, the so-called beetles, and the like”.

The database contains considerably fewer words with this suffix that name properties (cf. DLKG 2006: 103), e.g.: bukagalvizmas (: bukagalvis, -ė) “stupidity”; pliurpalizmas (: pliurpalas) “a fondness for chattering, preaching, and telling others how to think”; tartiufizmas (: tartiufas) “hypocritical behavior” (cf. English tartuffism). Incidentally, this last neologism can essentially be considered both a derivative with the suffix -izmas and a borrowing. Cf. the established meaning of tartiufo, included in TŽŽ: “a sanctimonious, hypocritical, two-faced, cynical person” [after the character Tarti(u)fas in the comedy “Tartiufas” (“Tartuffe”) (1664) by the French writer Jean-Baptiste Molière (Molière; 1622–1673)]. Nevertheless, it is most likely a derivative with the suffix -izmas, formed within Lithuanian itself.

ND records two derivatives with the suffix -ism that belong to names for words and expressions, namely grybauskism (: Grybauskaitė) “iron. a linguistic outburst by Dalia Grybauskaitė in her capacity as a politician” (cf. obamism) and kalbainism (: kalbainis) “derog. a clumsily coined word or expression by language purists to replace a word they disapprove of”.

In grammars, the suffix -umas has been regarded as the most productive in forming names of properties (abstract nouns), but according to the ND data it ranks third (30 lexemes). Derivatives with this suffix that express an abstract property are usually formed from adjectives, for example:

³⁵ Isolated examples of the neologism komunistkapitalistas, -ė were found in online usage: back in Soviet times, they used to write about how cruel the capitalists were and how they exploited people. <...> komunistkapitalistai are the same throughout the postsocialist world. (greitas.eu 2018 gegužė (ne vėliau kaip); Kubilius tried to tamper with the tax haven created by the komunist-kapitalistų, and with the help of media outlets controlled by those very same privatizers, he was turned into a swearword. (greitas.eu 2018 gegužė (ne vėliau kaip). No examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

³⁶ The neologism putinizmas may be considered either a derivative with the suffix -izmas or a borrowing. Cf. Russian путинизм.

³⁷ The neologism putlerizmas may be considered either a derivative with the suffix -izmas or a borrowing. Cf. Russian путлеризм.

³⁸ The neologism turbokapitalizmas may be considered either a derivative with the suffix -izmas or a borrowing. Cf. Russian турбокапитализм.

³⁹ Only one informative example of the use of the neologism turbokapitalistas, -ė was found online: Turbokapitalistai. They squeeze tenants and workers. They think everyone else is a cow. Everyone has to give milk, more and more and more. And they’re never satisfied. (rekvizitai.vz.lt 2016 03 15). No examples were found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

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antigejiškumas (: antigejiškas, -a) „priešiškumas gėjams“ (plg. anglų k. anti-gay), performatyvumas (: performatyvus, -i) „sugebėjimas ką nors raiškiai atlikti; vaidybiškumas“ (plg. anglų k. performative „susijęs su atlikimu“) ir kt. Priesagos -umas abstraktų, padarytų iš neveikiamųjų esamojo laiko dalyvių, iš dalies virtusių būdvardžiais, ir daiktavardžių, pasitaiko vos vienas kitas, pvz.: atsekamùmas (: atsekamas, -a) „galimybė atsekti, t. y. išsiaiškinti pradinės reiškinio atsiradimo sąlygas“, sapioseksualùmas (: sapioseksualas, -ė / sapioseksualus, -i) „seksualumas, pasireiškiantis proto, o ne kūno trauka“ (plg. anglų k. sapiosexuality). Matyti, kad visuomenė yra linkusi kai kuriuos priesagos -umas abstraktus darytis iš potencialių (numanomų, bet žodynuose ir vartosenoje nefiksuotų) pamatinių žodžių (dar žr. Vaskelienė 2017: 4): atlepausiškùmas (: *atlepausiškas, -a) „menk. nevykėliškumas, žioplumas“, betkokiškumas (: *betkokiškas, -a) „meno virtimas „bet kuo“, kai atmetamas estetinis kriterijus“, neužmirštuoliškumas (: *neužmirštuoliškas, -a) „rituališkas praeities atminimo puoselėjimas pasitelkiant neužmirštuolės žiedo simboliką“, vištaprotiškumas (: *vištaprotiškas, -a) „iron. vištos proto turėjimas“. Akivaizdu, kad naujadarų kūrėjai vadovaujasi savo gimtosios kalbos jausmu ir naujažodžiaudami⁴⁰ remiasi potencialiais žodžiais. Tai, kad šie kalbos vienetai nėra įtraukti į pagrindinius lietuvių kalbos žodynus, „dar nereiškia, kad jų tikrai nėra, kad jie nerealizuoti ar bent negali būti prireikus realizuojami“ (Urbutis 2009: 319).

