ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA

X L V (2 0 0 1), 6 3 – 9 2

The compound coordinate sentences in Mikalojus Daukša’s Catechism (1595)^*

ARTŪRAS JUDŽENTIS, JŪRATĖ PAJĖDIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

The article deals with the semantic and syntactic aspects of clause coordination in Daukša’s 1595 Catechism (i.e., both the Catechism proper and the Trumpas budas), with particular emphasis on markers of coordination and clause order. The translations were carefully compared with the originals. The most striking differences with regard to modern Lithuanian were observed in the use of the conjunctions ir and o. Furthermore, the use of compound markers of coordination, with additional differential markers postpositionally attached to the conjunction to express finer shades of meaning, is more characteristic of Daukša’s language than of modern Lithuanian.

0. INTRODUCTION

This article aims to provide a systematic description of the compound coordinate sentences in one of the more important monuments of our early written heritage. This is perhaps the area of Lithuanian grammatical structure least studied by language historians.

Daukša’s book consists of two works: KATHE-//CHISMAS// ARBA MOKSLAS// KIEKWIENAM// KRIKSZCZI-//ONII PRII// WALVS.// PARASZITAS PER// D. IAKVBA LEDES-//MA Theologa Socie-//tatis IESV.// Išguldįtas iš Liežu-//wisko ing Lietu-//wišką per Kunig Mi-//kaloiu Daugfba Ká-//nonika Žemai-//cziu.// Išſpaulstas Wilnuje// Metūſe užgimimo// Wieſpaties 1595 (hereafter, Kathechismas) and Trumpas// Budas Pa- filiáki-//mo/ arba išpažinimo// Nūdemiu.// Drin tu kurie dažnai// w artoia tū Sakra-//mentu./ /Yſ takiſko qnt Lietū-//wiſko pėrgulditas.// W I L N I V I// Mētūſe M. D. XCV.(hereafter, Trumpas Budas). In this article, the coordinate sentences in both works are examined alongside one another and continually compared. Since both works were translated from Polish (for the Polish text’s provenance, see Michelini 2001: 228), their data are compared with the originals (NAVKA// CHRZESCIAN-//ISKA.// Abo Kátechizmik// dla dźiątek.// Przez D. Jákubá Lede-//ſzmá. Theologá zebrániá// P. Jezułowego nápiá-//lny/ á teraz z Włoſkiego// ná Polſkie przeło-//żony.// W KRAKOWIE ir Krotki obyczay spo-//wiedźi: dla tych/ ktorzy// częſto vżywaią tego Sakrá-//mentu: z Włoſkiego ná// Polſkie przełożony.¹).

^*The article presents part of the results of a project supported by the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Foundation (“Compound sentences in Daukša’s 1595 Catechism,” registration No. 96-163/3G).

¹ A photocopy held by the Vilnius University Library, from the collection of Jurgis Lebedys, was used (cf. Palionis 1995: 7–8).

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In this article, a complex sentence is defined as a sentence with at least two syntactic centers, expressed by finite or non-finite verb forms. An important distinguishing feature of simple and complex sentences is that only the latter have semantic and syntactic relations between their constituents. These relations are the main focus of this study. In accordance with the established tradition in Lithuanian linguistics, the syntactic structure of complex sentences is studied as an expression of their semantic structure. Researchers usually proceed from the expression, which is directly accessible to them, to the content. This article follows the same approach.

A fairly consistent methodology for studying complex sentences has been developed in Lithuanian linguistics². With certain modifications, it has also been applied to the description of Daukša’s compound sentences. The greatest attention is devoted to the most important means of expressing semantic and syntactic relations in complex sentences—connective words. A connective word in a complex sentence is any word that serves to connect constituents: conjunctions, relative pronouns, or relative adverbs. Other conjunctions, pronouns, adverbs, or particles may occur alongside them, adding further nuances to the semantic relation between constituents or clarifying and highlighting its nature.

The following types of semantic relations expressed by compound sentences are distinguished: comparative, adversative, disjunctive, exceptive, specifying, causal, conditional, concessive, and continuative. Unlike Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje, the separate type of additive relations (Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 702–707) has been abandoned. The view adopted is that, at least in the language of older written texts, there are insufficient grounds for distinguishing them from comparative relations (cf. Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 708–716). In Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje, the type of compound inferential sentences is distinguished primarily on the basis of the connective words used in them (cf. Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 717–719). Such sentences express causal or conditional semantic relations between constituents, and are accordingly named as such in this article. To avoid terminological confusion and better reflect the nature of the relations between constituents, the term continuative relations (cf. Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 696) has been chosen in place of the marked relations distinguished in Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje (Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 720)³. In such sentences, one constituent denotes additional circumstances related to the content of another constituent, or an evaluation of the content of the first constituent, e.g.:

Įjeiei ing iščia Mer-llgos švęčęusios Mótinos || tawós / o tū kaip ią išgėlei || ne išžibolomų garbėlp (Wfędelės w || żywot Pánienįkų naswiętęby || mátki twey / á tak iákos ią pod-llniolt ku niewymowney chwale) 164⁵

The article also distinguishes the type of complex specifying relations. In these sentences, one constituent specifies the content of another, cf.:

² The foundations of the methodology for analyzing complex sentences are set out in Vytautas Ambrazas’s articles (1972, 1977, 1982, 1986).

³ Apie pridurtinius sakinius žr. Balkevičius (1963: 331–333); Piročkinas (1964c: 99; 1964a: 109–112; 1964b: 158, 163–165); Ulvydas, red. (1976: 908).

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[Prāmintas nūg Chri-//taūs/ ir išmānōs/ mōkiti-//nis/ tai yra/ kuris apfikrik-//ftjies/ tiki ing Diewą/ ir// darō prifākimus jo. (Jeft vcjén Chryftulow kto-//ry okrźćiwfy fie/ wierzy y w-//3nawa zakon jego.) 10₁₄

The article’s database⁴ consists of 376 compound sentences selected from both of Daukša’s works, the Katekizmo. The first numerals accompanying the excerpts of compound sentences in the examples indicate the upper page number in the 1995 edition⁵, while the smaller superscript numeral beside it indicates the line containing the connective word. The Polish original of each example is given in parentheses.

Compound sentences are analyzed by grouping them according to their connective words. The material in the larger sections is summarized in a few sentences at the end of each section.

1. COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION or

1.1. Sentences with or

In the works under examination, the conjunction or links finite verb forms (a) or subordinate clauses (b), for example:

a) ape kąg bilo ar-//ba kam priētis bitie// artikūtai? (what do the articles speak about/ or to whom do they belong?) 25_4–5

b) [gāli dūtīs káltas] iei wār-//gūfė [...] negeide pagālbos nūg Wie-//[bpatés Diewo fawo/ fu ti-//[krū/ ir stiprumi duxēimu [...] or iei nu-//pūte fu irdimi/ ir prabin-//gufei ape tatāi apmaudā-//wo ([if I owe this] if in my works [...] I did not seek help//[from the Lord God] with sure and unwavering confidence [...] or if I fell into despair and worried excessively about it) 122₂₀

In every case, the semantic relations between the clauses are DISJUNCTIVE.

In the original, these sentences correspond in three cases to compound sentences with the conjunction abo (as in the quoted examples), and in two cases to simple sentences:

padāręs ant’[fawęs žīmė]/ kryžiaus fweto/ darāu [kāi-//cziu/ arba rokawōjus [u fā-//wo fiela. (having crossed myself with the holy cross,/ I reckon with// my own conscience.) 68, tūiau/ kaip’ kas atāit/ ar-//ba priāugā wáłłarum p’ if-//mintingump/ tad’ iam’ nė// ganā wieno tikeiimo (but when someone comes of age in understanding, then faith alone is not enough for him) 72₆

⁴ In the database (and in the examples in this article), the characters are presented using the simplified marking with a dot for į and the threefold notation 3, ʒ, ȝ (omitting ȝ) found in the transliterated version of the scholarly edition (Mikalojus Daukšos 1595 metų Katekizmas. Prepared by Vida Jakštienė and Jonas Palionis. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1995), while Gothic characters and the marking of nasal vowels with a bar are restored according to the original: ą, ę, į, ų. Similar changes have been applied to the Polish sentences from Ledesma’s Catechism: Gothic characters are restored, as are ą and ę marked with a bar, but the scholarly edition’s chosen twofold notation ʒ, ȝ is retained (cf. Palionis 1995: 34–36).

⁵ They would correspond to the page in Daukšas’s 1595 edition of the Katekizmo if the publication had page numbers.

