LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XL (1998)

Vilija SAKALAUSKIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius

Power SEMANTICS AND ITS EXPRESSION IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

1.0. Every word belongs to some lexical microsystem that expresses a fragment of reality. This may be a group of words reflecting a very broad domain of material existence. A word belongs to some lexical group, which has certain boundaries regulating the word’s semantic structure and division of meaning. To determine a word’s place in the lexical-semantic system, identify it etymologically, and establish its equivalents in related languages, the words under study can be described using the method of semantic fields (Karaliūnas 1987: 19). Classifying vocabulary into semantic fields is a highly convenient method for studying word semantics (Jakaitienė 1980: 29). The term semantic field (German semantisches Feld, English semantic field, Russian семантическое поле) is understood very differently in linguistics. Here, the most conventional definition is adopted: a semantic field consists of words linked by at least one shared semantic feature (Karaulov 1976: 23–34; Jakaitienė 1980: 29; Gudavičius 1983: 285). “That feature is most often extralinguistic: a shared material domain, a shared purpose or function performed by the real-world entities named by those words” (Jakaitienė 1980: 29). J. Karaulov holds that a single shared semantic feature, a common association evoked by the words, is sufficient for them to be regarded as members of the same semantic field (Karaulov 1976: 64). A semantic field understood in this way consists of words belonging not to the same part of speech, but to different parts of speech (Jakaitienė 1980: 30). The words in the semantic field under examination likewise belong to different parts of speech, but they all share a semantic feature, a common structural element of the word—the base morpheme.

2.0. In Lithuanian, the derivatives of the stems vald-, veld- carry the semantic feature ‘power, leadership, governing’ (cf. Indo-European *val- ‘to be strong’) (Pokorny 1959: 11–12). In Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic languages, derivatives of this stem are extended by the dental consonant d- (-dh-) (German -t- walten): Gothic waldan, Russian владеть, Old Church Slavonic володеть, Latvian vàldìti, Old Prussian weldiśnan ‘ruling’ acc., etc.

In Lithuanian, the concepts expressed by derivatives of the stems vald-, veld- form the semantic model “power – subject of power / object of power – place where power is exercised.”

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2.1. The concept of power is expressed by verbs denoting actions related to acquiring and possessing power: valdyti ‘to hold power, to reign’, veldėti ‘to acquire, possess as property, to take possession of’. Alongside words inherited from ancient times, there are also recent derivatives. Since many new words were coined to express concepts related to morality, ethics, economics, and feudal relations, new formations for designating social relations are also found alongside them, for example: valdauti ‘to govern, reign’, valdėti ‘to benefit, make use of’, valdinėti iterative of valdyti, valdinti ‘to maintain order, lead, manage’, valdoti ‘to govern, reign’, veldinti ‘cf. veldėti’, etc. The suffixes -auti, -oti: valdovauti ‘to reign’, valdoti, valdžioti. were often used to form new verbs. Such new formations abound in 16th–17th-century writings: And it came to pass afterward that David smote the Philistines and subdued them LKŽ XVII 1026 (Ch Krn 19, 1)¹; Fill the earth and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the sea LKŽ XVII 1042 (Ch1 Moz1, 28). And that land was brought under the Lord’s authority LKŽ XVII 1042 (Ch1 Krn22, 18). O mighty King, rule over us LKŽ XVII 1047 (Mž 274–275). From you shall come a ruler who will govern the people LKŽ XVII 1047 (DP 58). He ruled and governed both spiritual and worldly affairs LKŽ XVII 1047 (DP 26).

In the writings of M. Mažvydas, K. Daukša, S. B. Chilinskis, and K. Sirvydas, verbs with the vald- stem are used: valdyti, valdžioti, and, less often, valdauti (its prefixed derivative pavaldauti is recorded in S. B. Chilinskis’s Bible). In J. Bretkūnas’s writings, the verb valdyti and its derivatives are not attested; only veldėti and its derivatives are found (paveldėjimas BB 1 Moz 15, 3; išveldėti BB Jer 48, 1; BB Teis 3, 13; paveldėti BB 1 Mak 1, 9). Valdyti and veldėti are frequent in the writings of S. Daukantas and S. Stanevičius. In dialects, valdyti and its prefixed derivatives are used most widely. Hybrids are fairly common in Eastern Aukštaitian dialects: valdžiavóti LKŽ XVII 1046 (Čb, Žž, Ds, Trgn, Slč, Klt, Ut, Slm), valdžiūti LKŽ XVII 1047 (Dglš, Švnč, Tvr, Str, Prng).

