LIETUVIŲ KALBOS SPECIALIOJI LEKSIKA

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXII (1983)

M. LENKEVIČIŪTĖ-NORKAITIENĖ

REGIONAL NAMES IN LITHUANIAN DIALECTS

We use the term place-based names for inhabitants (nomina regionalia) to refer to people according to their place of origin or residence. To identify more prominent tendencies in the formation and use of these names in Lithuanian dialects, material was collected from the academic Lithuanian Language Dictionary (hereafter LKŽ), as well as from its and the Lithuanian Language Atlas’s (hereafter LKA) card indexes and V. Vitkauskas’s Dictionary of the Northeastern Dunininkai Subdialects¹. In total, more than a thousand examples were collected, from which it is clear that Lithuanian dialects use two ways of referring to inhabitants by their place of origin or residence: descriptive and derivational.

Descriptive names

Descriptive names are not single words but phrases. They are of two types:

a) phrases consisting of several nouns, one of which is a place name in the genitive (used to specify precisely a person’s birthplace or place of residence). For example:

I myself was born in Švėkšna LKŽ III 308 (Šv)². She was born in the parish of Nemunaitis Alv. The surname fits, but we are neither relatives nor kin—I am Martinkus of Želviai, and he is Martinkus of Lazdininkai LKŽ III 239 (Dr). People take me for Urbutis of Kalnėnai (village) LKK IX 163 (Jrb)³. Where did you come from, you man from Alytus?! Vrn. These cherries are so good—the women of Kuršėnai picked them clean with their fingernails LKŽ VIII 500 (Krš).

b) phrases with prepositions. For example:

Are you from far away? — I’m from Švėkšna LKŽ V 778 (J. Jabl). He comes from Kybartai LKŽ II 1093 (Vlkv). She comes from Žvirgždėnai, but lives in Varėna Pv. My mother had come from Palanga LKŽ II 1074 (Plng). He left Rakai Nč. It seems to me (it appears) that those girls are from Alizava Slm. Murod, you’re from Šilalė LKŽ VIII 430 (Grd). We were registered as the Kukliai family (surname) from Kaziuliai (village) LKŽ XI 216 (Dv). You Kritvirpiai are from Tintalai village! LKŽ VI 641 (Dr). A man from Kaunas Rs. He is from Agurkiškė VŠR. A man from Rūdiškės Trak. They are from beyond Girdžiai LKK IX 155 (Jrb).

¹ Vitkauskas V. Šiaurės rytų dunininkų šnektų žodynas. – V., 1976.

²Abbreviations are as in the Lithuanian Language Dictionary.

³Sentences bearing this abbreviation are taken from the article: Grinaveckienė E. The meanings and use of prepositions in the southern dialect of the northwestern Aukštaitians. — In: Lithuanian Linguistics Issues. V., 1967, vol. 9, pp. 151–170.

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He is from Sintautai LKŽ V 778 (Plv). She comes from Pašakiai LKŽ II 1093 (Pc). He is from Utena (from the vicinity of Utena) LKŽ VIII 902 (Ktk). That man is said to be from Pasvalys LKŽ VIII 902 (Dj). A person from Dieveniškės Šlčn. That woman there, the one from Varėna Pv. Judging by the language, I only guess that he is from Daugėliškis LKŽ IX 247 (Švnč). We had a teacher from Pagudiškis—either from Šiauliai or from Tauragė LKŽ IX 100 (Šts). She is from beyond Šiauliai LKK IX 157 (Jrb). They are from this side of Šimkaičiai LKK IX 157 (Jrb).

In sentences with the preposition iš ‘from’ (or the compound preposition iš anapus ‘from beyond’), a person’s place of birth (or residence) is specified precisely. These sentences are synonymous with those in the first subgroup (a).

To indicate an approximate place of residence—that is, not a specific settlement but a wider area—constructions with the preposition nuo ‘from’ are used (or analogous constructions with the compound prepositions nuo anapus ‘from beyond’ and nuo šiapus ‘from this side’).

In spoken language, throughout Lithuania a person’s place of residence is usually indicated descriptively. This would suggest that this way of indicating it is old. The same usage also appears in old documents and register records, where the registered person’s place of birth or residence was noted, e.g.: Mikolajūnas from the village of Norbutai (1742), Jaraitis from the village of Puodžiūnai (1702), and so on.⁴ Moreover, there are place names from which it is difficult to form demonyms derivationally (most often, as we shall see below, for phonetic reasons); in such cases, too, the descriptive method serves as a solution. In some parts of Lithuania, it is even the only method. For example, in the Krakes area of Kėdainiai district, around Upytė in Panevėžys district, around Kaišiadorys and Trakai, and in the Vilnius region, local people say that someone is from Panevėžys, from Krekenava, from Kalviai, from Rūdiškės, from Nemenčinė. Elsewhere, the aforementioned phrases are used alongside one-word forms created by derivation, with suffixes or endings, e.g.: in Miežiškiai (Panevėžys district), people say both a Panevėžys resident and a person from Panevėžys; in the Valkininkai and Marcinkonys areas of Varėna district, people say both from (or: near) Marcinkonys, from (or: near) Varėna, and marcinkoniškis, varėniškis, varėnis. Similar usage occurs in the districts of Šakiai, Kapsukas, Vilkaviškis, Alytus, Vilnius, Šalčininkai, and Molėtai.