The ND records predominantly abstract nouns in the suffix -umas that are based on established base words widespread in usage: fifiškumas (: fifiškas, -a) ‘being a fifa, having the qualities of a fifa’, metroseksualùmas (: metroseksualas / metroseksualus, -i) ‘sexuality expressed by a well-groomed urban man interested in fashion, fond of shopping, and so on’ (cf. English metrosexuality), and so on.

During the period under study, the ND contained 11 incomplete pairs of suffix -umas abstract nouns that form derivational oppositions, where only the derived word is included in the ND and the derivational base is left out (see Table 3), e.g. the aforementioned anti-gayness (: anti-gay, -a⁴¹) and performativity (: performative, -i), as well as multiculturalism (: multicultural, -a) ‘people of different ethnicities, cultures, and denominations living together in the same geographical space’,

⁴⁰ The ND records the authorial neologism to coin neologisms, used in an interview by a linguist and neologism researcher: It should be said, though, that people coin new words here and now. We create words not only out of necessity, but also to have a bit of fun. (balsas.lt 2013 06 30, Jurgita Girčienė).

⁴¹ Reliable examples of this neologism, anti-gay, -a, occur in Internet usage: Anti-gay sentiment is particularly strong among voters of the right-wing populist coalition governing Poland. (lietuvosdiena.lrytas.lt 2006 06 16, Jacekas Komaras); Gražulis’s anti-gay show may incur the displeasure of foreign diplomats [headline] (alfa.lt 2015 10 02), and so on. No DLKT examples were found [accessed 2018 05 06].

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‘living together in the same geographical space’, multitasking (: multitasking, –a⁴²) ‘the ability to perform several actions at once or to switch from one activity to another in a very short time’, hypertensivity (: hypertensive, –i) ‘dangerous pressure in the blood vessels of the brain that increases the risk of various diseases’, interoperability (: interoperable, –i⁴³) ‘capacity for interaction—the ability of different information systems to work together automatically’ (cf. English interoperability), credibility (: credible, –i) ‘reliability; the quality of being worthy of trust’ (cf. English credibility), fairy-like quality (: fairy-like, –a) ‘possession of what is characteristic of fairies’, legitimacy (: legitimate, –i) ‘lawfulness; conformity with laws or legal norms’, neuroplasticity (: neuroplastic, –a⁴⁴) ‘the ability of brain neurons and their networks to respond continually to new experience (sensory stimulation, behavioral changes, tissue damage, growth) by modifying their interactions’ (cf. English neuroplasticity), and profligacy (: profligate, –a) ‘the quality of being extravagant’.