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The particle even in sentence 162₁₁ is more closely associated with the verb than with the conjunction, cf.:

That such a great benefaction could be counted as a good deed, if you, Lord Majesty, would think once about a sinful person, or at least remember him (So that such great beneficence might be reckoned, if you, Lord Majesty, would think once about a sinful man, or only remember him) 162₁₁

1.2. Sentences with or vėl

In a couple of instances, the conjunction arba is followed by the particle vėl. These sentences also express disjunctive relations between their clauses. The postpositive particle gives the sentences a shade of comparative relations; cf.:

Can one worship God so that through misfortunes and one’s own deeds one’s sins may be absolved: or again, can one worship the saints so that they may obtain mercy from God the Father? 66₈ [The second question is expressed clearly] That he was not patient in adversities, or if he indeed had no patience in afflictions, or was despondent ([Niechay lę tęj vkarša zá-//łolnie] He was not patient in adverse circumstances, or if he had no patience in afflictions) 125₁

Such use of the particle vėl is not characteristic of present-day standard language. In the latter example, the particle, as in the original, occurs in the third position in the clause. The first sentence has no counterpart in the original.

1.3. Sentences with either… or

The repeated conjunction either… or links finite verb forms (a) or infinitives (b):

a) the most grievous sins committed by each person, through which either eternal glory is lost or punishments in this world are deserved (grzechu wfelá-//kiego/ zá ktory ábo chwale wieczną// vtrácib/ ábo karánie tu ná świecie ſhu-//[ſne odnosił]) 93_{11, 12} b) If your father ordered you to tell a lie, or to commit some sin, or to do something wicked, ought you to obey him in that? (A kiedby tobie ociec twoy// rozkazał rzecz taką nieprawdę // ábo grzech jaki vcžynić: winien// jeś go fluchać?) 81_{20, 21}

The relations between the clauses are disjunctive. In the second of the quoted examples, the repeated conjunction corresponds to a single conjunction in the original.

1.4. Sentences with connective words based on the conjunction or express disjunctive relations between their clauses. The use of the particle vėl with the conjunction or is unusual in present-day standard language, especially in the third position in a clause. The particle gives the sentences a semantic shade of comparison.

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TABLE 1. USE OF COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION arba IN DK

Coordinating words K TB Total or 3 2 5 or again 1 1 2 or... or 2 2 Total 6 3 9

2. COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION bat

2.1. Sentences with bat

The conjunction bat links the clauses of a complex sentence, both in the Kathechisme and in the Trumpas Bude, most often with a single conjunction (in three quarters of all cases examined), for example:

in every// Sacrament the gift is given// by God’s grace to us, for// some particular thing. But// you must receive it worthily. (w każdym Sákramen-//čie bywa nam dawaná tá[k]á// dla iakiey obobliwey rzeczy: ále// ie treba godnie przyjąć.) 95₉

The conjunction bat links homogeneous finite verb forms (a), infinitives (b), and subordinate clauses of complex sentences (c):

a) M. A venial sin, what does it do?// V. It does not deprive one of God’s grace// or merit eternal damnation: batbut makes a person lukewarm// and sluggish in love (M. A grzech powsedni co czyni?// V. Nie traci łaski Bożey/ ani // zafługuie piekła:// ale cżyni cżło-//wieką oziębłego w miłości) 93₉ b) For otherwise it would not be possible// to go and wish him well, bat// and wish him ill (Boby ináczéy nie było żyćyć// mu dobrego/ ále żyćyć mu zte-//go) 71₁₀ c) We must hasten [...] so that we do not die// in sin, batso that help may be given to us// and we may be saved. 57₁₄

Sentences with this conjunction most often express CONTRAST semantic relations (cf. the examples cited). In some cases, they prominently express COMPARISON, for example:

M. And what in need?// [unreadable] V. That God may preserve// and strengthen our power// to remain steadfast, not allowing us to fall// into temptations: batso that he may give us help (M. A w boftey co?// V. Aby nam niedopuścił wpaść// w pokusy: ále aby nam dał po-//moc) 55₉

Occasionally, sentences with bat express concessive relations similar to contrast between clauses, for example:

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[...] there are many// Marys?// Mo. No, only one// who is in heaven: bāt ią nė// called by one name ([...] or perhaps not one, but only one Virgin Mary.// V. But is there one Mother// who is in heaven: ále ią nie ie-//they call her by one name) 60₁₅

The lexical opposition only one: not by one. influences the semantic relations of this sentence. Depending on the lexical composition and grammatical structure of the clauses, some sentences with bat display clear EXCEPTION relations, for example:

M. What kind of diligence must we exercise now// so that we may be able to fulfill the commandment?// Mo. There are not few, butbat’ five of the greatest among the others (M. What medicines must we use to keep the commandment?// V. There are no fewer than five, but ále te five among the others.) 85₈

The nature of the semantic relations expressed in this sentence is determined by the opposition not few: five, a superlative adjective with a prepositional among construction. Three sentences with bat have no equivalent in the original. In other cases, the conjunction bat is generally rendered by the Polish ale; in only one instance does the original use the particle tylko:

An odor, a smell, the shimmer of a mirage:|| Bat these are merely heard in the word. (Touch, smell, or an illusion of the eye,|| are only the flow of these things that have strongly affected me.) 176₁

2.2. Sentences with bat dabar

The particle dabar is attached to the conjunction bat in one Trumpo Budo sentence. It strengthens and emphasizes the CONTRAST between the content of the clauses; cf.:

[But the commandments] Although he had good intentions// he did not keep watch over his own desires, bat’ dabar nor did he restrain their impulses ([Let it be said] Though he did not keep a close watch over his desires, ale// nevertheless he allowed them to run) 127₇

2.3. Sentences with bat gandžiaus

Sentences with this conjunctive word express OPPOSITION between clauses. The comparative adverb, when used with the conjunction, does not replace but merely strengthens the semantic relations between clauses; cf.:

I do not want the death of the sinner, but rather, that he should turn back and live. (I do not desire the death of the sinner, but rather, that he should turn back and live.) 138₂My gifts: how can I not turn away and refuse but rather, such things before you? (My prayers: what is unworthy and unbecoming but indeedoffensive to you?) 188₁₀

The connective word bat gandžiaus in the two sentences corresponds to the original’s similarly structured ale raczej. In the original, a different connective word is used in the latter sentence, further emphasizing the adversative semantic relations between the clauses.

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2.4. Sentences with bat labiaus

When used with the conjunction bat, the comparative adverb labiaus, much like gandžiaus, strengthens the adversative relations between the clauses expressed by the sentences; cf.:

must be guilty [...] For he did not make this very likeness of a living soul [...] but rather because of the free will in himself and the negligence he had from the beginning (for I too am somewhat guilty [...] not having brought him to full improvement of life [...] but indeed through his own stubbornness and negligence, which he had from the beginning) 121₆ Lord, you do not reject the sinner who has fallen but rather call him and draw him to yourself. (Lord, you do not reject sinners, but indeed you call and draw them to yourself.) 150₈

The original equivalent is the same in both cases—the connective word y owszem. It should be noted that in these cases the conjunction bat corresponds to the Polish y.

2.5. Sentences with bat greičiaus

In a sentence in which the adverb greičiaus, the comparative form of which is used with the conjunction bat, as in sentences with the connective words bat gandžiaus and bat labiaus, the clauses express clear CONTRASTIVE relations:

[You should say] That he did not care to [...] so that he might mortify all his own sensations [...] but more quickly he followed her eagerly. ([Let it be said] That he did not spare himself in order to mortify all his own passions [...] but more quickly followed her and fulfilled her in almost everything.) 127_21–22

The structure of the connective words in the original and the translation is identical.

2.6. Sentences with bat vienokig

This connective word is used in a sentence from Trumpo Budo, expressing OPPOSITION between the content of the clauses with a concessive nuance; compare:

punished me for my many sins, with which I offended your Majesty: but nevertheless remember, I pray, your great mercy (for the many kinds of my sins, by which I offended your Majesty. but nevertheless// also remember your great mercy) 149₁₈

The connective word in the translation corresponds to that in the original.

2.7. Sentences with bat nei... nei

With this linking word, three infinitives are connected in one complex sentence in the Trumpo Budo:

whom to call by a blasphemous name is not fitting, nor to invoke, nor to mention(for it is not proper to call him a sinner, but neitherto invoke, // norto remember) 134_5–6

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The semantic relations between the clauses are COMPARATIVE. The translation corresponds literally to the original.

2.8. Sentences with linking words based on the conjunction bat primarily express CONTRAST, and less often other semantic relations. The translation departs from the original only rarely—usually the conjunction bat corresponds to the Polish ale; compound linking words correspond literally to compound forms in the original.