Derivational names

One-word names are formed derivationally as follows:

a) nominal or adjectival suffix derivatives, e.g.: salantiškis, -ė, pušėnas, pakruojietis, -ė, veliuonýtis, -ė, žagarininkas, -ė, tverėčinis, -ė and others;

b) nominal derivatives with the ending -is, e.g.: ariogalis, -ė, šeduvis, -ė, širvintis, -ė.

Suffixal names are the majority; derivatives with the ending -is are less common. Many different suffixes are available for this purpose, e.g.: -iškis, -ė; -ietis, -ė; -ėnas; -inis, -ė; -(in)inkas (-ykas), -ė; -ytis, -ė; -(i)ukas, -ė; -(i)utis, -ė; -(i)okas, -ė; -onas, -ė and others. They are not all used to the same extent or with the same frequency (their distribution and use are clearer from the map*). We shall discuss them according to their derivational productivity.

⁴ Zinkevičius Z. Lietuvių antroponimika. – V., 1977, p. 35.

* The numbers on the map mark dialectological points in the same way as in the “Atlas of the Lithuanian Language.”

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Throughout Lithuania (perhaps excepting only the northern Panevėžys dialect area and the adjoining part of the Šiauliai dialect area), the old suffix -iškis, -ė is used; for Samogitians it is practically the sole word-formation device of this kind. E.g.: The people of Kretinga make carts with large, long shafts LKŽ VI 555 (Slnt). He is, it seems, from among the people of Mosėdis LKŽ VIII 354 (Slnt). Adomas is a man of Sedas, from Kirkiai Slnt. The people of Kuršėnai speak more thickly, those of Papilė more thinly LKŽ VI 972 (Pp). I am a genuine woman of Laukuva by now—I was born here, grew up here, and spent my whole life here LKŽ VIII 189 (Lkv). The people of Rietavas chatter and warble like black grouse LKŽ XI 582 (Lkv). Blinda was a man of Luokė; Luokė was his homeland LKŽ VII 691 (Užv). He is from right here, a man of Mažeikiai LKŽ VII 967 (Mžk). I have been a woman of Palanga for ages LKŽ IV 157 (Plng). Her first husband was a man of Palanga LKŽ IX 238 (Ms). Dygimas was a man of Plateliai LKŽ II 525 (Šts). The people of Plungė speak differently (change the way they speak) now (speak another way) LKŽ X 350 (Krtn). The people of Gargždai work the fields differently LKŽ II 570 (Krtn). We, the people of Raudėnai, speak much like those of Telšiai LKŽ XI 249 (Rdn). The people of Gruzdžiai are country folk; those of Šakyna are forest folk LKŽ VII 181 (Škn). Her husband was a man of Salantai Grg. He went looking for eels around Rusnė LKŽ XI 1020 (Rsn). The people of Priekulė speak beautifully LKŽ X 651 (Plik). The people of Palanga dug in their heels, saying they would not give in to Tiškevičius LKŽ V 866 (Dr). The women of Kelmė do not know how to say “thank you” LKŽ I 17 (Ll). The people of Šilutė and Priekulė always twist their words LKŽ VI 501 (Sg). We do not come into contact with the people of Priekulė (do not meet, do not run into one another) Pgg. At those singing gatherings, people from Plateliai, Plungė, and Alsėdžiai would sing in groups in the fields and at work bees Plt. Other people of Plateliai and around Šateikiai used to call the kodaliai raagtinėms LKŽ X 80 (Plt). It’s an onion-growing area where you are: the people of Šakyna have been onion growers since ancient times LKŽ II 20 (Žg). In those years, songs and words of the people of Vilkiai were being written down LKŽ II 1152 (Erž). The people of Veliuona speak in a Samogitian manner (speak using Samogitian dialect features) LKŽ VII 75 (Ilg). The people of Papartė gave the garden LKŽ IX 350 (Ppr). The people of Panemunė are already harvesting rye LKŽ IX 333 (PnmA). The women of Ramygala married off [to live elsewhere] LKŽ XI 124 (Rm). The people of Kirdeikiai promised to come to the fair with music the following Sunday LKŽ V 833 (Trgn). The people of Labanoras make their living from mushrooms and berries LKŽ VII 3 (Trgn). You won’t get out of here so quickly; bake us some bread, and you’ll become a woman of Salakas Slk. A man of Antazavė married a woman of Dusetos LKŽ I 158 (Ds). A man of Dusetos only has to dance and sleep, while a man of Kamajai has to twist rope LKŽ II 918 (Dkk). At the horse races the people of Obeliai ride beautifully LKŽ VIII 987 (Ob). He comes from Priemai, a man of Priemai LKŽ X 664 (Pln). Prienai filled up with people from Birštonas LKŽ I 846 (Prn). Many people of Perloja lived solely on mushrooms LKŽ IX 839 (Alv). People of Dubičiai catch a lot of fish in these lakes LKŽ II 781 (Dbč). The land of many localities is hilly LKŽ II 322 (Alv). Miežionys resident, - woman resident; Skaivonys resident, - woman resident; Skraičionys resident, - woman resident LKK IX 193 (Dv)⁵. Dainava resident, - woman resident; Krėliai resident, - woman resident; Kurpešiai resident, - woman resident; Narbutonys resident, - woman resident; Narčionys resident, - woman resident; Naugardas resident, - woman resident; Pagiriai resident, - woman resident; Vilnius resident, - woman resident; Zasečiai resident, - woman resident; Zietela resident, - woman resident LKK XI (Zt)⁶.

⁵ Examples from the article: Lipskienė J., Vidugiris A. Dieveniškės Dialect. – In: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai, vol. 9, p. 193.

⁶ Examples from the article: Vidugiris A. The Noun in the Zietela Dialect. – In: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai. V., 1969, vol. 11, p. 157.

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Among the people of the Panevėžys dialect area (especially its northern part) and some Šiauliai dialect speakers, a person’s place of residence is usually described periphrastically (a person from Smilgiai, from Upytė, and so on), but derivatives with the suffix -ietis, -ė are also formed occasionally. E.g.:

Today very many people from Panevėžys are picking berries in the little forest LKŽ IX 334 (Krs). People from Panevėžys, you see, speak differently from us LKŽ IX 334 (Mžš). You Kairiai lads, get out of here (the young men from the village of Kairiai), you come home with a bulge Sml. A person from Baisogala does not look at others LKŽ I 69 (Bsg). People from Radviliškis have arrived Šln.

It should be noted that this suffix is not the only one used either in these places or elsewhere in Lithuania: other derivatives or phrases are also used synonymously. Cf.:

His wife is from Biržai LKŽ I 850 (Ds), but there is also a person from Biržai (Skp), a Biržėnas (Vb).

A few more girls from Leliūnai—and all are guests LKŽ VII 319 (Dbk), but one also says people of Leliūnai (Ut).

I am a woman from Lyduokiai LKŽ VII 410 (Kkl) – and from (from) Lyduokiai (Ldk).

My grandfather is from Pandėlys LKŽ IX 33 (Krp) – and from Pandėlys (Rk).

He took a wife from among the people of Panemunis LKŽ IX 333 (Kp) – and from Panemunis (Rk).

It is true that derivatives with the suffixes -iškis, -ė and -ietis, -ė sometimes differ in meaning. For example, Samogitians around Šilutė and Tauragė call residents of the city of Klaipėda klaipėdiškiai, but residents of the entire Klaipėda region klaipėdiečiai. In the Kairiai area (Šiauliai District), the suffix -iškis, -ė is used to refer to a resident of a particular village, and it is also useful when speaking of a temporary visitor. Local residents refer to people from the surrounding area using derivatives with the suffix -ietis, -ė. The same is true in Šalčininkai District. In many places there is a tendency to form derivatives with the suffix -ietis, -ė for residents of larger cities (vilnietis, kaunietis, panevėžietis, šiaulietis). The people of Suvalkija, while also using other suffixes, refer to residents of larger settlements with derivatives in -ietis, -ė, e.g. kaunietis, šakietis (Alk, Kdl), whereas the suffix -iškis, -ė is needed when they speak of people from smaller settlements, or when they want to indicate the place from which someone who had been there temporarily, but did not live there, has returned; e.g. Šakiškiai parvažiavo (‘The people from Šakiai have returned’; those who had been in Šakiai) Nm. In Kuršėnai, the suffix -iškis, -ė is also used to indicate where someone returning from a trip had been, e.g. Ar jau miegti rygiškiai? (‘Have the people from Riga gone to bed yet?’) LKŽ XI 594 (Krš). This suffix is also appropriate there when speaking of someone who is temporarily away: Rygiškiai dar neparvažiavo (‘The people from Riga have not returned yet’) LKŽ XI 594 (Krš). In Varėna District, when speaking of people who are not local but live elsewhere or are encountered away from their place of residence, the suffix -iškis, -ė is used (Kauniškiai atvažiavo. ‘The people from Kaunas have arrived.’ Genionyse susitikau valkiniškį. ‘I met a person from Valkininkai in Genionys.’). At other times, periphrastic names are used, while the suffix -ietis, -ė is rare and used almost exclusively by the younger generation.