Among the aforementioned neologisms, multiculturalism, legitimacy, performativity and hypertensivity are probably the most widespread on the Internet. Their base words—multicultural, –a (G – 119), legitimate, –i (G – 100), performative, –i (G – 98), and hypertensive, –i (G – 50)—were not found in the DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06]. Cf. Internet examples:

Another thing I really like is that Vilnius is a multicultural city—Lithuanians, Russians, and Poles all live here. It amazes me that people in Vilnius do not understand how multicultural Vilnius is. You may not notice it yourselves, but throughout its history Vilnius has been a multicultural city. (15min.lt 2016 08 28)

First, non-voters rely on the mistaken assumption that legitimacy is ensured by the number of votes cast by the demos (the electorate). If most voters do not vote, that means the government is not legitimate. After all, 2 percent of voters cannot elect a legitimate government. They can. (delfi.lt 2016 10 05, Mindaugas Kluonis)

Performative tour with virtual elements (neringosmuziejai.lt 2017 07 16)

⁴² Only two examples of the use of the neologism multitasking, –a were found in Internet usage: Multitasking news consumption (lmb.lt 2018 May (no later than). No DLKT examples were found [accessed 2018 05 06].

⁴³ There are 48 examples of the neologism interoperable, –i in Internet usage, <...> by the end of 2008, to ensure that interoperable information technologies are implemented and used in the public healthcare sector interoperable (interoperability—compatibility of information systems) and integrated information technologies <...>. (e-tar.lt 2004 07 02), and so on. No DLKT examples were found [accessed 2018 05 06].

⁴⁴ There are 20 examples on the Internet of the neologism neuroplastic, –a, for example: “PoNS” (Portable Neuromodulation Stimulator), a portable neuromodulation stimulator, modifies and repairs the impulses sent by neurons by stimulating the neuroplastic brain. (feniksai.lt 2018 May (no later than)). No DLKT examples were found [accessed 2018 05 06].

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During brain MRI, hypointense areas are visible in T1 images of the frontobasal and temporal regions, while hyperintense areas are visible in T2 images. (sveikasmogus.lt (“Vaistų žinios”) 2009)

In internet usage, not only the foreignism kredibilumas, which is unnecessary in standard language, is spreading, but also its nonstandard base word kredibilus, –i (G – 20); no examples found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06]:

Most importantly, it is necessary to understand that all this stems from science and numerous studies. To understand it as well as possible, one should read not new age books and websites (as bahuriux'as appears to have done earlier in this discussion), but articles, books, and other kredibilius (reliable) sources about evolution, entropy, systems and their formation, thermodynamics, and other natural phenomena. (technologijos.lt 2012 08 30)

And how did the acquaintances conduct the sample tests? Are they Kredibilūs or not really? (legalus.net 2016 02 06)

TABLE 3. A set of related words with the suffix –umas abstract noun missing from the database

Eil. nr.NaujadarasPamatinis žodisFiksuota NDND pateikiami bendrašakniai žodžiai1.antigejiškùmasantigėjiškas, –a–antigėjus2.atlėpausiškùmas*atlėpausiškas, –a0–3.atsekamùmasatsekamas, –a0–4.betkokiškùmas*betkokiškas, –a0–5.daugiadarbiškùmas*daugiadarbiškas, –a0–6.daugiakultūriškùmasdaugiakultūriškas, –a–daugiakultūris, –ė7.daugiaprogramiškùmas*daugiaprogramiškas, –a0daugiaprogramis, –ė8.daugiaveikliškùmasdaugiaveikliškas, –a–daugiaveika9.fifiškùmasfifiškas, –a+fifa10.glokalùmasglokalus, –i+glokalai, glokalizacija11.hiperintensyvùmashiperintensyvus, –i––12.interoperabilùmasinteroperabilus, –i––13.įsidarbinamùmas*įsidarbinamas, –a0–

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No.