A comparison of the corresponding complex sentences in Kathechismo and Trumpo Budo shows that the latter work uses linking words of more varied structure, with more than a third being compound. Moreover, in the Trumpame Bude the linking words in complex sentences differ from the original in some cases: bat corresponds to tylko; bat labiau(s) (twice, in fact) corresponds to y ow(s)zem; bat gandžiaus – ale y ow(s)zem.

The use of comparative adverbs with the conjunction bat does not always depend on the original: the original collocation y ow(s)zem is translated fairly freely. The adverbs reinforce and highlight the contrastive relations between the clauses.

TABLE 2. USE OF LINKING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION bat IN DK

Linking words K TB Iš viso bat 15 10 25 bat dabar 1 1 bat gandžiaus 1 2 3 bat labiaus 2 2 bat greičiaus 1 1 bat vienokig 1 1 bat nei… nei 1 1 Total 16 18 34

3. COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION ir

3.1. Sentences with ir

The conjunction ir usually links the clauses of a compound sentence one-to-one both in Kathechisme and in Trumpame Bude, for example:

tënai bwietė[i]i regill wéida Diewo/ kur yra té-/|wikbęćia mūńń/ ir nùg téná|| rodźés didélne gãlibe ioll Maieltôto. (tám Swięći widzą obli-lćće Bożej gdzie ielt Oyćyzńá|| nábá| y gdzie fią|| więcej okázu-/|lie możność maieftatu jego.) 50₂₀

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The mutual connections between the clauses in these sentences are reinforced by the shared object of both clauses, repeated in the second clause (as in the original), for example:

I entrust to your strong hands, to your most holy love, [...] my body and soul [...] so that you may bless them and turn them to your honor and glory. (I entrust into strong hands, and to your most holy love [...] my body and soul [...] that you might bless them and deign to turn them to your honor and glory.) 181₆

If the subject of the second clause is identical to the object of the first, Daukša sometimes omits it, as in the present-day language (a), and sometimes repeats it (b):

a) Tawę meldžiu ir iš-//pažįstu/padėk man ir baffiu// išganitas/ pałfįprink ma-//nė ir bufsia apgintas (Ciebie proſę y// wzywam// wf pomóż mią á będę zbawion// wkręp mią/ á będę obronion) 136_{1, 3}

b) Akis wilfų mieleſes Wie-//fpatię/ tawimp turi [á-//wa paduxi/ ir tu dūfi jie-//mus pėna iu/ metū priva-//łomu. (O Cſyń wybytkich miły/ Pá-//nie/ w tobie mają [we vfa-//nie/ á ty im dawał żywność ich// cźalu przyſłonego.) 182₈

In similar cases, the translation may differ somewhat from the original; compare:

átmenu qnti dides// miętaƀirdiltes tawo/ ir toi// pati yra/ kuri man’ dūft// drąſibę/ idānt tawęłp priei-//cźę/ kokias nor’ būdamas. (pomnię ná wielkie mi-//łosiędźie twoie/ // á toć ieſt ono// ktore mi dawa śmiałość/ ábym// ku tobie// przyſtapil/ iákiemjekol-//wiek ieſt.) 149₂₀

Usually, the clauses of the sentences under discussion are connected by COORDINATIVE relations (as in the examples cited). Sometimes sentences with the conjunction ir express adversative (a), causal (b), conditional (c), or concessive (d) semantic relations; compare:

a) Look upon me, who have fallen into the sin of calling upon your holy name; and do not act according to my wickedness, so that you may not forget your goodness. (Look upon me, a wretched sinner invoking your name; and do not look upon my wickedness in such a way that you might forget your goodness.) 140₁₂

b) Tu man tai dawēi/ ir// tawai tai malónei nē ma-//niemụs/ kokiēmụs nūpel-//nāmụs/ arba gimditoiu// many priraƀinėiu (Tyś// mi to dał/ y twoiey to łacę/ nie// moim żadnym// zaſługom ábo// rodzicow moich przyſługuie) 185₁₉

c) Padūk man// patis ławę/ ir pakāks man’// bito. (Poday mi fam fie-//bie/ á doſyć mi ná tym.) 156₂

d) Tawęłp ēidawo aklēii // tawęłp kurtinēi/ tawęłp// paralizūimi vžmūſtiēii [...] ir// newienām’ nē įžibótēis (Do ciebie prycho-//dźili ślepi do ciebie głuƀy/ do// ciebie Páraliżem zárążeni [...] á żadnemus’ lįę// niewymowit.) 153₅

In cases where the pronouns tas/ta/tai are used with the conjunction ir, ADDITIVE relations obtain between the clauses of the compound sentence: the second clause states additional things about the content of the first clause or gives an evaluation of that content. In the Katechchisme, such sentences

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and the Trumpame Bude contain three examples—one with a feminine pronominal form (a) and one with a neuter form (b), for example:

a) we are born// in the first sin// which we have from our parents// from the first progenitors// of ours: and that sin with all the others// is forgiven us at baptism (ję wfyłcy rodžimy w// grzechu pierworodnym/ || ktory// mamy zá dźiedźictwo z pier-//wbych rodzicow nábych: A ten// grzech ze wſzytkimi innymi/ by-//wa na krácie odpuſczony) _96₃ b) I will become one spirit with you, and that through a secret inner union, and a merging of burning love. (abych fię// stał z tobą jednym duchem/ á// to przez takkę wnętrznego źię-//dnoczenia/ y// rolfpynienie palá-//licej miłości.) _160₂₁

The original has no equivalent for 18 compound sentences with the conjunction ir—Kathechisme (13) and the Trumpame Bude (5). In the other 23 cases (17 in the Kathechisme and 6 in the Trumpame Bude), one of the verbs has no equivalent in the original, for example:

the pillars of heaven tremble and shake before your eyes (filary niebieſkie// drżą przed oblicznością two-//ią) _148₁₃

In two instances, a subordinate sentence in the original is translated in the Kathechisme as a coordinate sentence:

It is enough for such a person to have the desire// and will to receive him, if he does what// it is proper to do (Tedy dość ná tym/ że ma// chęć y wolą przyiąć ie/ gdy to// czyni/ co ieft winien czynić.) _42₅ M. Who did this?// Mo. Our Lord Jesus// Christ himself, and he himself taught us. (M. A kto gi wcźynił?// V. Pan náſz Jezus Chryſtus// ktory go nas náuczyć raczył.) _48₇

In four cases, Lithuanian coordinate sentences in the Trumpame Bude correspond to Polish asyndetic sentences, for example:

do not deign to depart from here, Jesus, and deign to stay with me (nie ráči odchodzić// naſtądby Jezu/ ráči zemną zo-//ſtać) _169₈

In one case, a prepositional construction in the original is translated as a clause of a compound sentence:

I ponder my own sins [...] grieving over them and intending to reform (rozmyślam grzechy// swoje [...] żałuiąc zá nie/ z vmy-//ſłem polepienia) _68₁₅

Overall, 33 (36%) Lithuanian compound coordinate sentences with the conjunction ir in the Kathechisme and 15 (14%) in the Trumpo Budo have no equivalent in the original.

Of the remaining 148 sentences, the conjunction ir most often corresponds to y in the original (cf. the sentences cited above, for example, 50₂₀). In as many as 44 cases (13 of 56 in the Kathechisme and 31 of 92 in the Trumpame Bude), that is, 29% of all examples, the conjunction ir corresponds to the conjunction a in the original. Polish sentences with a express not only CONTRAST, CONDITION, and CONCESSION relations (cf. sentences cited earlier), but also relations of COORDINATION, for example:

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the oath must concern a true thing, which would not be false, and a good and real being, known with certainty (przysiega ma być o rzeczy/ prawdziwą/ ktoraby nie była// fałszywa/ á o ktoreyby pewnie// człowiek wiedział) 78₁₂

In two instances, the conjunction ir, linking negative verbs, corresponds in the original to the conjunction ani (between a negative and an affirmative verb), for example:

M. How shall we fulfil the fifth commandment, which does not command us to steal? Mo. Neither taking, nor holding on to another’s property (M. Jako zachowamy śiodme?// V. Nie biorąc ani trzymając// cudzego) 86₄

3.2. Sentences with and now

The connective expression and now is used by Daukša in a way similar to the correlative conjunction not only … but also in present-day Lithuanian. The adverb now gives the relation between the clauses a CONTRASTIVE nuance; compare:

[perhaps it may be said] that he did not love the Lord God his own [...] as he ought: and nowindeed, he turned that love toward the transitory and vain things of this world beyond measure ([perhaps one may say] that he did not love his Lord God [...] as he ought: and yet he directed that love toward the transitory and vain things of this world) and yet thatlove he turned beyond measure toward the creation and vanities of this world) 122₃he fell into the same weariness and negligence that he had from the beginning, and nowhe returned to the same weakness. (he remained in the same indifference and negligence that he had previously, and returned to it again.) 121₉

In both instances, the translator departed from the original: in the first sentence, the structure of the Polish connective expression is retained, but the syntactic relations between the sentence parts are changed; in the second, neither the connective expression nor the structure of the entire sentence is followed.