2. 2. The concept of power is also expressed by nominalizations of the verb valdyti: valdžia (Skardžius 1996: 68; Urbutis 1978: 285; PLKG 1957: 163), valdymas. In M. Mažvydas’s writings, a verbal noun with the suffix -ymas: Vis est jo valdinme LKŽ XVII 27 (Mž 270) is attested; in the writings of K. Daukša and S. B. Chilinskis, the derivative valdžia, formed with the ending -(i)a, is found. Other derivatives, valdystė, valdonystė ‘power, rule, being a ruler’, are used in 19th-century writings and publications (S. Dauk. Kel 1881, 62, LT II 479); valdonýbė ‘power, rule’ (recorded in A. Kuršaitis’s Lithuanian-German Dictionary); valdymė ‘power’ (recorded in Varniai); veldėnė ‘reign, governing’ (recorded in A. Krauzė’s dictionary).

¹ Illustrative examples are taken from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language and its card index.

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Having discussed the words in this group, one feature of the semantics of power becomes apparent—abstractness.

3.0. The group of words in the semantic field of power also includes those that denote, on the one hand, the holder of power (the subject of power) and, on the other, a person subordinate to the holder of power (the object of power).

The subject (holder) of power is denoted by the words: valdovas, valdõnas, val- džionis, valdžiotojas, valdžiūnas, valdytojas, valdininkas, veldėtojas and others. Names for holders of power are formed with various suffixes. These derivatives appeared in Lithuanian written language at different times. In addition to vernacular Lithuanian vocabulary, a certain layer of the vocabulary of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Lithuanian written language consisted of various neologisms coined by authors of the period. More or fewer neologisms are also found in later writings of that era.

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century writings record derivatives with the suffixes -tojas, -onas, -onis, -ovas. The suffix -tojas is used mainly to form nouns from secondary verbs whose infinitive stems end in -o-, -ė-, -y- and so on (Skardžius 1996: 87). Valdýtojas (:valdýti), “one who rules, reigns; lord,” is used in S. B. Chilinskis’s Bible: Žinote, jog tie, kurius vertais sant išmano, kad būtų valdytojais žmonių, valdžią turi and jų LKŽ XVII 1040 (Ch Mr 10, 42); and in J. Bretkūnas’s Postil: ...didis dangaus ir žemės valdytojas LKŽ XVII 1040 (BP I 420). In dialects and folklore it is used in the sense “one who keeps order, directs”: Tevas buvo an savo ūkio valdytojas LKŽ XVII 1040 (Grv). Ir atejo gaspadorius, tų namelių valdytojus LKŽ XVII 1040 (Kpč). In general, there were few Lithuanian administrative and legal terms in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; chancery and legal documents were translated from German or Polish originals, and translators retained their terminology. However, Lithuanian terms of this kind also occurred in some translations of government decrees. For example, the term valdžiotojas, “official,” appears in an order dated 1639. IV. 22 issued by Vladislav IV, King of Poland and Lithuania (Palionis 1995: 97). Another derivative, veldėtojas, “ruler,” is recorded in J. Bretkūnas’s Bible: Kaip tatai kananitaì ir visi veldėtojai žemės girdės, tada anys mus apstos LKŽ XVIII 605 (BB Joz 7, 9). This term is recorded in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary and in „Punktuose Sakymų“: Miestavaldis, miesto val- džitojas LKŽ XVII 1047 (SD 21). Kokias yra valdžiotojas miesto, tokie ir kurie gyvena jampi LKŽ XVII 1047 (SP I 124).