Newly coined word

Base word

Recorded in ND

Related words listed in ND

14.

išmanùmas

išmanusis, -ioji

+

become savvy, make savvy, smartification, tech-savvy person, tech-savvy person, male/female

15.

credibility

credible, -

−

−

16.

fairy-like quality

fairy-like, -

−

−

17.

legitimacy

legitimate, -

−

−

18.

liminality

liminal, -

+

liminal, -

19.

metrosexuality

metrosexual / metrosexual, -

+

−

20.

neuroplasticity

neuroplastic, -a

−

−

21.

forget-me-not-like quality

*forget-me-not-like, -a

0

forget-me-not, -a

22.

pan-Europeanism

pan-European, -a

+

pan-European, -a; pan-European, -a

23.

performativity

performative, -i

−

performer, -ė

24.

political correctness

politically correct

+

political correctness advocate

25.

competitiveness

competitive

+

−

26.

sapiosexuality

sapiosexual / sapiosexual

+

−

27.

interactivity

interactive

+

−

28.

family orientation

family-oriented

0

−

29.

wastefulness

wasteful

−

wastefulness, spendthrift society

30.

chicken-brainedness

*chicken-brained

0

−

As can be seen from the data presented, 11 base words attested in usage (often widespread, established words) have not been included in the ND. To avoid so-called lexicographical gaps (for more on the lack of systematicity in dictionaries published in Lithuania, see also Miliūnaitė 2015: 169), the database should

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also include words that arose relatively long ago and no longer create any impression of novelty for language users: fairy-like⁴⁵ and wasteful⁴⁶. Cf. internet data:

Fairy-like hair, legs and eyelashes are dusted with flour or some indistinct powder. On her body, only panties and a white, see-through little garment. (delfi.lt (5braskes.lt) 2013 10 26)

Barbora searching for her own “one and only,” who would not recoil at the sight of her fairy-like, chicken-like skin. (kultura.lrytas.lt 2018 03 07)

A wasteful budget will fuel rising inflation (vz.lt 2007 10 10)

Typical representatives of this sign have a very realistic understanding of the situation in the world, the country and their workplace, and assess their own abilities just as realistically. They usually become adept at calculating their income and expenses, thus preventing wasteful purchases. (alfa.lt (astromanija.lt) 2017 10 01)

Such linguistic units, probably omitted from LKŽ_e and DŽ₇ by mistake, should be marked in the ND as not new (unattested) (cf. the revived word kiaulasubinis, -ė included in the ND).

Based on the ND data, it is evident that the productivity of the suffix -ybė has declined somewhat (17 lexemes were found): it ranks fourth, although DLKG assessed it as highly productive (ranking it second). Abstract nouns in -ybė are most often derived from adjectives and passive present participles used adjectivally (cf. DLKG 2006: 101), e.g.: beskonybė (: beskonis, -ė) “a tasteless thing,” išverčiamybė (: išverčiamas, -a) “the translatability of a text,” lyginamybė (: lyginamas, -a) “the ability to be compared,” nuostabybė (: nuostabus, -i) “a wonderful thing,” and so on.

The greatest difficulty arises in the working segmentation of the neologism archajybė (: archajus, -i? / archajus?) “something archaic, old-fashioned.” One example of archajybės was found online (attested in usage as early as 2004); no examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]:

⁴⁵ LKŽ_e records only the adjective lauminis, -ė, “striped with the colors of a laumė’s sash (rainbow).” There are numerous online examples of the neologism laumiškas, -a in use (93 records); no examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

⁴⁶ LKŽ_e lists only the noun švaistūnas, -ė: 1. “someone who likes to squander and behaves frivolously”; 2. “someone who wastes wealth needlessly, a squanderer, waster.” There are many online usage examples of the neologism švaistūniškas, -a (110 records); no examples were provided in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 06].

