LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXXV (1995)

LIETUVIŲ LEKSIKOLOGIJOS TYRINĖJIMAI

Vilija SAKALAUSKIENĖ

ON THE VALENCY OF VERBS WITH THE PREFIX PA-

The structural and semantic center of the sentence is the finite form of the verb. All other principal sentence elements and their forms depend on the sentence center. Thus, any analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence can begin with a characterization of the verb. The need for and selection of its determinants depend on the verb’s content and form. The syntactic classification of verbs is based on their valency (Geniušienė 1971:8). Researchers’ conceptions of valency on this issue and problems concerning the valency of Lithuanian verbs are discussed extensively in N. Sližienė’s articles (1978:108—114; 1986:45—91). For now, there is no consensus on many of the most important questions of valency (Sližienė 1986:45). S. Kacnelson “defined valency as the property of words to be realized in a sentence in a certain way and to enter into certain combinations with other words. Understood in this way, valency includes not only the subject and object relations, but also all the adverbial relations of the verb with other words” (Sližienė 1978:108). Valency, as V. Labutis points out, “is a project of the syntagmatic interaction (relations) of a word as a lexical unit of the language system, which specifies the number of words necessary, probable, or merely possible in such interactions, the content (quality) of those interactions, and guidelines for their realization through linguistic elements” (Labutis 1985:65). N. Sližienė proposes studying valency as a multilayered phenomenon whose basis lies at the abstract logical-semantic level, while its realization occurs at concrete linguistic levels, semantic and syntactic (Sližienė 1978:121). The article will draw on this basis for the study of valency.

Thus, one aspect of valency is syntactic valency. “The property conditioned by a verb’s meaning of combining with a certain number of words of a required form is called its syntactic valency” (Sližienė 1986:46). The other aspect of valency is the verb’s semantic valency. “Semantic valency is a certain semantic interpretation of the situation in reality described by the verb, recorded as a corresponding set of semantic functions (actants, or semantic cases)” (Sližienė 1986:90). In this article, N. Sližienė holds that “the verb together with its valency dependents provides only a certain semantic assessment of a real situation, which may or may not coincide with the mental representation of that situation in human consciousness” (Sližienė 1986:45). In earlier works, she argued that the situation denoted by the verb fully corresponds to the situation in reality. N. Sližienė goes on to state that “the same external situation may correspond to different

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verbs with different semantic case structures, which shows that they describe that situation differently: the semantic representation of a sentence encompasses only certain aspects of the external situation” (Slīžienė 1986:49).

The most important feature of both semantic and syntactic valency is whether it is obligatory or optional. Some verb dependents are obligatory and cannot be omitted; others are optional. The obligatory or optional status of dependents is determined by an elimination transformation: “by omitting one constituent and then another, it is determined which are obligatory and which are optional. Obligatory dependents express that part of the situation which the verb’s meaning presents as most important and most relevant” (Slīžienė 1986:55). Obligatory verb valency determines and requires a particular sentence element, whereas non-obligatory valency indicates that a particular element is merely possible, potential. Optional dependents are expressed in a sentence when the information they provide becomes relevant. Thus, optional semantic valency is defined as “highly probable, but not entirely necessary” (Tėkorienė 1983:99).

The article will discuss verbs belonging to one valency class—three-valent verbs with the prefix pa-. This greatly limits the number of verbs under consideration. Prefixes perform a derivational function, always delimit an action, indicate one outcome or another, and make it possible to contrast verbs of completed action with verbs of continuing action. The prefix pa- is of prepositional origin (Paulauskienė 1994:272). It differs from other Lithuanian verb prefixes in that its lexical functions are not as prominent. It is used far more widely than other prefixes solely to express aspect (Paulauskas 1958:366).

Syntactic classification of verbs is presented according to the maximum number of partners, that is, according to the verb’s obligatory and optional dependents¹. “A verb is assigned to a particular syntactic class according to the number or form of its dependents, regardless of whether those dependents are obligatory or optional” (Slīžienė 1986:91).

Three-valent verbs denote a situation in which three actants must participate. Consequently, this situation can be represented by a predicate with three open slots. These must be filled by arguments with their own meanings.