Derivatives with the suffix -onas are recorded in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary (valdõnas, “subject”), „Punktuose Sakymų“, and the dictionaries of P. Ruigys, G. Milkus, and A. Krauzė. K. Būga offers two possible explanations for this word. He argues that valdõnas: 1) may have arisen from the Proto-Indo-European suffix *-on-; 2) may derive from the verbal stem valdā- and the suffix -na- (nominative -nas). There is also the verb valdóti, Ukrainian volodati (Būga 1959: 372). Valdõnas, “ruler, owner,” occurs in folklore: Mano motušė – gaspadinėlė, namelių valdónėlė LKŽ XVII 1041 (JD 275); Kelkis, kelkis, bernužėli, ūbo lauko artojėli, jautelių valdónėli LKŽ

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XVII 1041 (BsO 270); Ai, kur dejai brolelį, žirgelio valdonėlį? LKŽ XVII 11042 (LB 137).

Derivatives with the suffix -ona (valdona, “female ruler”) are found in folklore: O aš mergaitė, tu kvietkų valdona LKŽ XVII 1041 (Sln); Išėjo panenkaitė, viso dvaro valdonaite, be rūtelių vainikėlio, be aukselio žiedužėlio LKŽ XVII 1041 (Vs).

Alongside derivatives with the suffix -onas, the suffixal derivative -onis is used: valdžionis (valdžia, valdioti), “ruler, administrator.” It appeared in nineteenth-century writings, when interest in Lithuania’s past and history began to grow. Valdžionis is one of the neologisms used by S. Daukantas.

S. Daukantas’s writings contain further suffixal derivatives denoting a subject of power: valdžiūnas, “ruler.” The form valdūnas occurs in folklore: Ko žirgelis smūtnas ir jo valdūnėlis? LKŽ XVII 1043 (Lzd), and is recorded in M. Niedermann’s dictionary. Derivatives with the suffix -ūnas are recorded in Old Prussian sources, e.g., waldins, “Erbe” (Mažiulis 1997: 217), and in Latvian valdūons, “administrator.”

In dialects and folklore, valdaunīkas (-ūkas), “administrator, ruler,” LKŽ XVII 1026 (Ūd, Lzd, Al, Kpč), valdžiaunīnikas LKŽ XVII 1029 (Prl), and valdininkas, “state official” (Sb, Žr, Pnd, Všk, Mžš, Pns, Brt, Btg, Jrb), are more widespread. The last neologism entered the language alongside J. Jablonskis’s linguistic work at the end of the nineteenth century. J. Jablonskis replaced the form uredininką used in the written language of the period with valdininkui, and strictly distinguished it from valdovą, “a person who governs and rules over a large area of land inhabited by people” (Skardžius 1996: 601).

Few personal names are formed with the suffix -ovas, but, as noted in the „Lietuvių kalbos gramatika“, new words are still formed with it today: ieškovas, skaitovas, vadovas, žiūrovas (Paulauskienė 1994: 76). Valdōvas, “one who rules, reigns; lord,” is a derivative of the verb valdyti and the suffix -ovas; cf. Slavic voldati > Ukr. володати (Skardžius 1996: 387). In the earliest sources (Mažvydas, Daukša), the meaning “ruler” is expressed by an old two-stem word inherited from Proto-Indo-European, viešpat(i)s, “владыка, государь”; later authors use it in the sense “god.” Valdōvas occurs in dialects and folklore in the senses “administrator” and “owner”; in the sense “lord,” it is recorded in „Clavis Germanico-Lithuana“, G. H. F. Nesselman’s dictionary, and other later dictionaries.

Another way new words arise is through borrowing from other languages. The group under consideration includes valdīmieras, “ruler” (a borrowing from Russian Володимир), recorded in the dictionaries of E. Fraenkel and M. Niedermann; valdimieras, in A. Kuršaitis’s dictionary and the writings of nineteenth-century authors D. Poška, S. Daukantas, S. Stanevičius, and M. Valančius, mostly in Samogitian dialects. In the „Šiaulės rytų dūnininkų žodynas“ and A. Juška’s „Dainos“, it means “administrator, guardian”: Nėra mūsų ūktverio, tų namų valdimiero LKŽ XVII 1028 (JD 629). Vaikas be valdymiero negalia būti, pasiunta DūnŽ. K. Būga argues that this Lithuanian name for a ruler was none other than Володимир Великий. This

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The name may have reached the Lithuanians through the Yotvingians, and the Lithuanians may have learned of it while Vladimir was still alive (Būga 1958: 343).