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The examples listed here should not give the impression that the entire work has been translated in this way. Such archaisms are more often used in the characters’ speech, and they do not burden the text at all, dissolving as they do into the overall language of the work. (llvs.lt (“Gimtoji kalba”) 2004, Inga Mataitytė)

Cf. the example given in ND:

Let us ask a school pupil, a student, or a passer-by in the street what “the roots of Lithuanian identity” are, and they will probably say without batting an eyelid that they are Lithuania’s ancient past, its millennium-long history, dukes, language, and, of course, pagan faith. The latter, together with the archaisms of the language, is said to reveal how ancient Lithuanian civilization was, how harmonious, virtuous, and vigorous it was. (bernardinai.lt (“Naujasis Židinys-Aidai”) 2012 03 19, Tomas Daugirdas)

During the period under study, only a few isolated, uninformative examples of the possible base words archajus? (noun) and archajus, -i? (adjective) were recorded in Internet usage (electronic communication). Perhaps the most informative example (only tentatively, given the possible proofreading errors in the base words) is the one presented below; no examples were found in DLKT [accessed 2018 05 02]:

- But in that part there are several established mass bases that are well protected. Tare Zenchas, the only military commander who was archajus, unlike the other commanders who were warriors of the Zentil or Templar classes. His name means “Born in lightning” <...> -EN TARO ADUN. This was the greeting of the Zenu commanders, meaning “Peace today.” And from the darkest shadow appeared Orichajus. He was a 1576-year-old Zenu Templar who possessed archaic powers. <...> -Gather another two thousand archajų and you will lead them into this battle, Bearer of Flames, and tell everyone not to disturb me, because I need to heal my wounds. (games.lt 2010 07 30)

Nevertheless, the definition of the neologism archaism allows us to assume that it may also be based on the adjective archajiškas, -a—here one can discern the disintegration of the base stem in the derivative (the suffix -ybė cannot simply be added directly to the adjective archajiškas, -a; therefore the suffix -iškas, -a is dropped and the author creates an analogical derivative (following the word svetimybė) (for more on the role of disintegration in word formation, see Urbutis 2009: 241–244).

ND includes quite a number of derivatives with the suffix -ybė that denote not an abstract property but the thing itself that possesses the property (cf. DLKG 2006: 101): geidžiamybė (: geidžiamas, -a) “something desirable,” paklausybė (: paklausus, -i) “a popular product.” There are isolated derivatives with this suffix formed from adverbs and nouns—the names of people and animals—for example: anapusybė (: anapus) “that which lies beyond the bounds of this life,” šiuolaikybė (: šiuolaik) “the present, the time in which we now live,” katalonybė (: katalonas, -ė) “support for everything related to the Catalan people and Catalanness,”

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katýbė (: katė) “a dishonorable act involving a cat.” The latter neologism was clearly coined by analogy with the word šunybe. ND records just one derivative with the suffix –ybė—triprasmybė (: triprasmis, -ė) “an obscure mode of linguistic expression with several meanings”—which would be more accurately classified among names for words and expressions. The derivational category of names for words and expressions may be expanding: it now includes not only derivatives with the suffix –ybė that “indicate from which language or dialect the word or expression they denote originates” (DLKG 2006: 141).

In ND, the suffix –ūra ranks fifth in productivity (2 lexemes) (cf. 17th place in DLKG).

In the database, after excluding unsuitable results returned by automated searches for the letter sequence *ūra (for more on searches in ND, see http://naujažodžiai.lki.lt/?Apie_duomenyna), for example, the contaminative formation seimokraturà (: [Seim]as + pr[okraturà]) “iron. the Seimas turned into a prosecutor’s office” and numerous compound neologisms, such as mitókūra “myth-making,” etc., two derivatives with the suffix –ūra formed from nouns denoting people were found: podoktorantūra (: podoktorantas, -ė) “studies and research undertaken after earning a doctoral degree” (cf. English post doc) and rezidentūra (: rezidentas, -ė) “postgraduate medical studies” (cf. English residency). Of course, it is questionable whether the aforementioned neologisms arose in Lithuanian without influence from other languages⁴⁷.