Both semantic and syntactic verb valency are determined most precisely in a sentence; therefore, expanded sentences are used, and the verb is presented in various syntactic environments. In determining the valency of verbs, the point of departure is the meaning of the verb².

The material was collected from the third edition of the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (1993; hereafter DLKŽ) and volumes I—XV of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” (hereafter LKŽ).

In the syntactic distribution of verbs, the noun plays the most important role, since it can take various forms (different cases) or prepositional constructions and perform various functions in the sentence—as subject, object

¹ Kitų kalbininkų jie vadinami aktantais, determinantais žr. (Slīžienė 1986:46).

² Apie kitų tyrinėtojų nuomonę plačiau žr. (Slīžienė 1978:111).

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and circumstances.

The prefix pa- can have a meaning similar to that of the preposition under—under what. The prefix gives this meaning to verbs denoting movement. For example, to drive a little way ‘to move or push something along a little while driving’: He drove the cart under the trees (DLKŽ); to drag underneath ‘to pull something underneath’; He dragged the harrow under the roof (DLKŽ); to drop underneath ‘to drop something beneath’: Tsar Alexander was riding when they dropped a bomb under his carriage (LKŽ VIII 69); to slip underneath ‘to put something underneath by slipping it in’; He slipped the money under the mattress (DLKŽ). All these verbs with the prefix pa- denote movement in the direction ‘under something’ or indicate ‘what is placed under something’ (Galnaitytė 1958:101). Constructions with the preposition under further emphasize the meaning of the prefix pa-. For example, to cover by placing underneath: He covered the objects by placing them under the barrel (DLKŽ); to put on underneath: Put it higher under the heel so it won’t rub (LKŽ I 517); to wear underneath ‘to wear (a garment) underneath’: He wears a fur coat under his overcoat (LKŽ card file); to wedge underneath repeatedly ‘to keep slipping underneath’: I wedged blocks under the table legs so it would be higher (LKŽ V 72).

The examples and predicate meanings show that the verbs pavažiuoti, pavilkti, pamesti, pakišti, pavožti require three actants: a subject, an object, and a circumstantial actant. All actants are important for the verb. The object is necessary to the meaning of the verb and is the entity toward which the subject’s action is directed. We have already seen that the prefix pa- indicates direction or location, so a locative circumstantial actant is also required to complete the verb’s meaning. However, not all actants are always expressed in sentences.

The semantic structure of sentences consists of a predicate and three actants—the agent, the patient, and the final point, the directive³. These actants are syntactically realized as follows: the agent is represented by the subject in the nominative, and the patient by the object in the accusative. The most typical form for realizing the directive is a prepositional construction.

A considerable number of verbs with this prefix denote low intensity. For example: paplėkti “to beat a little”: Paplėkė arklių (su) botagu (DLKŽ); paknaibyti “to pinch or pick at a little”: Paknaibys kiek pirštais duonos minkštimą (LKŽ VI 194). The opposite meaning of the prefix pa- occurs when it indicates the intensity and force of an action. For example, paduoti “to do something vigorously”: Lig pietų keturiese paduosim (gerai papjausime) ir bus rugiai nupjauti (LKŽ II 891).

The verbs papuošti “to adorn, decorate”: Šluota kambario nepapuoši (LKŽ X 934); papasakoti “to recount an event or incident”: Ji grįžo sutemus ir viską papasakojo vyrui (LKŽ IX 449) denote the completion of an action. These prefixed verbs, like their unprefixed counterparts, require two object actants; cf. pasakoti “to recount an event or incident”: Jis pasakoja pasakas (LKŽ IX 447). The addressee is omitted here, whereas in the following sentence it is explicit: Susirinko sykį jauni vyrai nedėlios vakarą ir pasakojas viens kitam pasakas (LKŽ

³ This article draws on the classification of semantic roles presented by V. Ambrazas and N. Sl文žienė (Ambrazas 1986:25; Sl文žienė 1986:51—55).

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IX 448)—the addressee is explicitly expressed.

These verbs—paraudoninti “to accentuate the red color, to tint”; paploninti “to make thinner”; patamsinti “to make darker, less well-lit”; pastriukinti “to make shorter, to shorten (an object)”—indicate that the action’s object becomes larger or smaller than it should be, and require two objects, one of which is to be the instrument (or material) needed to perform the action. The semantic valency formula would look like this:

agent — predicate — patient — instrument

A — P — Pt — I.