3.2. The semantic field of the subject of power also includes paveldėtojas ‘new owner, administrator of an inheritance’, veldėjas ‘heir’, and veldėtojas. Of these, the earliest recorded in written sources and dictionaries is paveldėtojas (R, MŽ, Q, N, K). In contemporary Lithuanian, as in Latvian, nouns are formed chiefly with the suffix -ėjas from primary verbs. Derivatives with this meaning are generally formed from secondary verbs only with the suffix -tojas. Nouns with the suffix -ėjas formed from secondary verbs can be found in the language of folk songs (Skardžius 1996: 84). Veldėjas is used in the writings of S. Daukantas and M. Valančius, while veldėtojis is recorded in Fr. Kuršaitis’s dictionary.

4.0. The object of power is expressed by words denoting property (a person or possessions). In feudal society, serfs were considered property and were inherited. Old written monuments record the social term veld amas, which in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries meant a person under another person’s authority; such a person was an unfree peasant belonging to the grand duke, who would grant him, in recognition of various services, to deserving officials—nobles—or to bishoprics. Not only an individual person but also the land he cultivated, his livestock, and other property were transferred with the veldamas. The social term veld amas, which had disappeared from Lithuanian by the end of the seventeenth century, is recorded in the writings of M. Mažvydas, B. Vilentas, J. Bretkūnas, and K. Daukša. In M. Mažvydas’s Catechism and K. Daukša’s Postil, veldamo is used alongside paduonis, paduotieji (Paduotieji alba veldamai MŽ 32). In sixteenth-century Lithuanian writings these words were synonyms, with no longer any difference in meaning between them. Veldamas occurs only in texts concerning the Lithuanian-inhabited lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The oldest act mentioning veld amas dates from the second half of the fifteenth century (1454–1470); only one instance has been found from the eighteenth century (1719) (Lingis 1970: 295). The origin of the social term veld amas is beyond doubt: it is the present-tense passive participle of the verb veldėti (Būga 1959: 668).

Another derivative from the same root, valdōnas ‘a subordinate person, subject’, is used in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century written sources to designate a subordinate; it is recorded in K. Sirvydas’s writings: Nes kokie yra vyresnieji, tokie esti ir jų vald onai LKŽ XVII 1041 (SP I 124). It also occurs in folklore and in the later dictionaries of D. Sutkevičius, G. H. F. Nesselmann, and others.

The semantic group of the object of power includes the neologism valdinys ‘a subordinate person’, recorded in the writings of M. Valančius and J. Jablonskis, and in the dictionaries of E. Fraenkel, J. Ryter, A. Kuršaitis, and A. Lalis. Valdinys is a derivative of the verb valdyti and the suffix -inys (-inė); a prefixed derivative of the latter is pavaldinys. Other derivatives include valdžionis ‘a subordinate person, subject’ (Valdžionys buvo palinksminti dideliai meilingu žodžiu ciesoriaus miuso (M. Valanč) LKŽ XVII 1046; valdijietis ‘citizen, subject’, recorded in A. Kuršaitis’s dictionary; and valdytinis ‘a subordinate person—

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’, used in J. Skvireckas’s Bible translation. This word is also listed in LKŽ XVII 1040. Things denoted by derivatives of this type are generally characterized by an external action directed at them (an action performed by someone else, or usually already completed). It was probably formed by analogy with the similar derivative statytinis ‘a person appointed to a position, dependent on the appointing authority and carrying out that authority’s instructions’. Many such derivatives are usually formed from past passive participles. However, it would now be more accurate to analyze the formation of all derivatives of this type differently, namely by identifying the suffix -tinis, -ė, which is added to the infinitive stem of a verb (usually a transitive one) (DLKG 1996: 107).

As the feudal order and state power grew stronger, names for inhabitants based on their social status took shape. Žmogumi came to designate a farmer with a family, living from his own farm and performing obligations. This designation corresponded to the modern concept of a peasant. In economic and legal documents, people were classified as belonging to a district or an estate (Jurginis 1962: 20). Valstietis ‘one who works the land, a farmer’, ‘a person of the district or estate’ is clearly a neologism, found only starting with the writings of V. Kudirka and J. Jablonskis. Peasants were the largest social stratum in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, possessing no political rights and having only duties toward the state, from which they received nothing. Some peasants were free, others were tied to the land, and still others were slaves. By the sixteenth century, however, they had all become alike: all had become serfs (Šapoka 1989: 239). In state acts and old writings, a particular category of peasant was denoted by žmogus (Jurginis, cited work) and kaimynas (Lingis 1970: 297). In K. Daukša’s Postil, kaimynu translates the Polish poddany, whereas in the 1605 revision of K. Daukša’s Catechism by an anonymous author, the word kaimynas was replaced by valstinin ku (Lingis 1970: 299): Ir teigi daryt šeimynai ir valstinyk amus savo įsakysime LKŽ XVIII 68 (AK 65).