According to ND data, three suffixes rank sixth in productivity, namely -ovė, -ulys and -yba (in DLKG they rank 6th, 7th, and 10th, respectively). In the database, after excluding unsuitable results ending in *ovė, such as the contaminative formation batakovė (: [bata]s + ran[kovė]) “a boot-top attached to a boot,” the semantic neologism daržovė “a patient who has emerged from a coma but has not regained consciousness, is in a vegetative state: unable to respond voluntarily to or perceive the environment” (cf. English vegetable “vegetable”), the compound neologism minkštalovė “a soft piece of reclining furniture,” and others, only one derivative with the suffix –ovė was recorded: daugóvė (: daugus, -i⁴⁸) “majority.” According to ND data, the suffix -ulys is also unproductive (1 lexeme): keistulỹs (: keistas, -a) “strangeness.” The suffix -yba, assessed as unproductive in DLKG, rises from tenth place (in grammars) to sixth place in ND, although the database contains very few abstract nouns with this suffix (1 lexeme). One language unit lexicographically described in ND is included in the list of neologisms: šulniakasýba⁴⁹ (: šulniakasys,

⁴⁷ Cf. the Russian words нодокторантура and резидентура on the Internet: for example, after excluding duplicate instances, 1 and 18 occurrences, respectively, were found. The latter neologism rezidentūra is included in TŽŽ (2013).

⁴⁸ Another possible base for this neologism is the adverb daug.

⁴⁹ Cf. the note included in ND: “the occupation is old, but no such name for it appears in the reference dictionaries.” Moreover, this neologism could also be regarded as a mixed formation (: šulinį kasė + suffix -yba). As can be seen from the examples analyzed in this study (dvipasystė, dvipavardystė, dvisantuokystė, mažaspalvystė, protgėdystė, subinšaldystė, šulniakasýba, etc.), mixed-formation neologisms are becoming more numerous in Lithuanian.

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-ė) “the trade of well-digging.” The working segmentation of the neologism tepýba, “the artistic spreading of melted cheese on a slice,” seems debatable. The ND indicates that the neologism tepýba (: [tep]ti + tap[yba]) should be considered a blend⁵⁰, although it could also be treated as a derivative formed with the suffix -yba from a non-prefixed transitive verb, despite the fact that in standard language there are only one or two derivatives with this suffix, formed exclusively from nouns (DLKG 2006: 103).

It should be emphasized that no general conclusions can be drawn about the four unproductive suffixes (-ovė, -ulys, -yba, -ūra) or the nine suffixes (-enybė, -uma, -atvė, -atis, -astis, -ata, -(i)ava, -urmė, -ra), which were not found at all in the ND during the study period. Taking into account the ND material collected manually, it is clear that ranking unproductive affixes by productivity is somewhat provisional, since it would be inaccurate to claim, on the basis of ND data alone, that the aforementioned suffixes are unproductive. In this case, one can speak only of emerging tendencies. To examine thoroughly the productivity of suffixes forming names of properties (abstract nominals), more varied and extensive sources should be used.

The rare suffixes for abstract nominals listed in the LKG and, as emphasized there, characteristic only of dialects (-ysta, -asta, -astas, -atva, -iškė) (1965: 313) were not found in the ND, with the exception of the affix -esys. Among the results presented in the ND, excluding the semantic neologism blizgesỹs, “a cosmetic product that gives the lips shine and has less color than lipstick,” and the compound neologism žuvlesỹs, “a bird that feeds on fish,” the ND presents two derivatives with the suffix -esys: drovesỹs (: drovus), “shyness,” and ieškesỹs (: ieško), “a working synonym for searching”; thus, in terms of productivity, this suffix ranks fifth in the ND.

Neproduktyvių tarptautinių žodžių priesagų -ažas ir -itetas (LKG 1965: 315) vedinių ND nerasta.