Another group of verbs denotes an action of short duration. These verbs require actants indicating a time limit or duration. For example: pablokšti “to pound, striking against something”: Einam pablokšim iki pietų (LKŽ I 944); pašerti “to feed for a while”: Mėnesį pašerk ir atganvsi arkly (LKŽ XIV 673).

A group of verbs without a patient realized as an object requires an actant functioning as an instrument and realized in the sentence by the instrumental case. The semantic valency formula for these verbs is as follows:

agent — predicate — patient — instrument

A — P — Pt — I.

The instrumental case realizing the instrument denotes an object with which an action is performed and which is used in acting upon the direct object. The means of the action denoted by the verbs is most often expressed by concrete nouns whose instrumental forms refer to tools, means of transportation, materials, or body parts of living beings. For example: pakalėti “to hammer a little”: Kirviu kuolą pakalėk (DLKŽ); pavažinėti “to take for a ride”: Pavažinėk vaiką rogutėmis (DLKŽ); padengti “to cover”: Padengiu sienas lentelėmis (LKŽ II 406); pasiekti “to touch or take by extending one’s hand, a stick, or the like”: Pasiekia rankomis lubas (DLKŽ). The instrument can also be realized by the instrumental case with the preposition su. For example: pabrūžinti “to rub, scrape”: Šitą vielą pabrūžink su pielyčia, kad perlaūžtum (LKŽ I 1105); pabraukyti “iterative of pabraukti”: Pabrauko aslę su šluota (DLKŽ); paplikėti “to beat a little”: Paplikė arkly su rykšte (DLKŽ). The syntactic realization formula for these verbs is as follows:

Nn — Vf — Na — Ni / with Ni⁴.

The examples presented show that the relationship between the action expressed by the verb and the patient and instrument differs. The same verb takes one relationship when used with a case expressing the direct object (the patient), and another when used with a case expressing an indirect object. For example, pabalzginti “to scare away by making a rattling noise”: Pabalzgink kokią pagaliu iš po stovų vištas (LKŽ I 627). In Pabalzgink vištas, the action is transferred to the object, whereas in pabalzgink pagaliu, the action is not transferred to the object, which consequently remains completely unchanged. The instrument corresponds to the tool or means by which the subject acts upon the object, and is perceived as an intermediary between agent and patient.

⁴ Syntactic valency patterns are denoted by the symbols given by N. Sližienė (Sližienė 1986:70).

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by which the subject acts upon the object, and is perceived as an intermediary between agent and patient.

For the trivalent verbs under consideration that have the prefix pa-, the instrumental case marking the instrument is important and is regarded as an objective actant.

All trivalent verbs with the prefix pa- require a subject actant. Subject actants are obligatory actants, since without them the meaning of the predicate would not be entirely clear. This actant indicates to whom the content of the semantic predicate is assigned, or may be assigned (as a certain property), in the sentence. The relations between the predicate and actants are described in terms of semantic functions. The principal semantic categories are the predicative property (or predicate), subject, and object (Ambrazas 1986:24). The fundamental feature of the semantic subject is that it serves as the point of departure for the predicate’s content. In many cases (see the examples discussed), when the sentence has no agent in the nominative, the verb endings indicate the presence of a subject. For example: papiršti “to propose marriage”: Papi̇rš̌k tu jam tą merginą (DLKŽ); pakrėsti “to scatter, strew”: Tik pakrėsiu kurkiukam varškės, ir neber (LKŽ VI 546). The semantic subject and grammatical subject (the subject of the sentence) need not coincide. Since the logical structure of a statement, which has the form of a propositional function, is not equivalent to the syntactic structure of every sentence, the notions of subject and grammatical subject may likewise be associated with different units: not all subjects correspond to grammatical subjects, and not all grammatical subjects correspond to semantic subjects (Ambrazas 1982:7).