Early Polish documents used essentially the same Lithuanian loanwords as were found in the Slavic language of Lithuanian chanceries. Valstininkas, or valstinykas ‘subject, peasant’, is recorded in 1546; Polish wolsnik (Zinkevičius 1988: 122). It was also used in nineteenth-century publications (in “Aušra”).

Another designation for a peasant is connected with the establishment of districts: valsčionis ‘peasant, resident of a district’ (cf. Polish włos cianin). After the territorial dukes disappeared in Lithuania, the governance of the country changed. Following the example of the Russian lands, rural communities came to be called districts, and their inhabitants—valsčionys (Jurginis 1962: 17).

5.0. The object of power—property—is expressed by several words with the root vald-, veld-. All are neologisms: valdà ‘managed immovable property’ is a legal term, still used with this meaning in legal writings. Its simple structure shows that valdà is derived from the verb valdyti and the ending -a; veldė ‘inheritance, heritage’ is derived from the verb veldėti and the ending -ė. The old derivative veldenija ‘inherited estate, homestead’ is recorded in J. Bretkūnas’s Bible. E. Fraenkel also reports this fact, but its origin is unclear. E. Fraenkel argues that veldenija (veldėti) arose from valadenija, which is recorded in J. Bretkū—

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in the Bible (BB 4 Moz 18, 28). Pr. Skardžius considers the latter a borrowing (cf. Belarusian владенье) (Skardžius 1931: 234).

6.0. Another group of the words under discussion has the seme ‘territory’. A territory, as an administrative unit, is named by derivatives: valščius, valdyba, valdā, valdā-mystė, valdystė, valstis, valdānija, valdonija.

The earliest edicts of the authorities contain specific legal terms. Among the many such terms, valščius is attested. Valščiai are mentioned as early as the late 14th century in descriptions of the routes taken by the Teutonic Knights into Lithuania. A valščius consisted of several rural communities and noblemen’s villages. There were also very small valščiai situated around the villages and castles of the Grand Duke. The members of a valščius community (the valsčionys mentioned earlier) were initially free peasants. When the valsčionys became serfs, the estates of great feudal lords also came to be called valščiai. Valščius means ‘administrative territorial unit’, ‘governed territory, domain’. In the “Etymological Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” E. Fraenkel, drawing on Pr. Skardžius’s view that valščius < vald-tjus, notes that the former belongs to the group of words related to valdyti and is in no way a borrowing (Fraenkel 1965: 1192). Valščius, meaning a governed territory, is used in the writings of J. Bretkūnas: Ir jų gyvenimas (valščius) buvo nuog Meso iki Sefar kalno LKŽ XVIII 64 (BB 1 Moz 10, 30); Suprato jį iš Herodo valščiaus esantį LKŽ XVIII 65 (BP I 378). Valščius is used with the same meaning in the writings of K. Sirvydas: Kaip tadū grūdan garstyčios nė vienas daiktas negal indėtis didis, neinkraujuas maišai pinigų, neintilpsta aukšti namai, senys, plačios žemės, valščius, dvarai, turmės ir kiti tos žemės niekai LKŽ XVIII 65 (SP I 301); in the writings of S. Daukantas: Kožnas sau ponas galėjo savo valščiuoje žemės barą kam norint dovenoti LKŽ XVIII 65. In dialects, valščius spread in the sense ‘territorial unit’: Dabar vadina apylinke, o pirma vadinos valsčius LKŽ XVIII 65 (Trk); Aš esu tame pačiame valsčiuoje gimusi i augusi LKŽ XVIII 65 (Šts); Valsčiaus gyventojai duoda medžiagą, o tie (meistrai) ateina ir padaro tiltus LKŽ XVIII 65 (Kur); Smalnų parapija ir valsčius LKŽ XVIII 65 (Smal).