⁵⁰Incidentally, this type of word blending had long remained at the margins of word formation, and most Lithuanian and foreign scholars regarded it merely as an unconscious slip of the tongue caused by indecision over which linguistic unit to choose (Urbutis 2009: 324; Lehrer 2003: 369). Over time, blends came to be viewed not as isolated speech errors but as the result of deliberate linguistic activity, preferred by language users seeking an expressive and concise way of conveying a thought (Miliūnaitė 2014: 261; for a more detailed discussion of the twofold evaluation of blends, see Mikić Čolić 2015: 25–26). In recent scholarly literature on some languages, word fusion (blending) is recognized as a frequent and productive word-formation process (Gries 2004: 639; Mikić Čolić 2015: 33). Lithuania saw the relatively early emergence of the first works in which scholars drew attention to blending (Skardžius 1996: 21) and studied it as a systematic phenomenon classifiable according to various features (Kabašinskaitė 1998: 5, 69).

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CONCLUSIONS

1. A study of the names of properties recorded in the ND during the study period suggests that the suffix considered most productive for this word-formation category in the LKG and DLKG, –umas (30 lexemes in the ND), may be losing ground to the suffix ranked third in productivity, –ystė (47 lexemes), and to the suffix ranked sixteenth, –izmas (41 lexemes). The same applies to the suffix regarded in grammars as the second most productive, –ybė (17 lexemes in the ND). However, the generally small number of recorded derivatives and the potential for derivatives in –umas in particular should be taken into account. Thus, this hypothesis that these suffixes are declining in productivity could be confirmed or refuted only by examining more neologisms and their base words.

2. In the LKG and DLKG, the suffix –izmas is explicitly considered unproductive with Lithuanian words, whereas the material accumulated in the database indicates that this type of word formation is now fairly productive in Lithuanian (the foreign suffix –izmas tends to be added to native roots): names of political movements, ideologies, social systems, businesses, and fields of activity are being coined continuously.

3. During the study period, only one or two derivatives with each of the suffixes (–ovė, –ulys, –yba, –ūra) were recorded in the ND, while no derivatives at all were recorded for nine suffixes (–enybė, –uma, –atvė, –atis, –astis, –ata, –(i)ava, –umė, –ra). On the basis of ND data alone, it would be inaccurate to claim that the aforementioned suffixes are currently unproductive. Here too, given that ND data are collected manually, one can speak only of emerging tendencies. To examine thoroughly the productivity of suffixes forming names of properties (abstract nominals), more varied and extensive sources should be used.

4. The ND records one reactivated affix, –esys, which the LKG regards as a rare suffix for abstract nominals characteristic only of dialects.

5. A study of the names of properties recorded in the ND shows that changes have occurred in the bases for word formation. Derivatives with the suffix –izmas are formed from a wider variety of bases not described in traditional grammars—syntagma, word combination, and abbreviation.

6. The ND material collected manually does not, of course, provide a wholly objective and comprehensive picture of neologism formation; nevertheless, this small study has shown that, for now, it is the only active database that systematically collects new linguistic units.

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ŠALTINIAI

AN 2005 – Anglonas. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų kompiuterinis žodynas. Sud. B. Piesarskas. Vilnius: Žodynas.

DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/ [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

DŽ₇ 2017 – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://lkiis.lki.lt/dabartinis [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

LKŽ_e 2017 – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. G. Naktinienė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

ND – Lietuvių kalbos naujažodžių duomenynas. [Tęstinis internetinis žinynas nuo 2011 m.] Sudarytoja R. Miliūnaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Prieiga internete: http://naujazodziai.lki.lt [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

OED – Online Etymology Dictionary. Prieiga internete: http://www.etymonline.com/ [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

TŽŽ 2007 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Sud. V. Vaitkevičiūtė. Ketvirtasis pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas, Vilnius: Žodynas.

TŽŽ 2013 – Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Red. D. Svetikienė. Vilnius: Alma littera.