3.3. Sentences with and again

The particle again gives the sentence a CONTRASTIVE nuance—the sentences with the connective expression and again express similar semantic relations between clauses as sentences with and now. The particle occupies the second (a) or third (b) position in the clause:

a) beneficial and proper for this, so that through them the Lord God might grant us health and the goods of this world: and alsoso that through them we might come to know our sins and be able to repent of them. (for this reason, that through them the Lord God might give us health and temporal goods, and that we might come to recognize our sins and repent of them.) 73₃b) [These were especially grievous] that he was not patient in adversity [...] and that alsohe did not know that they had been given from his hands ([Let it also be said plainly] that he was not patient in adverse circumstances [...] and that he did not know that they had been given by his hands) 125₅

[These were neglectful] that they neither taught nor chastised nor rebuked them, nor cared for them in everything as was necessary: and that alsothey did not have that care and concern for them that they ought to have had. ([Let it be said] that they did not teach them, chastise them, or care for them in every respect as was necessary, and that they also did not have the care and concern for them that they ought to have had.) 130₁

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Used immediately after the conjunction *ir*, but syntactically connected not with the conjunction but with other words (an adverb or a verb), the particle *vėl* again does not perform the role of connecting clauses and is not part of the connective word, cf.:

… we may … and … we may more often remember the passion and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. (… so that all things might be turned to honor and to the glory of God.) ₁₈ … that He created from nothing and can again turn all things into nothing. (… to make everything from nothing, and to turn all things back into nothing.) ₂₉₁₉

Similarly, the particles *vėl* and *atpenč*, syntactically connected with a verb, do not form the connective word with *ir*, cf.:

Oh, how many times, through your mercy and great goodness, have I been drawn from the jaws of the accursed devil and from wicked sin: and again… yet so many times have I, wretched one, fallen into the same pit. (Oh, how often, through your great patience and goodness, I was snatched from the jaws of hell and from vile sin: and how often have I, wretched one, fallen into the same pit.) 144_15–16

3.4. Clauses with ir drauge

The adverb *drauge* gives the relations between clauses a CONTRASTIVE nuance, cf.:

M. What, then, is the Mass? Mo. It is the true remembrance and commemoration of the life, suffering, and death of our Lord Jesus Christ: and at the same time it is a sacrifice, in which they offer the same Christ the Lord (M. And what is the Mass? V. It is a true remembrance and celebration of the life, suffering, and death of our Lord Jesus Christ: and at the same time it is a sacrifice in which they offer that same Lord Christ) 99₁₄

3.5. Clauses with ir labiaus

The adverb labiaus, like the particles dabar, vėl, gives the relations between clauses a CONTRASTIVE character, e.g.:

that the poor woman [...] drew near [...]and then hergently and firmly comforting her (so that she would not become angry when she saw him), the wretched woman [...] drew near [...] andmoreovercomforted and reassured her, saying) 152₅

In the original, ir labiaus in both instances corresponds to the connective phrase y owszem(es).

3.6. Sentences with and therefore

Compound sentences with the connective word and therefore express CAUSAL semantic relations, e.g.:

These are the cause and head// of other sins, and// thereforethey are called the principal ones (Which are the cause and head of other sins/ and thereforethey too are called principal) 91_14–15

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The original equivalents of the sentences under discussion are quite varied: in two cases, sentences with the connective word and therefore (a), in two other cases, and therefore (ż) (see the cited sentence 91^14–15), and in one case, therefore (b):

a) M. How do we keep the ninth commandment?// V. By not desiring another man’s wife// and no other indecency: and thereforewe must guard our eyes and avoid other occasions (M. How do we keep the ninth?// V. By not desiring another’s wife// or any other indecency: and thereforeit is good to tremble and guard oneself against other cases) 87¹⁴ b) that it is so made, since one has nothing with which to give at times// therefore nowthey become poor (hence it follows/ that they have nothing from which// they ought to have given their due/ thereforethey then waste excessively.) 116_1–2

It should be noted that in all cases except the last, the connective words in the original are based on the conjunction and, rather than and.

3.7. Sentences with and therefore

The connective word and for that reason, like and therefore, is used by Daukša in a sentence expressing a CAUSAL relation, cf.:

they do not change their nature at all:// just as it is difficult for a Moor// to change his blackness: And for// that reasonwe exhort the dear parents// to lead their children// to such instruction [...] (no less// difficult for them to change their custom// than for a Moor to change his blackness. And// therefore we admonish dear parents// to lead their children to such instruction [...]) 7_1–2

3.8. Sentences with and so

The conjunction and with the adverb so forms a connective word in CAUSAL sentences, e.g.:

neither a way nor a means that you had on earth [...]: and so believedfor I am not always so in need of those things which I once needed. (I cannot change the order of the trials which you had on earth [...]: and so I believethat I may now call from heaven those whom you called at that time.) 151₁

In cases where supplementary relations are expressed by a sentence with the conjunction and, the adverb is not part of the connective word (see 3.1.).

3.9. Sentences with both… and again

Verbs functioning as homogeneous predicates are linked by the paired conjunction both… and again in the Catechism:

[Nūdeme atáilfina] daró žmó-ligų vžáufbusiu [...] and nu-//peho kónczią fió/ amžio/ bei// wel [kiria kėlą nūdemelp// marinącziofį. ([grzech powfędni] čyni cžło-//wieká ožięblego [...] y żáługuie kará-//nie docżeśne/ y gotuie drogę// do grzechu śmiertelnego.) 93_4–6

The semantic relations between the linked sentence constituents are COORDINATIVE. And is used in the second part of the paired conjunction as a synonym for „and“ probably for stylistic reasons. In the same kind of

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In this position, as in Daukša’s other instances, the conjunction ir is used (cf. 18₂₀ and 73₇, sentences with ir and examples with ir... ir). The connective ir... bei again corresponds to the original paired conjunction y... y. The semantic relations between the clauses in the original are also coordinative.

3.10. Sentences with ir… ir

Sentences with the repeated conjunction ir… ir express COORDINATIVE relations. This conjunction links homogeneous finite verbs (a), infinitives (b), and subordinate clauses (c), e.g.:

a) vžmuša/ ir nu-llmarina dūfį/ ir daro tái// iog átima lveikátą/ ir gi-llwátą ios (žábija dubęl y čynil šell ona tráći šywot lwoy)_{9212, 13}

b) pridė-llra lėrget’ akis/ ir wągfti// kitų priepūtų/ drin’ aplau-llgoiimo birdės: ir tėkėt’ mat-ll dúmp (dobrze ieft ltrzędsll ocju/ y wiarować fię innychll przypadkow/ dla vstrzęsienia// lercá: y viékać fię do modli-lltwy)_{8715, 17}

c) For it is right that you should imitate the virtues of Christ, your Lord and Savior, from whom you also have your name and who deigned to show you such great grace.₁₅₆

In the latter case, the first part of the conjunction is used after a prepositional construction containing a relative pronoun (as in the original).

Of the seven sentences with the conjunction ir… ir, two have no original:

M. Kodrin wadini// świętą// Mo. [...] jog wel amžinái// weli// ir waldžioię/ ir tái-llło Dwałlia świętaia. 40,

bitie wilfi Diewoll atližada// ir prilłoia wętnópl// ir vž Wießpaty fau ápłūri. 77_{7, 8}

In two instances, ir… ir corresponds to the paired y… y in the original (15₆ and 87_{15, 17}; see above). In two further instances, the conjunction in the original is the single y, e.g.:

dawéi idąnt// nufsidėiueis nalrais ma-llnais palitėčtie tawė/ ir pri-llimczie/ ir walgiczie. (dozwoliłeś abych// ię ciebie grzębnymi mymi vfty// dotykał/ przyimował w ię yll pożywał.) 171_{11, 12}

In one instance, ir… ir corresponds to the original a… y:

Dūna mūłłu wilfu dienų// dūd’ mumus fią dieną.// Jr attáid’ mūmus mūł-llu kaltės [...] Jr nė wėd’ mūłłu ing pa-llgindima. (Chleb nás powsedni dayll nam dźisia.// A odpuść nam naše winy [...] Y nie wodź nas na poku-llfęnie.) 46_{5, 9}

3.11. Having examined compound sentences with connective words based on the conjunction and, attention should be drawn to the following features:

With the conjunction and, Daukša translated not only the conjunction y in the original, but quite often also a, used in sentences expressing COMPARATIVE, CONTRASTIVE, CAUSAL, and CONDITIONAL relations. This translation most likely reflects differences in the use of connective conjunctions in Lithuanian and Polish at the time.