Trivalent verbs with two object actants have already been discussed; therefore, trivalent verbs with an adverbial actant should be examined in greater detail. A distinction can be discerned between object and adverbial roles. Object actants are centripetal, whereas adverbial actants are centrifugal. In other words, they lie at the periphery of the action, are almost entirely uncontrolled by the predicate, and tend to become independent. Adverbial actants seem to form the background to the action and correspond to traditional adverbials (Labutis 1976:76). Among adverbial roles, the dependent constituent’s particular relation to the main constituent allows us to distinguish place /Loc/, time /Temp/, cause /Caus/, purpose /Fin/, and direction /Dir/ roles. However, not every adverbial is an actant. In semantics, these are determined by the predicate’s lexical meaning.

The place and direction actant indicates the spatial sphere in which the predicate operates and is expressed by various prepositional constructions: the prepositions į, pas, per with the accusative, ant, iš, už, nuo, prie with the genitive, and the preposition po with the instrumental. Verbs characterized by this syntactic valency structure, Nn — Vf — Na — į Na, denote spatial relations and, more specifically, indicate the direction of an action or a path of movement. For example: pašluoti “to remove, sweep away, or push aside by sweeping”: Iššlavė trobą, nušlavė neišnešę, pašlavė į palovį į teip palko (LKŽ XV 45); patrūkti “to pull a little”: Patraukė vežimą į šoną (DLKŽ); palẏdėti, cf. lydėti 1: Oi kas mane mergužėlę į namučius palydės? (LKŽ VII 405); pabraukti “to pull or push aside by sweeping”: Pabraukė į šalį sąšlavas (DLKŽ); pavedėti “to lead a little way”: Pavedė jį per gatvę (DLKŽ)

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(Nn — Vf — Na — through Na). The semantic valency formula of these verbs is as follows:

A — P — Pt — Dir.

Some trivalent verbs with an object and a circumstantial actant indicate that the action is directed toward the boundaries of an entity fulfilling the locative role. The locative actant is expressed by the locative case or by the accusative with the preposition į. For example: pasėti “to sow seeds in prepared soil”: Pasėjo darže vasarinių kviečių (LKŽ XII 462); pasilėsti “to take out to pasture; to give something to eat in the pasture”: Aš pasileidau berus žirgelius į žalią lanką (LKŽ VII 274). The syntactic and semantic valency formulas of the verbs are as follows:

Nn - Vf - Na - Nl / į Na A — P — Pt — Loc

Trivalent verbs with a circumstantial locative actant may denote a change in the patient's state. For example: pasodinti “to settle, accommodate”: Į mano namą svetimą pasodino (LKŽ XIII 281); padėti “to lay down, put down, or place somewhere”: Maišus padėjau ant aruodo (LKŽ II 450); pakelti “to put something in a higher place”: Pakelk mane ant žemosios šakos (LKŽ V 542).

An equally important actant for the predicate’s meaning may be the temporal actant. Temporal actants denote the period of time during which an object is affected or for which an action is intended. An actant expressing a temporal situation is realized by the accusative or dative cases, denoting units of measure. For example: pagrėbti “to rake for a little while”: Pagrebiau valandą šieną (LKŽ VII 555); pasidėti “to lay down, put down, or place somewhere”: Pasidėk pieno nakčiai (LKŽ VIII 520). The semantic and syntactic valency formulas of these verbs are as follows:

Vn - Vf - Na - Na; Nn - Vf - Ng - Nd A - P - Pt - Temp A - P - Pt - Temp.

Time intervals and points in time before which the action denoted by the verb takes place are expressed by various prepositional constructions: the accusative with the preposition prieš, and the genitive with the prepositions iki, ligi. For example: pablokšti “to thresh, striking against something”: Einam pablokšim iki pietų (LKŽ I 944), pamigdyti “to let someone sleep a little longer”: Jin pamigdo marčią lig pusryčių (LKŽ VIII 161). The semantic valency formula can be generalized as follows:

A — P — Pt — Temp.

Another group of trivalent verbs comprises those with a circumstantial causal actant. This actant may also be very important for the predicate’s meaning. These are verbs in predicate structures that denote actions harmful to someone. In the sentence, the causal actant is realized by prepositional constructions: the prepositions dėl, nuo with the genitive, and the preposition už with the accusative. For example: 1 paskaūsti “to begin to hurt”: Žandus paskaūdo nuo juoko (LKŽ XII 785); paginti “to drive away, expel”: Pati vyrą pagins už girtuoklystę (DLKŽ). The valency formulas are as follows:

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Nn - Vf - Na - from Ng / behind Na

A - P - Pt - Caus

Among the trivalent verbs under consideration with an object and an adverbial actant is also the finitive—the role of purpose. It indicates the purpose of an action or the thing sought; in a sentence, it is realized by the genitive or dative. For example: paūkseti “to call by whistling”: Paukšek pjovėjus pietų (DLKŽ) (Nn — Vf — Na — Ng); padėti “to spend, use up”: Visą savo uždarbį padėjau tiems reikalams (LKŽ II 451) (Nn — Vf — Na — Nd). The semantic valency formula would be:

A — P — Pt — Fin.

This analysis of adverbial roles shows that adverbial actants, like object actants, may be obligatory or optional dependents of the verb.

Having examined trivalent verbs with the prefix pa-, it can be argued that verbs to which the prefix assigns a different lexical meaning require an object and an adverbial actant. Those verbs to which the prefix assigns only a grammatical meaning require two object actants. The necessity, number, and nature of actants are determined by the semantic properties of the verb. The formal expression of object and adverbial actants is more varied than their semantic expression.

ABBREVIATIONS

A — agent

I — instrument

P — predicate

Pt — patient

Caus — cause function

Fin — purpose function

Loc — location function

Temp — time function

Dir — direction function

Vf — finite form of the verb

Nn — nomen (noun), n — nominative

Ng — genitive

Nd — dative

Na — accusative

Ni — instrumental

Nl — locative

/ — variants are marked

REFERENCES AND SOURCES

Ambražas V. 1982: Dėl sintaksinių ir semantinių terminų santykio. — Sintaksės ir semantikos klausimai, Šiauliai, 6—7.

Ambražas V. 1986: Lietuvių kalbos sakinio sintaksinės ir semantinės struktūros vienetai. — Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 25, 4—44.

DLKŽ — Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian. Vilnius: Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing House, 1993.

Galnaitytė E. 1958: Veiksmažodžiai su priešdėliu pa- dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje. — Kalbotyra 1(1), 101—122.

Geniušienė E. 1971: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių sintaksinė klasifikacija. — Kalbotyra 23 (1), 7—16.

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Labutis V. 1985: Valentingumas — semantiniai vaidmenys — semantinė struktūra. — Tarptautinė baltistų konferencija 1985 m. spalio 9—12 d. Pranešimų tezės, Vilnius, 65—66.

Labutis V. 1976: Žodžių junginių problemos, Vilnius.

LKŽ — Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 3—15, Vilnius, 1956—1991; 2nd ed. 1—2, 1968—1969.

Paulauskas J. 1958: Veiksmažodžio priešėlių funkcijos dabartinėje literatūrinėje lietuvių kalboje. — Literatūra ir kalba 3, 303—453.

Paulauskienė A. 1994: Lietuvių kalbos morfologija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

Sližienė N. 1986: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių valentingumas ir sintaksinė klasifikacija. — Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 25, 45—96.

Sližienė N. 1978: Veiksmažodžių valentingumo klausimu. — Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 18, 107—124.

Tekorienė D. 1983: Lietuvių kalbos būdvardžio semantinis valentingumas. — Kalbotyra 34(1), 97—107.

ON THE VERBAL VALENCY OF THE PREFIX PA-

Summary

Valency theory has become particularly popular in recent years. Valency is a feature of meaning; it is characteristic not only of verbs but also of other parts of speech.

Verb valency is highly relevant to linguistics because the structure of verbal sentences depends on it. Grammatically correct sentences are formed according to models of verbal valency.

Object of the article — three-valent verbs with the prefix pa-. Two groups of the verbs studied are distinguished:

1) Three-valent verbs that require a subject, an object, and an adverbial participant. The prefix pa- gives these verbs a different lexical meaning;

2) Three-valent verbs that require a subject and two object participants. The prefix pa- gives these verbs a purely grammatical meaning.

The most important feature of both semantic and syntactic valency is whether it is obligatory or optional. Some verbal participants are obligatory (for the sentence to have a grammatically correct structure), while others are optional.

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