Another term denoting an administrative unit is valstis, ‘district, region, county’. K. Būga believes that valstis is of Baltic origin and that, since the Lithuanian word form coincides completely with the Latvian and Slavic forms, it should have been valščius no, but valstis, cf. Latvian vālsts, Slavic volstь, Russian волость (Būga 1958: 492). However, valstis did not become widespread in dialects; it is attested in writings and the press of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, LKŽ XVIII 68 (G 119, Arch IV 579, M, LC 1888).

Valdanija, ‘governed land, region, domain’, is attested in the dictionaries of P. Ruigys and G. Milkus: Pilės valdžia, valdanija LKŽ XVII 1026 (R 85); Valdanijos, valsčiaus privezdejimas, aprūpinimas, nuvaikščiojimas LKŽ XVII 1026 (R 18).

Valdonija in the sense ‘ruler’s residence, dwelling place’ is given by E. Fraenkel, Fr. Kurschat, and J. Ryter. It is most likely formed from valdonas and the suffix -ija, which has a locative meaning. Most derivatives with this suffix are formed from nouns denoting persons and name places governed or owned by those persons, or ar-

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žiūrimas vietas, administracinius vienetus (DLKG 1996: 135). Šios priesagos vediniai tam tikram sambūriui ar kieno valdomai teritorijai pavadinti varijuoja su priesagos -ystė vediniais valdamystė ir valdystė.

Valdamystė, ‘governed land, region, domain’, is attested in S. Vaišnoras’s translation of “Margarita Theologica”: Tėvonystėp ir valdamystėp sūnaus savo yra sutverta LKŽ XVII 1026 (MT 166). Place names formed with this suffix are derived from nouns denoting persons and designate the territories of lands governed by those persons (DLKG 1996: 136). Valdystė, ‘state, governed territory’, is attested in 19th-century writings (by S. Daukantas and V. Pietaris) and in the press (A 1883, 224, A 1885, 76).

Valda, ‘governed land’, is a zero-suffix derivative of the verb valdyti, denoting the location of an action, and is used in this sense in S. Daukantas’s writings. Valda corresponds to the Latin dominium and its derivative domena. In the Middle Ages, this term was used for the territories of feudal lords.

7.0. In summary, the words in the semantic field examined form several microfields or lexical-semantic groups: 1) actions related to acquiring and holding power; 2) the holder of power (subject); 3) actors subordinate to the holder of power (object); 4) the place where power is exercised (territory).

The material presented shows that the meanings of words and their development are closely connected with social life.

Received 1998 05 12

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DIE SEMANTIK DES SUBSTANTIVS valdžia UND IHR AUSDRUCK IM LITAUISCHEN

Zusammenfassung

Ein Wort gehört einer lexikalischen Gruppe an, die sich auf die semantische Struktur des Wortes auswirkt, auf die Einteilung seiner Bedeutungen Einfluß ausübt. Die Methode des semantischen Feldes, die in der linguistischen Literatur unterschiedlich aufgefaßt wird, ist verbreitet. Aus dieser Sicht gehören die Ableitungen mit der Wurzel vald-, veld-, die eine gemeinsame semantische Komponente haben, zu einem semantischen Feld, vgl.: valdžia, vadovavimas, valdymas. Die von ihnen bezeichneten Begriffe bilden ein semantisches Modell, vgl.: valdžia – das regierende Subjekt/das regierte Objekt – der Ort, wo das Regieren ausgeübt wird.

Begriffe, die zur Bezeichnung sozialer Beziehungen dienen, sind häufig durch Neubildungen mit verschiedenen Suffixen ausgedrückt. In verschiedenen Dialekten, in den Schriftdenkmälern des 16. – 17. Jahrhunderts, in der Presse des 19. Jahrhunderts liegen Ableitungen von der Wurzel vald-, veld- vor.

Der größte Teil der Ableitungen von vald-, veld- hat Entsprechungen in anderen baltischen Sprachen sowie in den slawischen und germanischen.

Eine der wichtigsten Aufgaben der modernen Lexikologie ist die Untersuchung der Ableitungen aus der Sicht der Wortbildung und Semantik.

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