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Daukša’s sentences with the single connective word ir, just as in the modern language, generally express COMPARATIVE relations between clauses; they express CONTRASTIVE, CONCESSIVE, CAUSAL, CONDITIONAL, or SUPPLEMENTARY relations much less often.

Using compound connective words, the translator sought to convey more precisely the structure of the original’s connective words and the semantic relations between clauses: CAUSAL relations are expressed by sentences with the connective words ir todin(ag), ir dėl to (a single occurrence), ir teip (a single occurrence); CONTRASTIVE relations are expressed with the connective words ir dabar, ir labiaus (a single occurrence), ir drauge, ir vėl. The variety of compound connective words in Daukša’s translations points to their use not yet having become established. Although compound connective words are used relatively rarely (11 times less often than the single ir) and depend on the original, they nevertheless reflect a tendency to express nuances of semantic relations with specialized conjunctions.

The use of connective words with the conjunction ir in Katechisme and Trumpame Bude differs only slightly.

TABLE 3. USE OF CONNECTIVE WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION ir IN DK

Connective words | K | TB | Total

ir | 91 | 108 | 193

ir dabar | 2 | 2

ir vėl | 1 | 2 | 3

ir drauge | 1 | 1

ir labiaus | 2 | 2

ir tod rin(ag) | 2 | 3 | 5

ir dėl to | 1 | 1

ir teip | 1 | 1

ir… bei vėl | 1 | 1

and… and | 6 | 1 | 7

Total | 113 | 119 | 232

4. COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION nei

4.1. Sentences with nei

The conjunction nei is generally used after a negative and before a positive clause in a compound sentence, e.g.:

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your admonition and inspiration toward good I often neither listened to nor followed. (nápo-//miná y natchnienie twego ku do-//bremu čęſtokroć nie ſuchał/ // áni náśladował.)¹⁸⁷₈

In only one case does it link two negative verb forms:

How shall we fulfil the commandment that forbids stealing? [...] neither causing harm to anyone in his property [...] nor, for any reason, deceiving anyone or leading another into harm. (Jako záchowamy śiodme? // [...] áni czyniąc βkody ła-//dnemu w rzeczách iego [...] áni żadną// przyczyną nikogo nie podwo-//dząc do βkody drugiego.)⁸⁶₁₀

Sentences with the coordinating word nei express COORDINATIVE relations between clauses in all cases; cf.:

[May he also lament sincerely] if he did not recognize that they had been given into his hands for his own good, nor thank him for them. ([Niechay ſię też vſkarża já-//łonnie] ie-//lli tę [...] ich nie po-//znał być z rąk iego dáne ku fwe-//mu lepβemu/ áni mu dſięko-//wał zá nie)¹²⁵₇

In the original, the coordinating word nei is rendered in eight cases by the single conjunction ani (for example, in the ¹⁸⁷₈ sentence quoted above), used after negative and before positive clauses. In two cases (in the previously quoted ⁸⁶₁₀ and ⁸⁵₁₄ sentences), the original uses the repeated conjunction ani... ani:

What remedy must we use to keep this commandment? [...] neither reading obscene books, nor speaking indecent words, nor singing shameful songs. (M. Jakiego lekarstwa żywać// mamy/ ku zachowaniu tego// przykazánia?// [...] nie czytać ksiąg wβelecz-//nych/ áni moowič ſłow/ áni// śpiewać pieśni nieuczciwych)⁸⁵₁₄

In sentence 86₁₀, the first part of the conjunction ani… ani occurs with a positive verb, and the second with a negative verb, whereas in the ⁸⁵₁₄ sentence both parts occur with positive clauses. One Lithuanian sentence with nei is rendered in the original by a verbless sentence:

How shall we fulfil the eighth commandment, which forbids lying? [...] neither accusing our neighbour nor speaking falsehood. (Jákos záchowamy ofme?// [...] nie połądájąć bliźniego/ nie// mowiąc nieprawdy)⁸⁷₅

4.2. Sentences with nei vēl

Sentences with the connective nei vēl usually express COMPARATIVE relations between clauses, e.g.:

M. How shall we fulfill the tenth commandment? Mo. Neither coveting wealth and any possession of one’s neighbor nor looking upon his good with envy, nor desiring it. (M. Jako zachowamy dźię-// śiąte?// V. Nie żądájąć maiętności// áni żadney rzeczy bliźniego/ nie// ſłubnym obycźáiem: áni mu zay-//rzą dobrá iego.)⁸⁸₃

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In several cases, the clear adversative relations between the clauses depend on their lexical composition; compare:

Though he is God, he never consented to die or suffer. ₃₄₂₀ M. What should good parents do for their children? Mo. They must raise them well, teach them the fear of God, not let them remain ignorant of learning, nor allow them to grow lazy. (M. Coż maįą cžyníč dobry oy-//cowie ȝ łyny fwemi?// V. Maįą, ie včyȝy/ yʃpráwo-//wáč: ani nábyti karȝą/ áni ná-//ȝbyt rołpłebéłąic) 83₆

The postpositive particle vėl only reinforces the coordinating or adversative relations between the clauses, but does not change their nature. The linking word neither again correlates with the negation in the first clause of the sentence and corresponds to the correlative conjunction neither … nor, which Daukša does not use in compound sentences (cf. the original ani … ani). There is no corresponding original for one Lithuanian sentence with this linking word (34₂₀). The other Lithuanian sentences correspond to original sentences with the single conjunction ani (88₃), the correlative conjunction ani … ani (83₆), and in only one case—a sentence with ani teȝ:

he did not approach the Sacrament with such preparation, nor did he show such diligence in examining his conscience as he ought to have done. (nie przybedł do// tego Sákramentu ȝ taką przy-//prawą/ áni teȝ včynit takiey// pilność w rozbierániu fumne-//nia fwoiego/ jako był powinien.) 120₃

4.3. Examination of compound sentences with connective words based on the conjunction nei highlights the emphatic role of the particle vėl and certain differences between the works examined: Daukša translated the corresponding sentences in the Katechismo more freely—the repeated conjunctions in the original are translated with single conjunctions, while the Lithuanian postpositive particle has no equivalent in the original.

TABLE 4. USE OF CONNECTIVE WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION nei IN DK

Connective words K TB Total nei 5 6 11 nei vėl 3 1 4 Total 8 7 15

5. COORDINATING WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION o

5.1. Sentences with o Compound sentences with the single conjunction o most often express COORDINATIVE relations between clauses, e.g.:

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mitek// Love the Lord God with all your will// and with all your heart as yourself// (miłuj Pana// Boga nad wszystko/ a bliźniego// jako sam siebie) 88₁₁

The use of coordinate sentences with the conjunction o in the works under study differs from present-day usage: Daukša chose them also in cases where sentences with the conjunction ir are customary today (cf. Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 568, 702), e.g.:

Turn me back// Lord [to yourself] and do not be// angry with me. (Nawróć mnie// Panie ku tobie/ a nie chciej [się] gniewać przeciwko mnie.) 138.₁₁ Take care [of the little ones [...] that they may be// of the number of those good// and chosen by him// and that they may not fall// into eternal torments// of hell. (Starajcież się [o dziatki [...] abyście byli z liczby// onych dobrych a wybranych jego// a żebyście się nie dostali na męki// piekielne.) 44₈ souls who die in the grace of God, and// have not sufficiently satisfied// their will for the sins of the body (dusze które umierają w// łasce Bożej/ a nie uczynili na// wszytem dosyć za grzechy za swo-//je) 43₉

The use of coordinate sentences with the conjunction o cannot be explained solely by the influence of Polish, since not all of them have an original. For example, this sentence by Daukša has no original:

made heaven and// made the earth/ and everything else// that is on earth [...] and not only did he make// and create it/ but now on// it he provides abundantly/ watches over/ car-//es for [...] all of it 31₈

More rarely, sentences with the conjunction o express CONTRASTIVE relations between clauses, e.g.:

I live in you, but I// die in myself: in you I re-//main, but in myself I pass away (ja w tobie żywię// a w tobie umieram: w tobie// trwam/ a w tobie przemijam) 169_{1, 3}