W – Laisvoji enciklopedija „Vikipedija“. Prieiga internete: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protologism [žiūrėta 2018 m. gegužės–birželio mėn.].

Vartosenos pavyzdžių ieškota interneto paieškos sistema Google.

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Blažinskaitė D. 2004: Naujadariai ir perdirbiniai reklamoje. – Kalbos kultūra 77, 56–65. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/77/Blazinskaite_KK_77_straipsnis_apie_naujadarus_ir_perdirbinius_reklamoje.pdf.

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Girčienė J. 2012: Naujoji lietuvių kalbos leksika: teorija ir praktika. Metodinė priemonė [elektroninis išteklius]. Vilnius: Edukologija.

Gries St. Th. 2004: Shouldn't it be breakfunch? A quantitative analysis of blend structure in English. – Linguistics 42–3, 639–667. Prieiga internete: http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/faculty/stgries/research/2004_STG_Blends_Linguistics.pdf.

Inčiūraitė-Noreikienė L. 2017: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos vardžodžių su (neo)klasikiniais elementais morfeminė sandara ir daryba. Daktaro disertacija. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas.

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Kazlauskaitė R., Župerka K., Macienė J. 2013: Okazionalūs deminutyvai: tipai ir paskirtis kalbiniame akte. – Žmogus ir žodis 1, 90–100. Prieiga internete: http://www.biblioteka.vpu.lt/zmogusirzodis/PDF/didaktinelingvistika/2013/kazupmac90-100.pdf.

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V a s k e l i e n ė J. 2017: Lietuvių rašytojų naujadarų darybos ir semantikos ypatumai. – Bendrinė kalba 90, 1–30. Prieiga internete: http://www.bendrinekalba.lt/Straipsniai/90/Vaskeliene_BK_90_straipsnis.pdf.

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NAMES OF CHARACTERISTICS

IN THE DATABASE OF LITHUANIAN NEOLOGISMS

S u m m a r y

For the purposes of identifying the productivity of the types of formation of neologisms that fall into the formational category of names of characteristics (nominal abstractions), the article focuses on the ongoing Database of Lithuanian Neologisms (DN), which registers new linguistic units (words, word formations, and abbreviations) that emerged at the turn of the century and have found common usage. The DN material has been analysed from a formational perspective and compared to the descriptions available in Lithuanian grammars of the second half of the 20^th century (the Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (GLL) and the Grammar of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (GCLL)), where names of characteristics are grouped by the formational ability of formational affixes. There were 142 derivatives of formational suffixes found in the DN.

Analysis of the names of characteristics recorded in the DN has revealed that the suffix –umas, which was considered the most formational in the grammars (30 lexemes), surrenders its position to the suffixes –ystė (47 lexemes) and –izmas (41 lexemes). The international suffix –izmas is highly productive in the Lithuanian language, even though the GLL and the GCLL strongly concur on it not being formational. It is the analysis of derivatives of this suffix that has pointed to some changes in the formational foundation, with reliance on a more variegated foundation that has been left out of the traditional grammars, that is the syntagma, the word formation, and the abbreviation. By contrast, the productivity of the suffix –ybė, which is considered as highly formational both in the GLL and the GCLL, has somewhat diminished (17

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lexemes). The database also contains records of 4 non-productive suffixes (–ovė, –ulys, –yba, –ūra) and one regenerate affix, –esys, which the GLL considers a rare suffix of nominal abstractions that is only typical of dialects. Over the period covered by the study, 9 suffixes (–enybė, –uma, –atvė, –atis, –astis, –ata, –(i)ava, –umė, –ra) were not found in the DN at all.

Of course, compiled manually, the DN material does not offer a completely objective and detailed view of neologism formation, yet the limited study has shown that so far it is the only effective and systemic database for new linguistic units in Lithuania.

KEYWORDS: neologism, derivative, names of characteristics, word formation.

AGNĖ ALEKSAITĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

Petro Vile išio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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