As we can see, the suffix -ietis, -ė is only secondary in the dialects. Initially, its derivatives seem to have been used to refer to inhabitants of neighboring and adjacent areas, and people from larger settlements. In colloquial speech, derivatives in -ietis, -ė are still found chiefly at the boundaries of dialect areas. In the standard language, derivatives denoting people by the names of their present or former places of residence are formed almost exclusively with the suffix -ietis, -ė⁷. For these

⁷ Cf. Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. — V., 1965, vol. 1, p. 411 (hereafter — LKG).

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Derivatives tend to gain currency probably also because phonetic factors mean that one cannot always form names for inhabitants with the suffix -iškis, -ė. Even the Samogitians, who rely almost exclusively on derivatives in -iškis, -ė, have tryškiečius (: Tryškiai). Incidentally, they also say Tryškių žmogus (Rdn). The inhabitants of the Kunigiškiai district in Tauragė district are called kunigiškiečiais (Trg).

The inhabitants of the Kupiškis and Anykščiai regions, the vicinity of Rokiškis, and their closest neighbors often form regional nomina with the suffix -ėnas, for example: Kad jis anykštėnas, pažįnu iš kalbos LKŽ I 141 (An). Duokiškėnų žemės geros LKŽ II 867 (Dbk). Kupiškėnai kupiškėnais palieka LKŽ VI 927 (Kp). Biržėnai juokias iš kupreliškėnų: čia korva, čia kumala, čia duonos plutala LKŽ VI 930 (Kpr). Vabalnykėnai savatinai kalba Brž. Rokiškėnai neskūpūs LKŽ XI 816 (Ob).

In the places mentioned, derivatives with this suffix sometimes designate not an inhabitant of a particular settlement but an inhabitant of the surrounding area, a representative of the dialect, for example: salamiestėnas, kupiškėnas, vabalninkėnas, kupreliškėnas (Slm), juodupėnas, rokiškėnas, anykštėnas (On). To say that an inhabitant is from the town itself, local people say: salamiestietis, alizavietis, antašavietis, papilietis, rokiškietis, juodupietis (Slm), or obeliškis, kamajiškis (Rk), čedasėškis (On), biržiškis (Skp). Compare: the inhabitants of the areas around Tilžė and Ragainė were called tilžėnai (Šlu) and ragainėnai (Ra-gainėnai į tur savo tarmę LKŽ XI 14 (Pgg), whereas the inhabitants of those towns were called tilžiškiais ir ragainiškiais (Šlu).

As the map shows, derivatives with the suffix -ėnas also occur in other parts of Lithuania. In the area of the Širvintiškiai dialect — kiauklėnai, šešuolėnai Šš, čiobiškėnai Čb; among the Uteniškiai — užpalenai Sdk, kuktiškėnai (Tas žmogus gal kuktiškėnas? LKŽ VI 809 (Ut); in the Ignalina region — daugeliškėnai (Jau nėra niekur tokių giesmininkų kaip daugeliškėnai LKŽ II 313 (Dglš), tverečėnai (Tverečėnai adutiškiečius vadina skersagudžiais (Ad); in the area of the western Samogitians — plikėnai Grg, grabupėnai Grdm; in the Klaipėda region, the inhabitants of Viešvilė are called viešvilėnai Jrb (also viešviliškiai); among the southern Aukštaitians — žašlėnai Ppr, vieviškėnai Vvs (also žašliskiai Žsl, vieviškiai Trak), ratnyčėnai (Ši-ta žemė ratnyčėnų LKŽ XI 244 (Drsk).

Examples with the feminine form of the suffix -ėnas have neither been heard nor found in the printed volumes of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” or in its and the LKA’s index, although it may perhaps be used somewhere in spoken language. So might the absence of a feminine form indicate that initially derivatives with the suffix -ėnas referred to all the inhabitants of that area in the plural (we will discuss this further below)? The use of double suffixes would also support this, e.g.: Kuktiškėniškėniams naravu: turi geležinkelį, kur nori, gali nuvažiuot LKŽ VI 809 (Trgn). Papilėniškiai dideliai mėgst dainas LKŽ IX 362 (Pp). Skapiškėniškai kalba Skp.

In other words, the suffix -ėn- here indicates that the person in question is from that region, while -išk- specifies or identifies a particular locality.

As the examples given show, the use in the same localities of derivatives with the suffixes -iškis, -ė, -ietis, -ė and -ėnas can be explained by their differing semantic functions. Admittedly, in some places the semantic distinction is not pronounced, or is entirely absent. For example, in the Tverečius dialect, according to J. Otrębski, the suffix -inis, -ė has the same function as the suffix -iškis, -ė. The suffix -iškis, -ė is replaced by -inis, -ė in those cases—

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when the place name itself has the suffix -iškis, -ė. Interestingly, the suffix -iškis, -ė is retained in derivatives from some place names, while derivatives with -inis, -ė are not formed from other place names, for example: Karališkiai – karališkiniai, bet Latakiškė – latakiniai⁸.

The domain of use of the suffix -inis, -ė is not as broad as that of, for example, -iškis, -ė. Derivatives with this suffix are most commonly formed in the dialect areas of the Vilniškiai and Kauniškiai, and very rarely elsewhere. These derivatives designate a person living there or originating from (or coming or returning from) there. It should be noted that the history of the development of personal names shows that some personal names with the suffix -inis, -ė also denoted a person’s place of origin (e.g., Suder-vinis – from Sudervė) or affiliation (e.g., Geldinis – Geldai, the Geldos family, Geldos’s son)⁹.

Derivatives with the suffix -inis, -ė are more often used adjectivally than substantivally. For example:

There had also been an alder-tree teacher LKŽ I 104 (Gs). The Dūkštai boys also hand over a sheet (letter) LKŽ II 811 (Dglš). I saw one girl from Dūkštai and one from Salakas LKŽ II 811 (Slk). A Jew from Salakas Dglš. A doctor from Klaipėda LKŽ V 948 (Pln). A priest from Tauragė Trg. This Slavic doctor told me Slv. The doctors from Pilviškiai don't undertake treatment; they send people to Vilkaviškis LKŽ IX 1029 (Plv). My son, you know, is from Kaunas KzR. A doctor from Veiveriai Kps. A priest from Sasnava KzR. There was a parish priest from Vilkaviškis Lkš. Zinkevičius from Pupiškis Šlčn. Women from Samava Zr. We were people from Svėdasai, part of the Svėdasai parish; before the First World War we separated Adm. Petronienė from Riga (having returned from Riga) LKŽ XI 594 (Kp).

We are women from Dūkštai LKŽ II 811 (Dkšt). We were attacked by people from Sasnava Ss. He was from Erzvėtas OG 176. She was from Pašilė OG 176. A woman from Ropidai (a female resident of the village of Ropidai) Krs. There were people from Varėna and Marcinkonys here, and I saw people from Eišiškės too Dg.

Derivatives with other suffixes are also used adjectivally. For example:

Seeing a person from Dusetos in another town, you would immediately recognize that they are from Dusetos LKŽ II 924 (Ds). The doctor from Naumiestis is going to Švėkšna LKŽ VIII 592 (Vn). Men from Pabėržė are going around LKŽ IX 15 (Pb). All the women from Raudėnai are known LKŽ XI 249 (Krš). There was another man from Alanta with the same matter LKŽ I 91 (Dbk). The women from Pabradė know well how to do it (dye) JnšM. Ievutė from Varėna neither calls nor writes back Pv.

A Panevėžys doctor had arrived LKŽ IX 334 (Krs). A Siesikai woman doctor treated Ssk.

Adutiškis people LKŽ I 22 (Ad).

There are a few derivatives formed by less common means. Derivatives with the suffix -(in)inkas (-nykas), -ė occur somewhat more frequently among Samogitians and are rare elsewhere, e.g.: tarbučininkai Žg; vegerininkas, žagarininkas, kivylininkas Vgr; palukninkas Skd; karkl ininkas Krg; nidininkai, pervalkininkai, pretilininkai Nd; ventininkai Prk; alkininkai Grdm; rygininkė Klk; skardininkai Jrb; moletnykai Dbg; To us, the horn players, she gave—

⁸ Otrębski J. Wschodniolitewskie narzecze twereckie. Gramatyka. – Kraków, 1934, t. 1, p. 170–172 (toliau – OG).

⁹ Zinkevičius Z. Min. veik., p. 241.

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his beautiful vilpstvne LKŽ XII 4 (Rdž). Those gospodariai who live near Šilelis call themselves šilelnykais Brž. Fishermen from the Curonian Spit who moved from southwestern Latvia (Courland) are called Curonians, spit-dwellers (Dov). A. Jonaitytė, who studied the influence of Latvian on the grammatical structure of the western Aukštaitian dialects along the Latvian border, notes that “due to the influence of Latvian, the suffix -¹⁰ (i)ninks ~ -inin-kas in these dialects sometimes acquires the meaning of the Lithuanian suffixes -iškis, -ietis, e.g.: dūobelniks ‘resident of Duobelė’ (mãs būvom mvaž’āve pas tuos dūobelnikus Žg), ėlininks ‘resident of Elėja’ (čė gi-vėna lātvei ēlininkai Kyb), tarbū:čninks ‘resident of Tarbūčiai village’ (āna vis po-vārdu šauk tie tarbū:čņkpai Dilb), vegėr:ninks ‘resident of the Vegerė area’ (vegė:rnin kai dā daugau latv’ūoj ir už mum Škn); rī:ginōks ‘resident of Riga’ (lā:uk’am, ga’l, sā:kom, mūsu rī:gininkai ši mēnesi parvaž’uos ant āplamkū Škn). Cf. Latvian dobelnieks ‘person from Dobele’, rīdzinieks ‘person from Riga’, liepājnieks ‘person from Liepāja’. The Latvian suffix -(i)nieks is equivalent for speakers of these dialects to their own suffix -(i)ninks; cf. borrowings: dār-žininks, Latvian dārznieks; māšiniks ‘motorist’, Latvian mašīnieks, and so on.”¹¹

Semantically, derivatives formed with the suffixes under discussion are ambiguous. For example, in Kuršėnai, rygininkais refers to those who travel to Riga regularly (LKŽ XI 594). Elsewhere, the term denotes local people who have gone to Riga, e.g.: Well, our Riga-goers haven’t come back for a long time this time LKŽ XI 594 (Skn).

Only a few derivatives with the suffix -ytis were found, e.g.: veliuonytis Jrb, zarasytis (The police went to Zarasai Zr), šiaulytis Rdn, Lk, Akm, Trk. In Upynas, štaulytis also means, more generally, a person who speaks the Aukštaitian dialect.

Around Šilutė, derivatives with the suffix -ujis are formed, e.g.: lankininkujis (: Lankininkai), lažynujis (: Lazdūnėnai), skardupėnujis (: Skardupiai) Šlu, paplynujis (: Paplyniai) NmŠ.

There are a few derivatives formed by particularly rare means. With the suffix -(i)ukas, -ė: kazlinukė (: Kazlų Rūda) Kps, pasodėliukai (: Pasodėlė) Krkn; with the suffix -(i)utis: kauniutis (: Kaunas) Ut.

Derivatives with other suffixes (including Slavic ones) are occasionally found in areas with a more ethnically mixed population. For example:

-onas, -ė, -(i)onis, -ė: rygionis, -ė Brž, Ps, Grž: During the war, rygionės had begun coming from Riga LKŽ XI 594 (Lnkv); biržionis, -ė: Perhaps you’ll understand what the people of Biržai (Biržėnai) are chattering about LKŽ II 62 (Trgn); vilnionis, -ė Mlt; salakonas, -ė: They are both true Salakas people, but Antanas had left Slk. A Salakas man even dances while plowing; he has a tune playing in his belly Ds. The people of Salakas speak differently Alv. The Salakas women both dance and weave Ds; narčionis, -ė Zt. A. Vidugiris compares the latter example with the old borrowing miesčionis, which has a similar meaning and formation, and notes that around Zietela the derivative narčioniškis is used more often than narčionis to refer to a resident of Narčiai village¹².

¹⁰ These are the dialects of the Skaistgirys and Žagarė areas of Joniškis district; Gruzdžiai, Šakyna and Šiupyliai areas of Šiauliai district; and the Kruopiai area of Akmenė district.

¹¹ Jonaitytė A. Latvių kalbos poveikis palatvės vakarų aukštaičių šnektų gramatinei sandarai. — Kn.: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai, t. 9, p. 174—175.

¹² Žr. Vidugiris A. Min. str., p. 157.

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-(i)okas, -ė. “Personal designations formed with this suffix from the proper names of the places where those people live, and in some cases carrying a secondary connotation of disparagement (alongside the meaning of origin—that of affiliation), are used almost exclusively in the southern Aukštaitian dialects (Alytus, Kaišiadorys, Kapsukas, Veisiejai), e.g.: Kaišiadoriokas, -ė, kauniokas, -ė, lazdijokas, -ė, palomeniokas, -ė, prieniokas, -ė, seir(i)okas, -ė, veisiejokas, -ė¹³.

Occasionally, derivatives formed with other (especially Slavic) suffixes also occur, e.g.: raguvekas, traupekas Tršk, vilenskas Zr, švenčėnskas Ck, ignalińskas Ign, adutinskas Ad, smėliniskis Zr, paringuckas Ign, druskin(e)ckas Lzd, butrimancas Šlčn, etc.

There are few derivatives with the ending -is. They occur more frequently in the dialects of the Pakruojis, Radviliškis, Panevėžys, and Ukmergė districts. E.g.:

Linkuva: linkuvis, -ė Sdb. We, the lowlanders (residents of Žeimelis), speak this way, the people of Linkuva speak differently, and the people of Pašvitinys differently again LKŽ VII 551 (Žml). The women of Linkuva used to weave very beautiful coarse woollen cloth LKŽ VII 551 (Lnkv). We stack hay in the barn, while the people of Linkuva feed it LKŽ II 1016 (Rz).

Pušalotas: pušalotis, -ė. Lithuanian songs recorded in the district of the Pušalotas people and the people of Veliuona LKŽ XI 105 (JD title page).

Šeduva: šeduvis, -ė Rz, Klov, Sdb, Pšš, Šml, Rm. He is already a person from Šeduva Rd. The people of Šeduva used to sow five centners at a time Šd. He is from Šeduva, while I am from Baisogala Bsg.

Baisogala: baisogalis, -ė. This man is from Baisogala LKŽ I 569 (Bsg). The people of Baisogala speak very differently from those of Šeduva LKŽ I 569 (Šd).

Ramygal(a): ramygalis, -ė. You have become related to people from Ramygala LKŽ XI 124 (Ėr).

Raguva: raguvis, -ė. Where are you from? — From Raguva LKŽ XI 43 (Ukm).

Deltuva: deltuvis, -ė LKŽ II 398.

Širvintos: širvintis, -ė. I ran away from the doctors of Širvintos. The people from the west arrive, the Širvintos people; those from far away were from Šr.

Varėna: varėnis, -ė Dg.

As the map shows, the areas in which derivational devices are used almost coincide with those occupied by the dialects. More productive suffixes alternate with more dialect-specific ones, producing doublet synonymous forms (especially along dialect boundaries). Thus, the distribution of derivational devices is determined by the linguistic (dialectal) unity of the inhabitants.

Semantically, one could distinguish not only a group of derivatives denoting people by origin or affiliation, but also a group of derivatives denoting a larger gathering of people united by a common activity or participating in some event, e.g.: When those people from Kalvarija (participants in the Kalvarija religious festival) it started to rain LKŽ V 165 (Als).

In the dialects, most designations are formed with suffixes, especially the suffix -iškis, -ė. Unfortunately, in the standard language it is gradually being displaced by the suffix -ietis, -ė, which is increasingly monopolizing derivation. The main reasons that have tipped the balance in favor of the suffix -ietis, -ė are probably grammatical:

1) nomina regionalia formed with the suffix -ietis, -ė are generally used only as nouns; designations formed with the suffix -iškis, -ė are used not only as nouns—

¹³ LKG, vol. I, p. 413.

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not only nouns, but also adjectives, e.g.: Many Perloja residents lived solely on mushrooms LKŽ IX 839 (Alv) and A Perloja resident is a nobleman LKŽ IX 839 (K. Būg); The Vilnius residents have already all left Pv and Vilnius audience DŽ 940;

2) both masculine and feminine designations are formed with it (e.g., with the suffix -ėnas, which is widely used by the eastern Highlanders, usually only masculine designations are formed);

3) derivatives with the suffixes -ietis, -ė are stylistically neutral (the same cannot be said, for example, of derivatives with the suffix -okas: The Lazdijokai speak even more fiercely LKŽ VII 213 (Rdm).

The fact that the suffix -iškis, -ė is still actively used in dialects might perhaps be explained by: 1) the long tradition of this usage (especially among Samogitians and Dzūkians, and to some extent among Highlanders); 2) the substantivization of adjectives with the suffix -iškis, -ė¹⁴.

It should be noted that, regardless of which suffix the designations are formed with, their plural form is used most often, e.g.: Everyone from Aviliai came to the market LKŽ I 526 (Avl). There were very many people from Debeikiai in Anykščiai today LKŽ II 348 (Dbk). There are no singers like the ones from Daugelis anywhere anymore LKŽ II 313 (Dglš). The people of Papilė really like songs LKŽ IX 362 (Pp).

The same is true of other languages. Specialized Russian dictionaries give the plural form as the basic and primary form¹⁵. It seems quite reasonable here to explain that the plural is “convenient because it expresses the idea of a group without indicating the sex of the individuals who make it up”¹⁶. As a result, the designations acquire greater semantic abstraction. The plural locative has even become adverbial, acquiring a more general lexical meaning and already serving as an adverbial of place in the sentence. For example:

Everywhere there are skurdutės (skudučiai) among us Biržai people RdN. Now he lives among the people of Pandėlys (in the vicinity of Pandėlys) LKŽ IX 331 (Kp). They don't say it like that among the people of Pandėlys LKŽ IX 331 (Pnd). I lived among the people of Palanga for three years (in the vicinity of Palanga) LKŽ IX 238 (Ms). Among the people of Papilė (in the vicinity of Papilė) he lived and learned to say douma, peins LKŽ IX 362 (Krš). I lived among the people of Rietavas for two years LKŽ XI 582 (Jdr). She was very rich among the people of Salakas Imb. The language is different among the people of Salakas Vj. The people of Svedasai are already beginning to cut rye Dbk. The son was an agronomist in Svedasiniai Adm.

It should also be mentioned separately that designations cannot be derived by this method from all place names; in some cases only the descriptive method is suitable. This depends on the phonetic and morphological structure of the place name.

Instead of conclusions, we will offer several observations stating facts:

1) If a place name itself has the suffix -iškis, added to a stem ending in the consonant k (e.g., Grinkiškis, Duokiškis, Karsakiškis, Rokiškis), then in such cases nomina regionalia are never formed with the suffix -iškis, apparently to avoid phonetic repetition (the result would be grinkiškiškis, etc.).

¹⁴ On the tendency of adjectives with the suffix -iškis, -ė to become substantivized, cf. Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, vol. 1, p. 574.

¹⁵ Словарь названий жителей РСФСР. – М., 1964; Словарь названий жителей СССР. – М., 1975.

¹⁶ Словарь названий жителей СССР. – М., 1975, с. 8.

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2. As the examples selected from V. Vitkauskas’s “Dictionary of the Northern Eastern Dūnininkai Dialects” show, in this dialect all nomina regionalia (as, incidentally, throughout Samogitia) are formed with the suffix -iškis, -ė. If a place name has root stress, its derivatives belong to the first accent paradigm; if it has ending stress, they belong to the second, e.g.: akmėniškis, -ė 1 (:Akmenė), janapoliškis, -ė 1 (: Janapolė), juozapaviškis, -ė 1 (: Juozapava), kuršėniškis, -ė 1 (: Kuršėnai), kūrtuvėniškis, -ė 1 (: Kūrtuvėnai), micaitiškis, -ė 1 (:Micaičiai), papilėniškis, -ė 1 (: Papilė), raudėniškis, -ė 1 (: Raudėnai), šakyniškis, -ė 1 šakyniškis, -ė 2 (: Šakyna), šaukėniškis, -ė 2, šaukėniškis, -ė 1 (: Šaukėnai), telšiškis, -ė 2 (: Telšiai), tvėriškis, -ė 1 (: Tverai), upyniškis, -ė 1 (: Upyna), užventiškis, -ė 2 (: Užventis), varniškis, -ė 1 (: Varniai), vidasodiškis, -ė 1, vidasodiškis, -ė 2 (: Vidasodis), viekšniališkis, -ė 1 (: Viekš naliai), žagariškis, -ė 1 (: Žagarė).

3. Of two-word place names, nomina regionalia are most often formed descriptively or from just one (more often the second) component, e.g.: Aukštoji Panemunė – a person from Aukštoji Panemunė or a panemunietis LKŽ IX 333. Kazlų Rūda – from Kazlų Rūda or kazliškis, kazlinukas Kps, rūdininkas LKŽ XI 871 (Zp). Naujoji Akmenė – from Naujoji Akmenė or akmenietis Akm. Žemaičių Kalvarija – from Kalvarija, kalvariškis LKŽ V 165.

If a two-word name is converted into a compound (e.g., Lauko Soda – Lauksodis), a one-word derivative can also be formed from it: lauksodiškis.

4. In separate dialects, names derived from analogous place names are formed with different suffixes, e.g.: Kudirkos Naumiestis – naumiestietis, -ė; Žemaičių Naumiestis – naumiestiškis, -ė.

5. Sometimes a place name is used figuratively to refer to the inhabitants of that place, e.g.: Jis kad jims par pečius pliūšyti Rudikus (“He’ll thrash Rudikai over the shoulders”—the people of Rudikai village)! LKŽ X 285 (Slm). Atsimenu, ba ženklūs metai buvo: Pivašiūnai su Einoromin mušės Pv.

6. From place names ending in -uva (Linkuva, Raguva, Šeduva), there is a tendency to form ending derivatives with the ending -is (feminine -ė), although derivatives with this ending also occur from place names with other endings (Baisogala, Pušalotas, Varėna).

7. There is a relationship between the formation of derivatives and semantics. It has been observed that dialects have few variants of nomina regionalia, and that these are almost independent of the derivational structure of the base words.

NOMINA REGIONALIA IN LITHUANIAN DIALECTS

Abstract

The article examines words that designate a person by their place of residence or origin.

It has been established that in Lithuanian dialects a person’s connection with a particular locality is expressed in two ways: descriptively and derivationally. Descriptive names are used throughout Lithuania, whereas derived forms (i.e., nomina regionalia, formed with various suffixes or the ending -is) have their own distribution areas, which almost coincide with those of the dialects (see map).

The relationship between the formation and semantics of these names is noted; grammatical, semantic, stylistic, and other causes of their variation are examined.