CONTRASTIVE relations, as the cited example shows, depend on the lexical composition of the clauses—the antonyms used in them: I live: I die, I remain: I pass away. Cf. also:

The Son of God in heaven has no// mother: and on earth no fa-//ther. (Syn Boży na niebie nie-//ma matki: a na ziemi nie ma// Oyca.) 33₁₃

Occasionally, sentences with the conjunction o mark CAUSAL (a) or CONDITIONAL (b) relations, e.g.:

a) You are the [sweet nourishment of my soul/ [...] And whoever receives you worthily, will be a companion and heir// of eternal glory. (ty jest// [słodkie posilenie duszę mojej// [...]: a któryby cię godnie po-//żywał/ uczeltnikiem y dziedzi-//cem// będzie wiecznej chwały.) 156₂₂ b) Come to me, all// who are weary and burdened// and I will give you rest. (Podź-//ćie do mnie wszyscy wy/ ktorzy-//ście tę wypracowali/ y vciążeni // jesteście/ a ja wam dam ochło-//dę.) 150₁₂

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Of all the Daukša sentences examined that contain the conjunction o, only two lack an original counterpart. In every case where an original exists, the sentences with o correspond to Polish sentences with the conjunction a.

The adverb teip(o) may immediately follow the conjunction o, correlating with the entire first clause or its predicate group. Such sentences mark ADDITIVE relations between clauses. In these sentences, the adverb retains its general meaning as an adverbial of manner and does not form a separate syntactic unit with the conjunction; cf.:

nūdemės nu-//mazgótų/ ir ištrauktų išg// rąkų priešininkų mūſų [...] o// teip išgelbėtų/ ir atpirtkų// mūs krauiu fáwų ɓwęcźeu-//ſiu (naſ// ociyścili// z grzechow náſych/)// wyrwat nas z rąk nieprzyia-//ćieł náſych [...] á ták odkupit nas fwo-//ią kwią nadrożſzą) 34₃

dū-//ſtis mūmus malóne Diewo// [u wilſomis gamtomis/ o// teip támpamē lunumus/ ir/ téwainieis ámžinos giwá-//tos. (by-//wa nam dána táłká ӡe wßytki-//mi cnotámi: á ták ſławamy ſię// łynmi y dźiedźicámi wiecźnego// żywotá.) 96₇

In all these cases, the original uses the conjunction a, followed by the adverb tak. In contemporary standard Lithuanian, such sentences correspond to sentences with the conjunction ir, followed by the adverb taip or a synonymous expression in this way; in the Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, similar sentences are considered CORRELATIVE (cf. Ambrazas, ed. 1994: 720).

In cases where the adverb has partly lost its lexical meaning, it forms a separate syntactic unit with the conjunction—a connective word o teip(o) (see below).

In a few cases, Daukša uses the pronoun tai after the conjunction, correlating with the predicate group of the first clause. Such sentences also express ADDITIVE relations between clauses:

Yra Jėſus Chriſtus gel-//betóies mūſų/ [u dūbia/ ir [u// kūnu/ ir [u dèiwiltę [...] o tai// teip po paweikſtù dūnos/ // kaip ir wino (Jezuſ Chryſtus zbáwićiel// naſ// z dubaſ y z ciałem/ y z Bo-//ſtwem [...]: a to tak pod obłobą chlebá/ iá-//ko y winá) 98₁₃

Jneiei ing iſćia Mer-//gos ɓwęcźęſios Mótinos// tawós/ o tū kaip ią iškėłai// nē išžbłomofń garbēfį (Wſbełēs w// żywot Pánieńki naświętey// mátki twe y) á tak iákos ią pod-//niołſku niewymownęy chwalę) 164₅.

The originals of the quoted examples differ: in the first, as in the translation, a neuter pronoun is used, whereas in the second an adverb is used.

In a few more cases, the pronoun used after the conjunction serves as a modifier of verbal nouns that repeat the finite forms of the first clause, for example:

O láimi lábai tai yra// širdis/ ir pałáiminta dūbia// kuri tawę Wießpati Diewą// fawq/ nupėłno priimt o ta-//mė priemimę/ dwałiſką linx-//miƀę būt papildita (O ɓcźeśliwy vmyſł/ y błogo-//ſławiona dubaſ/ ktora ciebie// Páná Bogá fwego záſługuie// nabożnie przyiąć/ á w tym przy-//jęciu/ duchownymwěłelem być// nápěłniona?) 157₁₃

These sentences also express ADDITIVE relations. The structure of the original and translated sentences is the same.

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5.2. Sentences with but also

In three sentences in the Trumpo Budo, the particle again is used in the third position of the second clause; together with the conjunction, it performs a connective role between clauses and intensifies the adversative relations expressed by the sentences, e.g.:

such from the mother God-//wo such sins/ origin (which// pāļākem’) do not//prevent. And you again others//do not know (tācy sā tālka// Bojų w takie grzechy do-//puśczenia (kto relmy po-//wiedžieli) nie wpadaią.// A tych zaś drugich nie// znajq) 115₁₅

Such use of the particle again is not characteristic of present-day standard language. In all these cases, again depends on the original: there, the particle zaś occurs in the third position of the second clause.

5.3. Sentences with and more

One complex sentence with the connective word and more is found in the Kathechisme. It expresses COORDINATIVE relations:

M. What do you understand by// these words// I believe// in God the Father. // Mo. I understand// that by believing// we must love him. And more// that, loving all other// things, and his holy// commandments and precepts// we cannot nor can we bear// to die in any// thing. 27₂₂–28₁

The connective word is used in this sentence as a separate syntactic unit. The comparative form of the adverb has become fossilized. The adverb does not change the nature of the sentence’s semantic relations, but only strengthens the conjunction’s syntactic role. The structure and role of the connective word are similar to those of the connective words bat gandžiaus, ir labiaus. This sentence is absent from the original.

5.4. Sentences with o and especially

In two Kathechismo sentences with the conjunction o, the adverb ypačiai is used immediately after it. Both sentences express an exception, for example:

M. And when do we have// to make the sign of the cross?// [...] when we find ourselves in some need// or necessity/ and especially when rising// and lying down (M. A kiedy mamy używać zna-//mienia krzyża świętego?// [...] gdy się znajdujemy w ja-//kiej potrzebie: a osobliwie w-//stając y kładąc się) 18₇ M. What do you understand by// faith?// A. All that the Roman Church// holds and believes [...] and// especially what is enclosed in the Creed. (M. Což rozumiesz przez wiarę?// W. Wszystko co trzyma a wierzy [...] kościół Rzymski: a oso-//bliwie/ to co się w Kredzie za-//myka.) 22₁₆

In both cases the translation corresponds to the original: a, which follows the conjunction, is rendered by the adverb osobliwie, ‘especially.’

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5.5. Sentences with o teip(o)

Several sentences have been found in Kathechisme and Trumpas Bude in which the adverb teip(o), following the conjunction o, forms a separate syntactic unit—a connective. In these sentences the adverb has lost its manner meaning and, together with the conjunction, is used to mark CAUSAL relations; cf.:

M. What is the Mass?// A. It is a commemoration [...] and at the same time a sacrifice, in which Christ the Lord is sacrificed [...] And// thus one must attend Mass/ with// great devotion/ and reverence. (M. A coź ieft Mβa? // V. Jeft pāmįtka [...] y źárażem ieft ofiá-//rá/ w ktorey ofiárują tegoj// Chryftufá Pána [...] á tāk trzęba przy niey// być z wielką pilnośćią/ y wćći-//wośćią.) 99¹⁷ You must now also, with all your strength and power [...] o teip// you can overcome the enemy (Ma tęj// ieβcje y ducha ze wszystkimi siłami swo-// imi [...] á tāk możesz grzeszyć/ przeciw po-//rządkowi) 126₁₁

The adverb teip used alone does not have a causal meaning in the works of Daukša under discussion. Daukša does not use the connectives *o todrin or *o dėl to, which would most precisely correspond to the formal expression of the original’s connectives a dlatego, a przetoż. In the quoted examples, the connective o teip is used as a synonym for ir teip, ir todrin, ir dėl to (‘and so,’ ‘and therefore,’ and ‘and for that reason’). The corresponding Polish connective a tak, which Daukša translates as o teip, is likewise synonymous in these cases with the connectives a dlatego, a przetoż. This suggests that the use of the connective o teip in Daukša’s translation depends directly on the original.

5.6. Summarizing the overview of sentences with connective words based on the conjunction o, the following conclusions can be drawn:

These sentences primarily express COMPARATIVE relations between clauses. In addition, they may indicate CONTRASTIVE, EXCEPTION, CAUSAL, CONDITIONAL, and SUPPLEMENTARY relations;

in Daukša’s works examined, the conjunction o always corresponds to the conjunction a in the original. Its fairly frequent use in place of the conjunction ir, which is not characteristic of contemporary standard Lithuanian, cannot be explained solely by the influence of the original;

postpositive particles used with the conjunction strengthen and clarify the semantic relations between the clauses of a complex sentence; in every case, they have equivalents in the original;

the specialized connective word o daugi aus, used similarly to bat gandžius, and labiaus, may be characteristic of the spoken language of that period;

o teip is used as a synonym for the connective words ir teip, ir todrin, ir dėl to and is directly dependent on the original.

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TABLE 5. CONNECTIVE WORDS WITH THE CONJUNCTION o IN DK

Connective words

K

TB

Total

o

19

34

53

o again

3

3

o more

1

1

o especially

2

2

o thus(o)

1

1

2

Total

23

38

61

6. THE CONJUNCTION however

The conjunction however was used by Daukša in only one Trumpo Budo complex sentence. It links participles denoting states:

with my saving hand, being thus struck several times, yet after a long while overcome, I die a second time. (although having been afflicted so many times by the illness neverthelessstruck down, I die a second time.) 143₈

The relations between the clauses are ADVERSATIVE. The conjunction occurs in the second position of the clause. In the original, it corresponds to the construction przed się.

TABLE 6. USE OF THE CONJUNCTION however IN DK

Conjunction

K

TB

Total

however

1

1

7. THE CONNECTIVE WORD tad(a(g))

Tad(a) is used by Daukša not at the beginning of the second clause, like other connective words, but in the second (a) or third (b) position, characteristic of particles rather than conjunctions. Nevertheless, it is regarded as a connective word because it performs a clause-linking function; cf.:

a) The blind came to you || the deaf to you/ to you// those stricken by paralysis/ to-//you those possessed by the devil/ and// no one was left unhealed. To-//you then’ I too, both weary// and exhausted, draw near (The blind came to you/ the deaf to you/ to// you those afflicted with paralysis/ to// you those possessed/ and no one// remained unhealed. To you thenI, too, weary and wretched, approach) 153 153₇

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b) You can forgive more// than I can pay back. Do not cast me// away, dear Lord, from your// mercy then (you can forgive more// than I can repay. Do not reject// me, therefore, dear Lord, from// your table) 137₁₂

Sentences with this conjunction most often express CAUSAL semantic relations (as in the last example). In several cases, prominent ASSERTION–CONCLUSION relations are regarded as a variant of these; cf.:

all sins// committed of any kind// can be forgiven in one way// out of these// two [...] Among these// therefore, of the two ways of for-//giving sins, one belongs// to the act of doing (all sins// that are committed) are dealt with// in one way out of these two [...] Among these thereforein the twofold manner [one// of both sins belongs to the deed) 114₁₃

Sentences with tad(a) may also mark CONDITIONAL relations, e.g.:

The Seraphim are great [...] they become little butterflies before your eyes. How then if I, a wretch and vile creature, dare approach you (seeing the Seraphim [...] become like lowly little butterflies in your presence. How then thenshall I, wretched and worthless, dare to come near you) 148₁₉

In cases where sentences express the most general relations of COORDINATION or TIME, tad(a) functions as a particle rather than as a conjunction, e.g.:

it may add all sins and shortcomings// that arise from one’s state// or office [...] Having completed this kind of confession, then, let him finish (it may add all sins and negligences// that arise from one’s state// or office [...] Having completed this kind of confession, let him conclude) 131₁₁

The longer form of the conjunction tada occurs in only one sentence:

you wish to reveal my secret// in that Sacrament: the love// of the bridegroom for the bride// and to show it to me thus. Then there-//foregive me// that heart, Lord, against you (you wish to reveal my secret in this sacrament: the love of the bridegroom for the bride, and to show it to me thus; grant me then, Lord, such a heart toward you) 168_6–7

With an attached postposed particle, this conjunction occurs only once; it appears in the first position of the clause:

M. Is the Father God?// V. He is.// M. And is the Son God?// V. He is.// M. And is the Holy Spirit God?// V. He is.// M. Then are there three// Gods? (M. Is the Father God?// V. He is.// M. And is the Son God?// V. He is.// M. And is the Holy Spirit God?// V. He is.// M. And so there are three Gods?) 26₈

This sentence expresses ASSERTION–CONCLUSION semantic relations.

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In the original, the conjunction tad(a) is in all cases matched by tedy, which, as in the translation, occurs in the second or third position of the clause. In the Polish text, the form tadag is matched by the compound conjunction a więc.

TABLE 7. USE OF THE CONNECTIVE WORD tad(a(g)) IN DK

Connective word | K | TB | Total

tad(a(g)) | 3 | 7 | 10

8. CONNECTIVE WORD tai yra

In both cases, sentences with the connective word tai yra express SPECIFYING relations between clauses.

[Named after Christ and adopted] a pupil, that is, one who is universally believed to believe in God and to observe His commandments. (If anyone calls himself a Christian, believes and professes his law.) 10¹⁴ [may be considered guilty]3 of the knowledge of his heart [if he did not observe the laws that pertained to divine service], that is, if he did not perform them with such inner devotion for God alone as he ought to have done.⁶

In the original, the connective word has no equivalent in the first case, while in the second case it is matched by to jest.

TABLE 8. USE OF THE CONNECTIVE WORD tai yra IN DK

Connective word | K | TB | Total

tai yra | 1 | 1 | 2

9. CONNECTIVE WORD teip jog

In two cases, the clauses of a complex sentence in the works under examination are linked by the connective word teip jog. These sentences express ASSERTION–CONCLUSION relations, which are treated in this article as a variant of CAUSAL relations:

The Son of God// having become a man in the womb// of the Virgin Mary, redeemed// us on the Cross so that// he might bring us from the left// to the right: thus the third cross// of the Saviour, which is signified// in our homes, is like a sign// of all our faith. (in the glory of God, having become// a man in the womb of the Virgin// Mary, redeemed us on the cross,// so that he might carry us from the left to the right: thus

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of the holy cross, it is as though the sum// of all the world’s faith.) 17¹⁸ And if you enter the womb of// your most holy Mother, and just as you raised her to ineffable glory, thus// that if you granted her ineffable grace upon her Assumption//. (You entered the womb of your most holy Mother, and just as you raised her to ineffable glory, so too you granted her ineffable grace upon her Assumption.)₁₆₄^6–7

In the latter case, the original could not have determined the choice of connective word in the translation. Teip jog is not characteristic of contemporary standard language; a connective word of similar structure, taip kad, is sometimes used with the same meaning.

TABLE 9. USE OF THE CONNECTIVE WORD teip jog IN DK

Connective word

K

TB

Total

thus that

1

1

2

10. CONJUNCTION todrin(ag)

The clauses linked by this conjunction express causal semantic relations, e.g.:

among whom// many will scarcely be freed from sins:// nevertheless imperfection// and some defect and transgression [...] Therefore to be// those who go toward perfection // should not leave them behind as they please. (miedy ktoremi// wiele ich/ ledwie będaļl grzechami powbędzieni// wßakźe jednak ieft záwße// niedołkonatość/ y wyłte-/|pek iáki [...] Dla tego či ktoryj idą ku// dokłonatóśći/ nie máią// ich ledá iáko opuśćáć) 117⁵

The particle ir, which immediately follows the conjunction, is associated not with the conjunction but with the pronoun that follows it; therefore it is not part of the conjunction, cf.:

Sjętónas búwo graźús ifž// prigimimo. Therefore we too// if we are without sins, then we too shall be beautiful (bá-/|tan byt piękny z przyrodzenia.// Przetoź y my// ielli bez* grzechu bę-/|dźiemy/ tedy też zoftániemy pięknemi) 57¹⁸

The conjunction is usually used with an attached postpositive particle and appears without it in only one sentence:

give me// to eat your body, living// [...] Therefore I pray that it be food for me (dateś mi za po-/|karm ciało twe żywe/ [...] Przeto|| I ask you to be so kind) 171¹⁶

In the original, these sentences have two kinds of equivalents: with the conjunctions dlatego or przeto(ż) (see the examples cited). In several cases, the original uses the compound conjunctions a przetoż (a) and a dlatego (b):

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a) We ought to love our brothers and sisters as good children of one father therefore we should consider one another as brothers and children of one father. (We ought to love one another as brothers, and therefore we must love one another as brothers and children of such a good Father.) 50₁₀

b) We have such a frail, weak nature. Thereforewe should not be surprised that some devout people do not find sins of which they might be guilty (what we do not see, we may find difficult to know). And therefore one should not wonder that some devout persons do not find sins for which they might have to declare themselves guilty. 115_5–6

These examples show the synonymy of translated sentences with the connective words ir todrin, ir (“and therefore, and”) and sentences with a single todrin (“therefore”).

TABLE 10. USE OF THE CONNECTIVE WORD todrin(ag) IN DK

Connective word K TB Total todrin(ag) 2 5 7

11. CONNECTIVE WORD vienok(ig)

Sentences with this conjunction express ADVERSATIVE relations in Trumpas Bude, for example:

Your wounds with Thomas I will not seeI will nevertheless confess Godnor acknowledge (3 I will touch your wounds here, I will not see themI shall confess you to be GodI will not see.) 176₁₇

In this and the other sentences, a concessive nuance is also prominent between the clauses; compare:

many will be found, appearing:of one willnon-accomplishment and wrongdoing of some kind (many of them, scarcely having been freed from sinsyet it is necessary to confessimperfection, and some lapse) 117₁

In sentences of this type, the conjunction occurs in the first position (as in the examples quoted) or in the second clause:

On the cross you were thus tormented, God’s Son; and here you are in human form. Both things neverthelessI truly believe: I pray that, dying, you may have mercy. (On the Cross you were thus tormented, O Son of God, and here you are in human form. Both things I firmly confess: I pray you, dying on the cross, have mercy on me.) 176₁₁

In the latter case, the translation differs somewhat more substantially from the original: Daukša rendered the asyndetic sentence as a sentence with the conjunction vienok. Here the semantic relations between the clauses in the translation and the original do not coincide: in the Polish text, they are additive.

In sentence 117, the conjunction with the added particle vienokig corresponds to the compound connective word wszakże jednak.

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The conjunction vienok is also used as part of the complex conjunction bat vienok (see section 2.6). In several instances, it is part of the paired conjunctions norint... vienok and norint... bat vienok. The particle vienok can also function as a particle, for example:

And whoever is otherwise (are you thinking of me / acting kindly toward me, dear Jesus? (And why do you always remain steadfast with me, merciful Jesus?)) 143₁₄

The relationship between sentences with vienok(ig) and their synonymous counterparts with bat or tačiau is unclear. The choice of one conjunction or another may have been determined by the different conjunctions in the original.

TABLE 11. USE OF THE CONJUNCTION vienok(ig) IN DK

Conjunction K TB Total vienok(ig) 3 3

12. CONCLUSIONS

In their main features, the compound compound sentences in Daukša’s works examined here (see Table 12) correspond to sentences in contemporary standard language. The relationship between the semantic relations they express and the conjunctions in the sentence is shown in Table 13.

The following are among the more notable differences between how coordinative relations are expressed in Daukša’s works and in contemporary standard language:

1. As in contemporary standard language, sentences with the conjunction ir generally convey the most general COMPARATIVE relations between clauses, and sometimes CONTRAST and others. In the original, they correspond not only to sentences with the conjunction y, but also to sentences with a. The latter account for as much as 30 percent of all cases in which the Lithuanian examples have conjunctional equivalents in the original.

The predominant semantic relations between clauses in sentences with the conjunction o are COMPARATIVE and, somewhat less frequently, CONTRASTIVE. These clause relations are characteristic of sentences with the conjunction ir both in Daukša’s language and in contemporary language. In the original, sentences with o correspond to sentences with the conjunction a.

A comparison of the translation with the original reveals differences between Polish and Lithuanian compound sentences of that period expressing COMPARATIVE relations between clauses: such relations were much more characteristic of Polish sentences with the conjunction a (cf. Klemensiewicz e. a., 1955: 450, 471, 507) than of the corresponding Lithuanian sentences with the conjunction o.

2. The language of the Daukša works examined here is more characterized than contemporary standard usage by the expression of semantic relations or their nuances through postpositive particles attached to conjunctions (cf. Piročkinas 1964c: 81, 85, 98). For example, sentences with the conjunctions ir dabar, ir vėl, and ir labiau express COMPARATIVE or CONTRASTIVE relations. CAUSAL relations are expressed by sentences with the conjunctions ir tod(r)in and ir taip; CONCESSIVE relations by ir vėl atpenč; and ADDITIVE relations by ir tai. To determine the semantic

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The nature of the relations between the clauses can be clarified by comparing the translation with the original—in it, the translation’s postpositive particles generally have exact equivalents. Nevertheless, the use of postpositions is not always determined by the original, which suggests that it was also characteristic of the spoken Lithuanian of that period.

3. Daukša’s translations display a greater polyfunctionality of function words than is found today. Often the same particle can function as an adverb or a particle, form part of a compound or paired conjunction, or itself serve as a connective.

4. In the works examined, postpositive particles are comparatively often used not in the second, but in the third or even fourth position in a clause (cf. Hermann 1926). Their use is generally determined by the original, but not in every case; therefore, it is doubtful whether it can be explained solely by Polish influence.

Kathechismo and Trumpo Budo compound coordinate sentences differ in part in their inventory of connectives: tačiau and vienok(ig) are used only in the latter work.

TABLE 12. CONNECTIVES IN THE COMPOUND SENTENCES OF M. DAUKŠA’S KATHECHISMO AND TRUMPO BUDO

Connectives K TB Total With arba 6 3 9 With bat 16 18 34 With ir 113 119 232 With nei 8 7 15 With o 23 38 61 tčiau 1 1 tad(a(g)) 3 7 10 tai yra 1 1 2 teip jog 1 1 2 todrin(ag) 2 5 7 vienok(ig) 3 3 Total 173 203 376

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TABLE 13. MEANING RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES EXPRESSED BY COMPOUND COORDINATE SENTENCES IN M. DAUKŠA’S KATHECHISME AND TRUMPAME BŪDE

Meaning relations

Connectives

Additive

Adversative

Disjunctive

Exceptive

Specifying

Causal

Conditional

Concessive

Additive

With or

++

With but

+

++

+

With and

++

+

+

+

+

With nor

++

+

With but

++

+

+

+

however

++

so

++

+

that is

++

so that

++

therefore

++

nevertheless

++

+

LITERATŪRA

Ambrazas, V. 1972: Lietuvių kalbos prijungiamųjų sakinių struktūriniai tipai. Baltistica 8 (1), 23–48.

Ambrazas, V. 1977: Lietuvių kalbos istorinės sintaksės metodo problema. LTSR MA darbai A 4 (61), 139–154.

Ambrazas, V. 1982: Žodžių tvarka ir baltų kalbų sakinio tipo rekonstrukcija. Baltistica 18 (2), 100–118.

Ambrazas, V. 1986: Lietuvių kalbos sakinio sintaksinės ir semantinės struktūros vienetai. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 25, 4–44.

Ambrazas, V., red. 1994: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

Balkevičius, J. 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė, Vilnius: Mintis.

Hermann, E. 1926: Litauische Studien. Eine historische Untersuchung schwachbetonter Wörter im Litauischen, Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung.

Klemensiewicz, Z., Lehr-Splawiński, T., Urbańczyk, S. 1955: Gramatyka historyczna języka polskiego, Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.

Michelini, G. 2001: Itališkas Ledesmos Katechismo Dottrina Christiana: Daukšos panaudoto lenkiško teksto šaltinis. Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 44, 227–250.

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PALIONIS, J. 1967: Lietuvių literatūrinė kalba XVI–XVII a., Vilnius: Mintis.

PALIONIS, J. 1995: Pratarmė; 1595 metų Katekizmas ir jo leidimai. Mikalojus Daukšos 1595 metų Katekizmas. Parengė Vida Jakštienė ir Jonas Palionis, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 7–8; 15–39.

PIROČKINAS, A. 1964a: Keli ypatingesni sudėtinių sakinių tipai. Kalbotyra 10, 109–113.

PIROČKINAS, A. 1964b: Место присоединения среди других видов синтаксической связи. Kalbotyra 10, 157–165.

PIROČKINAS, A. 1964c: Sujungiamųjų sakinių su jungtukais ir, o, bet loginiai–semantiniai santykiai. Kalbotyra 10, 77–107.

ULVYDAS, K., red. 1976: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 3. Sintaksė, Vilnius: Mokslas.

Gauta 2001 07 20

Artūras Judžentis Lietuvių kalbos institutas Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected]

Jūratė Pajėdienė Lietuvių kalbos institutas Antakalnio g. 6, 2055 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected]