LAIMUTIS BILKIS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

Research areas: toponymy, anthroponymy.

FORMATIONAL FEATURES OF LITHUANIAN PLACE NAMES WITH THE ROOT GAL- (< LITH. GÃLAS ‘END, EDGE’)

Peculiarities of Formation of Lithuanian Toponyms with Root Gal- (< Lith. gãlas ‘end, edge’)

ABSTRACT

Toponyms derived from Lithuanian gãlas ‘end, edge’ form a very large etymological group and are characterized by a diversity of formation patterns, particularly by the abundance of compounds and composite formations. The article analyzes their derivational methods, focusing on the productivity of word-formation types, the morphological status of base words, and derivational meaning. Drawing on the traditional description of grammatical, or syntactic, relations, it discusses the grammatical relations between the constituents of compound place names and between prepositional constructions functioning as place names, as well as the syntactic relations between the constituents of composite place names formed from word combinations.

KEYWORDS: place-name formation, place names with the root gal-, grammatical relations between the constituents of compound and composite place names.

ANNOTATION

The toponyms deriving from Lith. gãlas ‘end, edge’ constitute a very large etymological group and demonstrate varied formation patterns as well as a special diversity of compound and composite formations. The article addresses their derivational patterns with a focus on the productivity of formation types, the morphological status of base words, and the meaning of formation. By referring to the traditional description of grammatical/syntactical relations, the article discusses the grammatical relations of compound toponyms and the prepositional constructions used as toponyms as well as the syntactical relations of the components of the composite toponyms comprising word-phrases.

KEYWORDS: formation of toponyms, toponyms with the root gal-, grammatical relations of components of compound and composite toponyms.

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Lietuvių vietovardžių su šaknimi gal- (< liet. galas ‘pabaiga, kraštas’) darbų ypatybės

1. In the third volume of the Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names (G–H, see LVŽ III), place names derived from Lith. galas ‘the place where some longer object ends; the edge part of an object (beginning, end); edge, border; boundary’ and other words of similar meaning with the same root form the largest entry (derivational nest), occupying as many as 15 pages¹. Place names with this root are also abundant in other Baltic languages; cf. Latvian place names Gals, Galabērži, Gal-dzelme, etc. (Endzelīns 1956: 292–294), Prussian place names Galindo (Būga 1961: 17; Топоров 1979: 143; Vanagas 1980: 20), Galanten (Gerulis 1922: 35), *Gal-ings (Pospieszowa 1990: 243), Galitten, Galingen (Blažienė 2005: 59), and the Oder-basin hydronym Galina (Opel 1997: 336). Toponyms with gal- display a diversity of formations, with an especially large number of compounds and multiword formations. Therefore, this article aims to examine their derivational patterns in terms of the productivity of formation types, the morphological status of base words, and the meaning of formations; to discuss, on the basis of the traditional grammatical, i.e. syntactic, account of relations, the grammatical relations in compound place names and prepositional constructions functioning as place names; and to consider the syntactic relations between the constituents of multiword place names that form phrases².

Very little has been written, and only in passing, about the syntactic relations between the constituents of toponyms composed of two (or more) words. Publications by Bronius Savukynas devoted to the analysis of multiword hydronyms note that an uninflected modifier occurs as the first component of genitive place names (Savukynas 1963: 237–238), and that multiword hydronyms are better classified on the basis of syntactic relations between their constituents—as agreeing and non-agreeing, or genitive (Savukynas 1971: 167). Dalia Sviderskienė (2017: 80–81) also provides a reasoned argument for this classification in her analysis of multiword names of non-rivers in Marijampolė County. In Aleksandras Vanagas’s study of river and lake names, it is noted that the two words of genitive hydronyms form a single syntactic phrase functioning as a place name, while the first component of all multiword hydronyms and most compound hydronyms defines (determines) the second (Vanagas 1970: 273–274)³. In introducing the study of multiword oikonyms

¹ The article does not examine prefixed place names with the root gal-; moreover, it analyzes only those compound and multiword place names in which the root gal- occurs as the first constituent. Prefixed place names and those with gal- as the second constituent are scattered across numerous entries (and volumes) of the Dictionary of Lithuanian Place Names, arranged under their first constituents, so their collection and study can be undertaken only once the entire dictionary has been published.

² Some more recent works on syntax distinguish between syntactic and morphosyntactic relations (cf. Holvoet 2009).

³ In analyzing multiword place names, Aleksandras Vanagas favored a classification based on the morphological status of their constituents: in studying the derivation of multiword hydronyms, he divided them into genitive and qualificative types, while oronyms formed by the same method were divided into genitive and nominative (qualificative) types (Vanagas 1970: 258, 273; 1973: 213, 214).

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The results emphasize that, from a grammatical-syntactic perspective, both genitive and qualificative names in this class are alike, since their first component, or constituent, defines and specifies the second (Razmutė 2003: 63). Thus, in analyzing place names with gal-, one aim is, among other things, to give greater attention to discussing the syntactic relations between the constituents of the numerous group of multiword toponyms, in the hope that these data will enrich the syntactic description of Lithuanian phrases.

2. For the purposes of this study, place names containing the root gal- are classified as primary, derived (derivatives), compound (composites), and complex. The overwhelming majority of primary toponyms are pluralia tantum place names Galai. Noteworthy is the variety of denotata of toponyms formed through pluralization: in most cases, Galai are agronyms (names of ploughed fields, plots, fallow lands, pastures, fields, meadows, and clearings), but there are also oikonyms (names of villages, parts of villages, and manors), drymonyms (names of forests and thickets), and helonyms (names of marshes and bogs). About 300 such place names have been recorded in total: Galai pl. Aukšt, dr. Ṡd, v. Blnk, Kzt, Rm, part of the village (Ringaliai) Lm, part of the village (Šadžiūnai) Lp, field Dbn, manor Ms, etc. Such toponyms are undoubtedly formed not only from the plural of Lithuanian galas ‘the place where some elongated object ends; an end part of an object (beginning, end); edge, boundary’, but also from the Lithuanian plural appellative galai ‘field-edge’. This may also explain the abundance of agronyms: it is likely that many of them express the relation to a specific location, naming objects situated at the ends of fields. There are far fewer (about 20) place names denoting a primary location, formed from the singular form of Lithuanian galas: Galas field Gdr, Sk, lake Pš, Vln, lake Bsg, pasture Zp, village Rud, part of the village (Leipūškė) Ml, part of the village (Peršėkininkai) Mrs, etc. Rare among primary place names with gal- are the locative place names Galūs village Tk, Galuos lake Stk, formed from the plural locative of Lithuanian galas or the locative form of Lithuanian galai ‘field-edge’—the shortened form galuos and the full form galuose. This type of naming occurs only in (top)onymy.

3. One oikonym, Gal-i̇ai vs. Nm (: galas), may be considered a suffixal derivative, although, on the other hand, it may be an anthroponymic oikonym of the pluralia tantum type; cf. Lithuanian personal names Galys, Galius (LPDB).

4. According to their derivational categories, suffixed place names were classified as derivatives formed by analogy with the derivation of diminutives, names of bearers of a characteristic (nomina attributa), and place names (nomina loci).

Most diminutive place names are formed with the suffixes -ėlis and -ėliai—12 and 11, respectively: Gal-ėliai k. Rz, V̇žns, k. (Jūskėnų) dalis Sk, km., mš. lks, pv. Bt, etc.; Gal-ėlis gn. Mrk, gn. dalis Sd, k. (Sausinių) dalis Brt, k. (Krėkėnų) dalis Krk, k. (Griežpelių) dalis Lksr, etc. Derivatives with the suffixes -aitė, -aitės, -aliai, -i̇ukas, -elė, -elės, -učiai, -ukai, -utė, -utis occur in small numbers, sometimes only once: Gal-aitė pv. Lbv, Gal-aitės pv. Lzd, Gal-aitis vs. Pp, Gal-aliai k.

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Lietuvių vietovardžių su šaknimi gal- (< liet. galas ‘pabaiga, kraštas’) darbōs ypatybės

(Grūšlaukės, Lazdininkų, Vaineikių Medsėdžių) parts Dr, village Antk, Gal-ėlė village Rz, Gal-ėlės forest site Pl, Gal-iūkas meadow Upn, Ut, parcel Dgšk, Gal-učiai village (Ragškės) parts Lkš, Gal-ukai field Dg, Gal-utė meadow Vdv, Gal-utis clearing KŽ.

Place names formed by analogy with names of possessors of a characteristic are mostly marked by suffixes derived from *-no⁴. The most numerous are derivatives with the suffixes -inė and -inės—about 150 and 100, respectively: Gal-inė field An, village Antz, forest Šn, pasture Str, river Brž, Dv, village Avž, etc.; Gal-inės village (Silu) part Jsv, village (Purpliai) part Mrk, village (Kazimieravas) part Pv, village (Stungiai) part Žg, 2 km Dgč, forest Dgln, clearing Tgn, boundary Vb, village Snt, village Btr, etc. Somewhat fewer place names are formed with the suffixes -inis and -iniai—75 and 110: Gal-iniai field Bb, forest Mt, village Skp, shrubland Aln, boundary Ad, parcel part Tgn, farmstead Ign, etc.; Gal-iniai village (Birbiliškė) part Vl, Gal-inis field Rz, ravine Brž, village Ign, meadow Pnd, forest Rd, river Jnš, Mrj, Srd, village Jon, Upn, etc. Also noteworthy here are derivatives with the suffixes -ainė and -ina: Gal-ainė⁵ cemetery Vl, Gal-ina village, village Vdv. One derivative each with the suffixes -iškės and -u isnė can also be assigned to this category: Gal-iškės pasture, pasture part Kltn, Gal-uosnėhill, shrubland, wasteland, marsh Čb. Derivatives with Slavic suffixes apparently also denote a characteristic: Gal-enkameadow Krk, Gal-iūkasmeadow Ml, Gal-erkafarmstead Kdn, Gal-inkalake Dbg, village (Skaiteriai) part Mc, clearing Čb, Gal-inkafield, meadow Msn, Gal-inkėvillage Rz, Gal-ošėforest Šn.

Among toponyms assignable to the category of place-name formations, derivatives with the suffix -ynė are somewhat more frequent (7 place names): Gal-ynėforest Lkm, shrubland Stč, meadow Ars, Bt, meadow Lkm, Gal-ynė (variant Pelėnė) manor Krkn, Gal-ynė (variant Pempėnės) meadow Užv. This category also includes isolated derivatives with -ava, -ija, -ijos, -yna, and -ynas: Gal-avaestate, pasture, meadow Varn, Gal-ijameadow Trg, Gal-josfield, meadow Nmž, Gal-yna || Gal-ynasfield, village, hamlet, forest, meadow, site by a river (Šešuvė) Bt. Historically, formations of this type are regarded as collective names that have become concrete, i.e. acquired a locative meaning (Ambrazas 2000: 51, 54).

5. Most compound place names with gal- as their first constituent are determinative compounds formed from appellatives. Most belong to a relatively small group of Lithuanian determinative compounds in which the second constituent specifies the first, indicates its location, or (when the place names are metaphorical) its affiliation⁶. The formation patterns of such compounds are numerous and highly varied. This is associated with the fact that among common compound words formed from two nouns as well, whose

⁴ Dėl priesagų kilmės žr. Ambrazas 2000: 144–147.

⁵ Plg. ypatybės turėtojų pavadinimams priskiriamą apeliatyvą gėležanė (Ambrazas 2000: 161).

⁶ Studies of Lithuanian compound place names generally emphasize that formations from two nouns (or nominal words) are determinative, with the first constituent specifying the second (Razmukaitė 2002: 121; Siderskienė 2006: 48; Kacaitė 2008: 277). Cases in which the second constituent of toponyms is specifying and the first is specified have not been analyzed.

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the second constituent specifies the first, galas is one of the words most often occurring as the first constituent (cf. LKG I 441). The most productive place-name formation pattern is a noun with gal- (← gãlas, galai) + a common noun: Gal-ã-balė meadow, field Vrn, Gal-ã-balai meadow Gr, Gal-a-balýs village, meadow Ob, 2 meadows Vb, Gal-balis village Imbr, Gal-balis (variant Klim-balė) pasture, meadow Vb, Gal-bąlys village Vb, Galia-balė hill Klvr, Gal-ì-balė village Dgč, forest Šùl, clearing Kpč, Gal-ì-balė || Gal-ì-balis meadow, field Kpč, Gal-ì-balis clearing Alt, Gal-ó-balis marsh, clearing Pnd, Gal-ù-balė village Imbr, Rim, Skp, Vad, shrubland Krsn, meadow Krk, Krsn, Mš, Vad, Gal-ū-balė meadow Skp, Gal-ū-balis 2 villages Gž, village Kp, 2 villages Šmn, village Tšk, Vb, homestead Sv, marsh Mrj, etc., Gal-ū-balė field in a forest Dglč, field Sv, village Vb: gãlas, galai + balà ‘marsh’; Gal-ã-bendris shrubland, meadow Čln: bendrė, bendrė ‘common meadow, common field’⁷; Gal-a-čvertis meadow Onš: čvertis ‘a quarter, fourth’; Gal-a-daliai meadow, forest (Liepalotai) part Mk, Gal-a-dalýs forest Mk: dalis ‘a certain quantity of a whole; a constituent element of something; a plot of land, field’; Gal-a-dármai meadow DglŠ: dármas ‘boggy ground, quagmire, marsh’; Gal-a-drončia village Dg: drončia ‘boundary; field boundary’; Gal-a-kaklelé meadow Vdn: kaklìs, cf. kãklas ‘bend, bay, strait, peninsula, promontory’; Gal-ã-kluonė meadow Smn: kluonas ‘building for storing grain, threshing floor; meadow beside a barn, yard, stackyard, hay yard, enclosure’; Gal-a-kojs bog Nrg: kója ‘leg’; Gal-a-pūšalakís forest, meadow Žž: pūšalakís, pūšalakė ‘half a valakas’; Gal-a-sląčiai village JnšM: sląstai ‘device for catching mice or small animals, trap, snare’; Gal-a-sinė meadow Dbg: sinà ‘wheel rim, wheel fitting; sled runner fitting, iron tire’; Gal-ã-triagė || Gal-ã-triagis village, boundary between fields Trgn: triagė, triagis ‘boundary of three furrows’; Gal-a-valakai field Žž, meadow Pkn, Gal-a-valakis field, village Kpč, Gal-ì-valakė hill Šaul, Gal-ì-valakis meadow Jk, Gal-ū-valakai meadow Rtn: valakas ‘a plot of land measuring about twenty desetinas; a strip of land farther from the homestead’; Gal-ã-ždapievel meadow Eiš, Gal-ã-ždapievis farmstead Drž: *ždapievelė, *ždapievis: žiõdas, píeva; Gal-i-sąrai || Gal-i-sąrali || Gal-i-svarai field, meadow, bog, meadow Lp: sąra, sąras, sū́ra, sū́ras ‘crossbar joining the sides of an implement (loom, harrow), a connecting piece’; Gal-ù-grėlis site in a forest Rod: grėblį ‘a wet, wood-paved road’; Gal-ù-karčiai forest, meadow Rm, Gal-ù-kartės shrubland, meadow Vb, Gal-ù-kartis pasture Rm: kártis ‘a long, thin tree, pole, switch’ or kártis ‘a windrow of cut grass’; Gal-ù-smėlė meadow Kpr: smėlis, smėlys ‘sand’, etc. Several hundred compound place names with various linking vowels were formed according to this pattern; the base words of their second constituents also include the common nouns aikštė ‘square, clearing’, aikštė, akmuo ‘stone’, akmenas ‘stone’, aksnynas ‘stony ground’, apydemė ‘a common village plot between two homesteads, a plot by the house, a field margin’, brasta ‘ford’, daržas ‘garden’, dauba ‘hollow’, degėsis, degėsė ‘burnt remains, charred wood, brand’, degėsė ‘burnt area, fire site’, dirva ‘field’, ežeras ‘lake’, gatvė ‘street’, giria ‘forest’, gojus ‘small, beautiful wood, grove’,

⁷ Meanings of common words are provided from LKŽe.

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village, hill, little hill, corner, road, quarter ‘a quarter of a valakas’, homestead, kláimas ‘a building for storing grain, a threshing barn’, valley, valley, valley, valley, bush, bushes, kū́lis ‘meadow, promontory; bend, curve; corner; edge, piece’, meadow, field, little field, hazel grove ‘a shrub or tree on which nuts grow (Corylus avellana); a forest of these plants, hazel wood’, lẽknas, liẽknas ‘wet, boggy meadow, marsh, pool, fen; wet place overgrown with bushes and sparse trees, wooded marsh; small wood, coppice; untilled, unmown plot of land left for grazing animals’, liẽkna, liẽknà ‘low-lying damp meadow without bushes’, footbridge, liñgas, lū́gas ‘a hollow place flooded by a river; a boggy river branch; pool, puddle; fen, quagmire; pond, pool; muddy place; hole in the riverbed, deep pool’, mārga ‘measure of land’, márgė, márgis ‘measure of land; strip located farther from homesteads’, forest, marshy hollow, marsh, field, meadow, plẽčius ‘piece of land, plot; place, area, clearing’, plẽčius ‘place, area, clearing’, pond, wooded marsh, ditch; small stream, island ‘a piece of land surrounded by water on all sides; a higher, dry patch of land in a fen or wooded marsh; a plot of arable land, a field between meadows; village, hamlet’, *sėdimas, sėdimas ‘strip of land beside a homestead’, steep bank, escarpment, crosswise strip ‘a field divided into crosswise strips; a bed ploughed crosswise; a furrow ploughed crosswise; a strip of forest (cut down or designated for cutting)’, crosswise strip ‘a field divided into crosswise strips’, clearing, clearing ‘a cleared, felled area of forest’, village ‘an undivided village, hamlet’, hamlet, hamlet ‘a place where peasants live, village; homestead’, garden, stūkas, stūkis ‘plot of land, strip, area’, root, pine forest, long narrow strip ‘a long, narrow plot of land, strip’, path, little path, calf pen ‘an enclosure for calves, calf pasture, meadow by a homestead’, wooded pasture ‘a high, dry meadow overgrown with sparse bushes and trees, a forest clearing; a meadow with birches; a cleared or burnt area of forest, a clearing; a forest (sometimes also field) road or path’, fence, little street, street, street, street, street, street ‘a road, street in an old village; a city street; yard, courtyard; a fenced road for driving livestock, a droveway, passage, pasture; village pasture; village, hamlet’, small river, river, small river, stream, pool ‘a small pool, puddle, shallow rain-filled hollow on a road, in a meadow, field, yard, etc.’; wet, boggy, marshy place, hollow, vãras, varà ‘pole for making a fence, twig, crossbar; wooden bracing component of a door, post, loom, etc., crosspiece, joint, wedge’, vãtai, vodà ‘a projection of meadow into a forest or bushes, an inlet, clearing; an uncultivated strip of land between fields’, enclosure, enclosure, enclosure ‘an enclosure for livestock⁸.

A fairly common pattern is a noun with gal- (← gãlas, galà) + a proper noun that is also a place name (hydronym, oikonym, agronym): Gal-a-drapalys meadow Šul: Drapãlis lake, Gal-ã-dusia marsh Sr, Gal-ã-dusys || Gal-ã-dusýs official lake Lzd: Dusìa lake (Kviklys 1966: 49; Vanagas 1981: 104), Gãl-a-ilgė || Gãl-a-ilgis village, former village Mk, Gãl-igė meadow Rait: Ìlgis lake, Gal-a-ilgis meadow Gdr: Ìlgis, Ìlgis

^⁸ For further details, see LVŽ III 33–38.

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lake, Gal-ã-pelėkis forest ĮnšM: Pėłkas lake (a part of Arno), Gal-ã-suojė || Gal-ã-suojis meadow Aln: Suojỹs lake, Suojà river, Gal-ã-verkńė || Gal-ã-verkńis official village Grnd: Vėrnė, Vėrnė river, Gal-ia-kausiaĩ village AlksnV: Kausiaĩ village, Gal-ilgiaĩ marsh Rim: Ilgiai lake, Gal-ù-beržakis forest, village Vb: Bėržakė, Bėržakės meadow, Gal-u-duburė meadow Ldk, Gal-u-duburis former village Lk: Dubūris river, Gal-ù-nakakė forest Kp: Nakakė river, Gal-ù-roveja meadow Prv, Gal-ù-rovejės meadow Brž: Rovejė river. The second component of these compound place names indicates the location of, and association with, the entity named by the defining component.

Among compounds made up of two nouns, there is also a rare pattern—a noun with gal- (← galas, galai) + a proper noun that is a personal name: Gal-aštainė meadow, near a settlement Š: personal name Štaina, *Štaina, *Štainys, cf. surnames Šteina, Šteinis, Gal-ù-šėkai arable land Vb: personal name Šėkas (LPDB). The personal-name origin of the second component of the agronym Galùšėkai is most likely because the location of the place name and the personal name Šėkas coincides. Both formations apparently indicate that the objects belong to persons.

A rarity found only in toponymy is compound place names formed from Lithuanian galas, inflected form galan, and a common or proper noun: Galam-põliai (Galam-põlės? (< *Galam-põliai) meadow Švrk: Polish pole ‘arable land; field’ (LLKŽ 476), Russian pole ‘field’ (RLKŽ II 245), Galan-bala forest Sl, Galan-balė meadow Vrn, Galan-balė (< *Galan-bālė) meadow Mrk: balà; Galan-ėžerė meadow, forest Rud: lake, Galan-lyčė (< *Galan-ulyčė) meadow Pkln: street, street, street, Galan-kaviškis arable land Kpč: Kaviškis lake. The unchanged inflected form galan in the first component of such compound place names defines the second noun and indicates direction toward the object.

A few compound place names may be formed from a noun with gal- (← galas, galai) and an adjective: Gal-ã-cielai marsh Pkn: cielas ‘untouched, sound; whole, entire’, Gal-ù-konis (var. Kōnis) meadow Kp: kōnis, -ė ‘related to fighting, intended for combat’ (the informant claims there were rebel hideouts in the meadow). The second (adjectival) component of these agronyms defines the first (nominal) component: ‘whole ends’, ‘combat ends’. This pattern of forming compound common nouns is very rare—formations occur only with a second attributive component derived from palikis, -ė (LKG I 472).

Several toponyms can be interpreted as formations from a noun with gal- (← galas, galai) and a verb: Gal-ã-saris village, meadow Aln: Lithuanian sãrti (sãra, sãro) ‘to make brown, dirty’, Gal-a-tvaras marsh Užp: tverti (tvẽria) ‘to make, build (a fence); to bound, surround, gird; to construct an enclosed structure; to divide into separate parts with partitions, partition off’, Gal-ù-sėdės (var. Galùsėdžiai) arable land Pnd: sėdėti (sėdi) ‘to live permanently (in a place)’, Gal-ù-supė grove Vvs: (?) supinti ‘to draw together’, Gal-verkis (var. Galvalkis, Galvalkis, Galvalkys) forest, grove, meadow Bsg: verkti (vẽrkia, vẽrkė) ‘to shed tears, to sob from agitation (e.g. from pain, sorrow,

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Features of the formation of Lithuanian place names with the root gal-

(< Lith. gãlas ‘end, edge’)

rejoicing); to complain, lament; to let moisture through, become dewy, ooze. The relations between the components of place names formed from a noun and a verb are difficult to define. Perhaps the first component indicates the location of an action: ‘to sow at the end’, ‘to sit at the end’, i.e. to be, ‘to weep at the end’, i.e. to burn, ooze, and so on; compare the formation naktigonis, indicating the time of an action, ‘to herd at night’ (LKG I 463).

6. Compound place names are first divided into prepositional constructions⁹ and word combinations.

Most prepositional place names are formed from the dialectal preposition galù, expressing spatial (locative) relations and newly grammaticalized from the instrumental form of a noun, and the genitive of common nouns: Galù bãlos (var. Galãn bãlos) lake, Luok, Galù daržo field. Tj, meadow. Vr, lake. Pnt, Tj, Galù dirvóno field. Ktk, Galù dirvós (Galùdirvas) lake. Dkš, Galù žẽro village. Km, farm. Ktk, lake. Lel, Galù gõjaus village, meadow, river section Km, Galù kãimo meadow. Pn, lake, bog. Blnk, Galù kanõvos ditch. Jmbr: kanóva ‘ditch; field boundary, ridge’, Galù kẽlio lake. Vies, Galù kluonų pasture, lake. Lel, Galù kūlio field. Glv, Galù laũko ditch. Kvr, hill. Žl, lake. JnšM, Galù lazdýno forest. Šmn, Galù liepų ditch. Rgv, Galù lygumų lake. Žl, Galù mẽgių lake. Km, Galù miško lake. Blnk, Galù palãto village, lake. Šmn: *palãtas, cf. palatas ‘flooring of beams, loft’, palatai ‘the side ceiling of a barn, on which grain and fodder are stored; a raised platform, paved’, Galù prūdo village, meadow, lake. Pbs, Galù raĩsto bog. Pg, Galù rãvo field. Kvr, village. Kp, lake. Krns, Galù salõs island in a lake (Alauš). Sk, Galù sėdybos bog. Vdšk: sėdyba ‘homestead’, Galù sienos lake. Sv, bog. Ant, Galù sodybų hill. Rk, Galù sodo site. Pnm, Galù stulpelio lake. Kur: stulpẽlis, cf. stulpas ‘a log set upright in the ground; post, stake’, Galù šniūrelio village. Rk, Galù šniūrų ravine. Dl, lake. Blnk, Dl, Pnt, Žl, Galù telėnko (also Galù telėnko) field. Tj, Galù tvorõs ditch. Šr, meadow. Blnk, plot. Int, lake. Blnk, Mt, Pbs, Galù ūlyčios marsh. Kvr, lake. An, Galù ūlyčios (var. Raĩtas) lake. An. It is worth noting that constructions indicating location, with galù functioning as a preposition and a noun in the genitive, are also quite common in dialects: galù kojų, out of galù kluono (Ulvydas 2000: 223), galù klaimo, galù daržinės, galù lauko, galù sodžius (LKŽ).¹⁰

The preposition galù is also used with the genitive of proper nouns (place names) to indicate the location of one object relative to another: Galù Dėblono meadow. Krkn: Dėblonas river, Galù Išlaždo ditch. Rd: Išlažas lake, Galù Šlapių hill. Pg: Šlės field, hill.

⁹ Lithuanian prepositional place names are also termed compound in the publication devoted to their inventory (Rabačiauskaitė 1969: 243), as well as in some other studies devoted to the analysis of place-name formation (Endzelė 2005: 176). Other researchers distinguish two independent groups—compound place names and prepositional place names (Mickienė 2001: 123, 136; Bartkutė 2008: 165, 168). From a formal point of view, however, prepositional constructions should be assigned to the group of compound place names; compare also Подольская 1978: 62.

¹⁰ Newly formed prepositions are also called secondary (newly formed) (see DLK 438).

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The opposite construction is also characteristic of place names with galù: galù + the genitive of an adjective functioning as a noun: Galù laibių locality Rgl: laibais, laibój, cf. láibas, -à, láibas, -à ‘narrow in diameter, thin’, Galù sodybinių field Ktk: sodybinis, -ė ‘belonging to a homestead, located at a homestead site’.

One place name with the opposite construction is formed from the rarely used innovative dialectal preposition galù and the genitive of a common noun: Galù raisto locality Lel. This construction also denotes a location (at the end) in relation to another object. The preposition galù is considered to have developed from the dative of a noun; constructions with it are also found in dialects: galù sodo, galù lauko (see Ulvydas 2000: 177).

Opposite constructions with the genitive are very common, in which singular forms of nouns have shifted (or come close to shifting) into the opposite category. The opposite function is most often performed by the inessive form galẽ, which is usually followed by the genitive of a common noun: Galẽ balos marsh Kpč, Galẽ beržyno forest Ds, Galẽ beržynėlio forest Pžl: beržynėlis, cf. biržynas ‘birch forest’, Galẽ dármo scrubland Trn, locality Str, Galẽ daržų locality Ds, Galẽ dėgsnio ‖ Galẽ dėgnių bog, locality Ml: degnys ‘a burned-out place, a fire-scorched patch’, Galẽ dirvonų field Sug, Galẽ duobelių locality Brš, Galẽ ežerėlio locality Sld, Galẽ ežero field Trgn, lake, part of (Spalio) Lake Gdr, part of (Bebrusų) Lake Int, locality Nm, part of a locality Trgn, Galẽ girėlės scrubland Trgn, Galẽ gõjelio forest Tj, Galẽ gõjų locality Ssk, Galẽ grõblius field, locality Rm, Galẽ grõblių forest Rim: grõblius ‘embankment, roadbed’, Galẽ kamšós locality Auk: kamšà ‘a road filled in and surfaced with brushwood and sticks; a filled-in, repaired hole; a river crossing, ford; a boggy place’, Galẽ kẽlio field Rod, Galẽ kulių (variant Galas kulių) bog Sug, Galẽ lauko field Rmš, bog Str, hill Tvr, forest Str, locality Rmš, Galẽ laukų locality Všt, Galẽ lydimėlio field Sld: lydimėlis, cf. lýdimas, lýdimas ‘an area in a forest cleared by cutting or burning; a plot cultivated after clearing forest land’, Galẽ miško bog Rim, Galẽ pakalnų field Mk, locality Dgl: pakalnė, pakalnė ‘a low-lying place at the foot of a hill, a valley; a hillside’, Galẽ pakriūtės precipice Glv: pakriūtė ‘a steep, precipitous, eroding bank or hillside; the water-eroded edge of a river or lake beneath the turf or tree roots, a shore’, Galẽ pylimo field Tj, Galẽ priemenės bog Šr: priemenė, priemenė ‘the part of a residential house by the outside door; the space by the barn door, an entrance hall; a certain part of a yard closer to the door’, Galẽ pušynėlio forest Sug, Galẽ raistelio grove Tj, Galẽ salõs forest Šnt, Galẽ salų field, locality Aps, Galẽ sėdybų field Vžns, Galẽ sienos locality Glv, Galẽ skardžio locality Dgl, Galẽ skardžiaus bog Trgn, locality Sld, Galẽ smėlio bog Lkn, Galẽ sodybos forest Ktk, Galẽ sodybų field, forest Sug, Galẽ šakinių field Ign: šakinis ‘root crop’, Galẽ šilo locality Sv, Galẽ šniūrų bog Aps, locality Aps, Ssk, Galẽ trãko locality Vdšk, Galẽ tvoros field Tj, bog Glv, Vs, pasture Tj, field Blnk, locality Dl, Glv, site Sug, Galẽ ūlyčios locality Str, Galẽ valako locality Lnk, Galẽ valakų field, forest Mrc. The spread of the inessive galẽ, its association with and proximity to the opposite forms, is also evident in standard language (LKG II 581; DLKG 438), although LKŽ lists this form only as an adverb.

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Derivational features of Lithuanian place names with the root gal- (< Lithuanian gãlas ‘end, edge’)

Prepositional constructions formed from the preposition-like inessive galė and another place name also occur fairly often in toponymy: Galė Anãpiečio bog Mž: Anãpietis locality, Galė Džiūriškių field Sug: Džiūriškės village, field, Galė Ilgėlio (variant Gãlas Ilgėlio) locality Antž: Ilgėlis lake, Galė Karvėliškės locality Rod – from the variant *Karvėliškė of the marsh name Karvėliškės, Galė Klýdlaukio locality Tj: Klýdlaukis locality, Galė Pãkudrelio bog Ut: Pãkudrelis peat bog, Galė Ramūnės forest Krs: Ramūnė river, Galė Širvintõs (variant Gãlas Širvintõs) field, locality, part of the Širvintos River Vp: Širvintà river, Galė Tautėsno (variant Gãlas Tautėsno) marsh Antž: Tautėsnis lake, Galė Telėtninko field Tj: Telėtninkas locality, Galė Trãko field Tj: Trãkas grove, Galė Ūpio village Srd: Upys river.

Also noteworthy are prepositional place names in which galė is followed by a phrase of two genitive words, formed from a personal name or a place name and a common noun: Galė Barãbyko klõjimo field Tj: personal name Barãbykas + klõjimas ‘building for storing grain, barn’, Galė Barõno daržo field Tj: personal name Barõnas + daržas, Galė Burbùlio daržo field Tj: personal name Burbùlis, Galė Čėpų daržo field Tj: personal name Čėpas, Čėpys, Galė Jãkimo daržo field Tj: personal name Jãkimas, Galė Jutkónių tvorõs field, locality Pbs: Jutkónys village + tvora, Galė Kãčko daržo field Tj: personal name Kãčkas, Galė Kiškių raũvo locality An: personal name Kiškis + rãvas, Galė Kuliõvo daržo field Tj: personal name Kuliãvas, Galė Pranėlio daržo field Tj: personal name Pranėlis, Galė Smalščiaus daržo field Tj: personal name Smalščius, Galė Štako daržo field Tj: personal name Štakas, Galė Usõnio daržo field Tj: personal name Usõnis, Galė Žimo daržo field Tj: personal name Žimas.

Several constructions are formed with the genitive of an adjective functioning as a noun and of a present active participle: Galė ilgų locality Škš: ilgasis, ilgõji, cf. ilgõs ‘a meadow stretching far into the distance’, Galė lóbines peat bog Ck: *lóbė ← lóbos ‘hollow, valley, depression; lowland’, cf. lóbė ‘hollow, valley, depression; lowland’, Galė sausavìšės field Mrk: sausavìšis, –ė ‘whose top is dry and withered’, Galė sėdimų forest Tk: sėdimasis, sėdimoji ← sėdimas, –a ← sėdėti (sėdi) ‘to live permanently (in a place)’.

A distinctive group consists of prepositional constructions in which the form galan, functioning as a preposition, is followed by the genitive of a common noun: Galan bãlos meadow Sug, locality Tk, Galan bãlos (variant Galų bãlos) locality Luok, Galan ẽžero (variant Galan-ežėre) field, forest Rd, Galan lãuko village Ut, Galan miško field Mrc, Galan piẽvos grove Šln, Galan rãvo marsh Mlt. These constructions express spatial directional relations, indicating that the named object is located along the way toward another object. In one case, galan forms a directional construction with the dative: Galan piẽvai grove, peat bog Mrk.

Compound place names—word combinations—are usually nominal; their head and dependent word (a noun or a nominalized

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adjective) are most often linked by a government relation¹¹. The largest share of such place names consists of compounds with the genitive of common nouns¹², expressing quantitative relations. Their head constituents denote a small (indefinite) quantity (an end, ends), while the dependent second constituents denote the content of that quantity, i.e. the object of which the named object forms a part or which it terminates or extends: Galai bālų sml. Vrn, Galai dėgsnių vt. Iaukė Ml, Galai ežero ež. part Trgn, Galai ganiavos sklp. Lp: ganiva ‘summer grazing grounds for livestock, grass, grazing; grazing place’, Galai lankų pv. Dl, Galai nadų kn. Žž – cf. Belarusian nadė ‘an old land measure equal to several desetinas; plot of land’ (Яцкн 1971: 118), Galai pievų l. Rtn, pv. Jz, Galai režių l. Aln, Galai skynimų l. Rtn: skynimas ‘a cleared, felled area of forest’, Galai šilų mš. KzR, Galai šniūrų pv. Zk, Galai šniūrų b., dr. Dl, Galai valakų ar. Lp, Galas apušoto mš. part Sk: apušotas ‘aspen forest, aspen grove’, Galas balos pv. Zk, Galas balų l. Trgn, Galas brastų dr. Lkm, Galas dãrmo l. Sd, Galas daržo l. Vrn, pv. Čln, Vrn, Galas degimo ar. Glv: degimas ‘a burned area (meadow, marsh, forest), burn’, Galas dronyčios ar., gn. Prl: dronyčia ‘boundary; field boundary’, Galas duobės pv. Dkšt, Galas ežero ež. (part of Didžiulis) Dg, ež. (part of Bebrusai) Luok, gn. Tvr, mš. Klt, pv. Dg, Gdr, Sv, Galas galėlio sk. Ds, Galas galėlio || Galas galėlių ež. (part of Pačiai) Ds, Galas girių l. Ds, Galas gojaus pv. Rm, Galas grōblių dr., pv. Rim: grōblas ‘embankment, roadbed’, Galas ilgų l. Ršk: ilgasis, ilgoji, cf. ilgosios ‘a meadow stretching far into the distance’, Galas kalnelio pv. Vb, Galas kalno kn., l. Ršk, rst. Ąsm, Galas kalno (var. Galė kalnas) dr., pv. Šut, Galas karklyno gn. Dkšt, Galas kelio part of kl. Ms, Galas keliūtės part of kl., part of rst. Sug: keliūtė ‘a small, little-used road, a little lane’, Galas krūminių rst. Lkm: krūminė ‘a place overgrown with bushes, bushes’, Galas kulio ar. Lkm, Galas kūlių (var. Galė kūlių) dr. Sug, Galas laukelio ar. Antz, Galas lauko l. Str, part of l. Tvr, Galas pievos pv. Trgn, Galas pylimo dr. Lkm: pylimas ‘low, damp, marshy place, bog; a large area of forest or field’, Galas pusynėlio part of mš. Pt, Galas raisto b. Mc, pv. Ck, Jž, Vrn, Galas rėvo pv. Pun, št. Trk, Galas režiu (var. Biržynė) b. An, Galas saliūtės pv. Trgn, Galas salos l. Mrk, Galas samanýkščio dr.

¹¹ Some works on syntax attempt to classify syntactic relations in noun phrases differently from LKG and DLKG, namely according to the requirement imposed by the head constituent of the phrase to attach a dependent constituent. In some noun phrases customarily considered to be formed by government, this criterion would encourage their classification as noun phrases formed by adjunction. An adjunct relation would also be discernible between a genitive carrying the meaning of a name and the head of the phrase (Rotušės aikštė), since the head does not require such a genitive; the same would apply to some phrases with the instrumental or locative. On the other hand, the relation of some nouns to adverbs, traditionally considered adjunction, would be assessed as government (see Vaskelaitė 2003: 143–156; 2009).

¹² Such a genitive is called a genitive of quantitative content (see DLKG 512), and the meaning of the phrase is described as quantitative-content, supplementary, completive (Labutis 1994: 41).

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Characteristics of the formation of Lithuanian place names with the root gal- (< Lithuanian gãlas ‘end, edge’)

LeI: samanýkštis ‘a place overgrown with moss’, Gãlas skardžius mš., sk. Pln, Gãlas šeršinų l. Tv, Gãlas sodybų pv. Ktk, Žr, sod. Ign, Gãlas šilėlės gn. Mž, Gãlas šilo dr., mš., pv. Sv, Gãlas šilo (var. Kulỹs) pv. An, Gãlas šniūrų pv. Šnt, Gãlas trakėlių l. Prl, Gãlas trako ar., pv. Lkm, Gãlas Tūorõs pv. Plš, ž. Mlt, Gãlas ūlyčios l. Plš, Gãlas ūpės krm. Vb.

In phrases with a genitive of quantitative content, the dependent constituent is quite often another place name: Galai Šąčių ar. Prl: Šąčios marsh, Gãlas Baluõšo ež. (part of Baluõšas), vt. in field Trn: Baluõšas lake, Gãlas Daugų kn. Dg: Daugai town, Gãlas Dumblio liūn. Mlt: Dumblės lake, Gãlas Duvėno pv. Užp: Duvėnas lake, Gãlas Gruodiškio (var. Gruodiškio galas) ar., ž. Lkm: Gruodiškis lake, Gãlas Ilgėlio (var. Galė Ilgėlio) pv. Antz: Ilgėlis lake, Gãlas Įlojo sl. Ds: Įlosai lake, Gãlas Jūodupio gn., pv. Rtn: Jūodupis village, Gãlas Krūvandõs dr., pv. Čk: Krūvandà river, Gãlas Rãdiškės l. Tvr: Rãdiškė village, Gãlas Širvintõs (var. Galė Širvintõs) ar., pv., part of up. (Širvintos) Vp: Širvintà river, Gãlas Tautesnio (var. Galė Tautesnio) b. Antz: Tautesnis lake, Gãlas Vilkautinio paež. Kbš: Vilkautinis lake.

In the phrase Gãlas Leibõko dr., pv. Grb, the genitive is most likely the personal name *Leibõkas; cf. Lithuanian leibà ‘fool, blockhead; slow person’, nickname Leibùkas (Butkus 1995: 288). In this case, one may discern a metonymically expressed quantitative meaning: ‘a field, meadow forming a small part (an end) of Leibokas’s land, homestead, or the like’.

A somewhat smaller group of noun phrases with a noun in the genitive expresses spatial (locative) relations, indicating that the named object is at the end: Gãlo apušrõtas kln. Šn: apušrõtas ‘aspen forest, aspen grove’, Gãlo grõvis pv. Žg, Gãlo kálnas part of plkn. (of Aukštaitis Hill) kln, Gãlo krūmai km. Pg, Gãlo kūdrėlis l. Pls: *kūdrėlis ← kūdra, kūdrà + kẽlias, Gãlo lankà gn. Pkšt, Gãlo laũkas ar. Pd, l. Gr, Gãlo pieva pv. RdN, Gãlo prūdėlis tv. Onš, Gãlo skynimas l. Vs, Gãlo upėlis grv. Pšš, pv. Rtn, Gãlo vertimas l. Rtn: vertimas ‘plowing, plowed land’, Galų balà b. Ars, Blnk, plk. Krok, pv. Krsn etc., Galų balė || Galų balė pv. Mrs, Galų balėlė b. Mlt, Galų bãlos b. Sk, Galų brãdas ar. Jz: brãdas ‘deep mud, a boggy road, wet place; a shallow river crossing, ford’, Galų dirvos dr. Skdv, Galų duobė pv. Brš, Galų ežeras pv. Ob, Galų ežerėlis ež. Prl, Galų kalnai (var. Galūkalnas) part of gn., kln. Ppr, Galų kálnas ar. Šil, aukšt. Šil, kln. Plt, klv. Pdv, Rdč, l. Lkm, Galų kelėlis kl. Eiš, Galų krūmai krm. Blnk, Galų kupstynė b., pv. Krk: kupstynė ‘a hummocky place, meadow’, Galų lankà ln. Žmt, Galų miškėlis mš. Mlt, Galų pieva pv. Krn, Ldvn, Ln, Mlt, Vdn, Vln, Galų pievelė pv. Užp, Galų pievos mš. Žsl, Galų pylimas pv. Vdn, Galų raištai rst. Krn, Galų raistas b. Rait, klm. Tj, kms. Jz, plk. Btr, pv. Dg, rst. Lėl, Pun etc., Galų raisteliai ar., rst. Jz, Galų ravàs grv. Sem, Galų rėvas grv. Btr: rėvas ‘ditch; narrow gap, hollow, ravine’, Galų skėriniai dr. Km, Galų šaltinis šlt. Škt, Galų šniūrai b. Antz, rž. Pln, Galų šniūreliai ž. Lp, Galų tankynė part of mš.

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Jž: thicket ‘a densely overgrown place, dense growth’, Galų upėlis stream. Užp, brook. Krn. Among the constructions with a genitive, those in which the genitive of the same word is repeated are noteworthy: Galų galas field name. Pn, Galų galo darželis meadow. Šv. These most likely denote intensifying relations with a negative evaluative nuance (‘very remote, hard to reach, situated in the back of beyond’). The three-member construction confirms the claim that such compounds tend to become fixed (cf. LKG III 203).

Constructions expressing spatial (directional) relations, with a place name in the genitive and the preposition ant: Galų ant Rūdių place name. Klvž: Rūdių upalis stream, Galų ant Vaidėno place name. Klvž: Vaidėnis stream. These compound place names designate and characterize objects (ends) in relation to another object, indicating that the named places lie along the way toward other objects.

Several compound place names can apparently be regarded as locative phrases with a noun in the locative case, in which the first component defines the second: Galė daržas garden. Šv, Galė degimas burn. Glv, Galė grėblė meadow. Žm. grėblė ‘a wet, timber-paved road’, Galė kalnas (variant Gėlas kalno) hill, meadow. Št, Galė lazdynas hazel grove. Arm, Galė laukas field. Št, Galė lyguma plain. Ut, Galė pieva meadow. Blnk, Galė valkai scrubland. Pkn, meadow. Pun. In appellative phrases with the locative, the first component is usually defined: a pine forest in the village, service at the manor, sleep in a crowd and so on (LKG III 209).

Several compound place names—word combinations—are problematic and may be interpreted in two ways. These are constructions consisting of the instrumental form galù and a noun in the nominative: Galų lanką meadow. Mrk, Galų laukas field. Tj, Galų pieva meadow. Pkn, Žž, Galų raistas bog. Btr, Smn, Galų raistelis small bog. Mrk, Galų siena boundary, village. Kvr, Galų sodyba homestead. Rk, Galų šniūrai strips of land. Mlt, Sk, field name. Vp, village. Plš, meadow. Dl, Sk, homestead. Mlt, Galų ūlyčia road. Glv. One may suppose that these constructions are modifier phrases linked by government, with Lithuanian galas in the singular instrumental. However, given that a noun in the instrumental expresses a feature of an object together with words necessarily dependent on it (a spruce with leaning branches, a tree with roots two metres long, fields with wind-scoured mounds; see: DLKŽ 561; LKG III 207–208), it is easier to regard such constructions as noun phrases linked by juxtaposition, with the instrumental adverb gal¹³. In that case, they would denote the manner in which objects are situated (for example, ‘a meadow, homestead, or bend turned in some direction by its end, i.e. its terminal part’) or a location (for example, ‘a field, bog, boundary situated at the end of some other place’). In the absence of sentence context, it is hardly possible to define the meaning of these phrases more precisely, since galų belongs to those Lithuanian adverbs that can mean

¹³ The possibility that the instrumental galù functions as an adverb has been discussed for some time in the works of Kazys Ulvydas (Ulvy-das 2000: 223).

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both location and manner of action¹⁴. It should be noted that noun phrases with adverbs are very rare in Lithuanian and are usually formed with deverbal nouns (see LKG II 233–234). On the other hand, in describing the grammatical features of adverbs, it is observed that “in certain cases (for example, in a headline), adverbs can be juxtaposed even with nouns, cf.: Vilnus šiandien; Mūsų kaimas vakar(rytoj)” (DLKG 410). Since the word combinations under consideration have become separate names, are a means of proper naming, and function outside a sentence, such juxtaposition of adverbs with nouns is also entirely possible¹⁵. As an additional argument, it may be noted that the instrumental case of nouns used to form adverbs is mentioned in many grammatical works: it is stated that singular instrumental forms can function as adverbs of manner—balsu, ūmara, ratų, būriu, šonu, žaibu, pūku, stulpu, and so on (Ulvydas 2000: 223; LKG II 428; DLKG 411); plural instrumental forms can function as adverbs of place—pavėjais, pakraščiais, patakais (LKG II 443), vietomis, pagiriais, palubėm, palangiais (DLKG 424, 425).

The relationship between the components of the construction Galūs par veršme bog. Vžs is also not entirely clear. It should probably be treated as a noun phrase expressing spatial relations (location with a nuance of delimitation or specification), with the accusative and the grammatical preposition par ‘at’ (Galūs par veršme ← galī par veršme), cf. phrases with the same meaning: an apple tree by the road, a cottage by the lake, a plot by the highway (LKG III 220). On the other hand, it cannot be ruled out that the locative (inessive) form galūs here already functions as an adverb, since locative forms such as krašte, viduryje, užpakalyje, apačioje also tend to become adverbs (see LKG II 428).

¹⁴ For more on the polysemy of adverbs, see LKG II 443, 451.

¹⁵ Some works on syntactic relations do not use the notion of juxtaposition; the types of syntactic relation are taken to be government and modification (Holvoet, Judžentis 2003: 14), or complementation, modification, and the finer-grained relation of specification (Holvoet 2009: 81–94). In the case under analysis, the adverb galį apparently serves as a modifier.

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CONCLUSIONS

1. The most common ways of forming toponyms with the (first) root gal- are pluralization (Galai), suffixation, compounding, and combination.

2. The most productive type of suffixal toponym formation is gal- + -inė (Gal-inė), -inės (Gal-inės), -inis (Gal-inis), -iniai (Gal-iniai, Gal-iniai). These derivatives belong to the category of names denoting possessors of a property.

3. The largest group of compound toponyms consists of names formed by compounding galas, gali with common nouns. A significant proportion of compound place names is formed according to the model galas, gali + another toponym. A specific feature of these determinative compounds is that the second constituent defines the first.

4. Prepositional place names are most often formed from dialectal locative prepositions galų, galė and the genitive of common or proper nouns (toponyms and personal names). Many prepositional constructions are also formed from the dialectal directional preposition galan and the genitive of common nouns.

5. Most place names forming word combinations are phrases expressing quantitative (partitive) relations, with the genitive of common and proper words (usually toponyms), in which the constituent containing gal- is the head (Gālas pievas, Gālas Vīl̄autinia). A slightly smaller group consists of phrases expressing locative relations, with the genitive of common nouns, in which the constituent containing gal- is considered dependent (Gālo lankā, Galū šaltinis).

6. Rare grammatical features of toponyms with gal- include: a) primary locative toponyms Galūos, Galosė; b) the compound toponym formation patterns gal- (← gālas, gali) + a proper noun (toponym, personal name); + an adjective; + a verb; c) compound toponyms formed from the illative galan and a common or proper noun; d) word combinations in which the lexicalized instrumental form of a noun galū is linked to a noun in the nominative (Galū raistėlis).

7. Analysis of the formation of toponyms with gal- supplements and expands the description of Lithuanian grammar with new data.

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Lietuvių vietovardžių su šaknimi gal- (< liet. gãlas ‘pabaiga, kraštas’) darbų ypatybės

ABBREVIATIONS FOR OBJECT REFERENCES AND OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

a. – square

ar. – ploughed field, arable land

avd. – personal name

aukšt. – upland

b. – bog

brus. – Belarusian

d. – hollow

dr. – field

dp. – peat bog

dv. – fallow land

dv. – manor

ež. – lake

gn. – pasture

grv.– ditch

k. – village

kdr. – pond

kl. – road

klm. – stump-covered area

kln. – hill

kln. – hollow

klv. – hill

kms. – boggy, tussocky area

krm. – shrubs

krtm. – clearing

l. – field

lat. – Latvian

lenk. – Polish

liet. – Lithuanian

liūn. – marsh

ln. – meadow

mst. – town

mš. – forest

of. – official

paž. – scatter, scattered

pb. – swamp (marsh)

pkrnt. – coast

plk. – swamp, marshy place

plkn. – treeless hill

pr. – Prussian

prvd. – nickname

pv. – meadow

pvd. – surname

rst. – bog

rus. – Russian

rž. – strip of land

sav. – municipality

sk. – escarpment

sklp. – plot

sln. – valley

sml. – sandy area

sod. – homestead

stv. – deep pool

šl. – slope

šlt. – spring

ter. – territory

tv. – pond

ūk. – farm

up. – river

upl. – stream

var. – variant

vks. – district

vrs. – spring

vs. – single homestead

vt. – place, locality

vv. – place name

ž. – land

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ABBREVIATIONS FOR PLACES USED IN PLACE-NAME COMPARISONS

Ad – Adutiškis (Švenčionys District)

AksnV – Aksnėnai (Vilkaviškis District)

Aln – Alanta (Molėtai District)

Alt – Alvitas (Vilkaviškis District)

An – Anykščiai

Ant – Antalieptė (Zarasai District)

Ank – Ánkoptis (Klaipėda District)

Anz – Anzavė (Zarasai District)

Ap – Ąpsas (Belarus)

Arm – Armõniškės (Belarus)

Ars – Aristava (Kėdainiai District)

Ašn – Ašminta (Prienai District)

Auk – Aukštadvaris (Aukštadvaris; Trakai District)

Aukšt – Aukštupėnai (Kupiškis District)

Avž – Avižieniai (Vilnius District)

Bb – Bãbai (Kaunas District)

Bnk – Bãlninkai (Molėtai District)

Brš – Bìrštonas (Prienai District)

Brt – Bãrtninkai (Vilkaviškis District)

Brž – Bìržai

Bsg – Baisógala (Radviliškis District)

Bt – Batakiai (Tauragė District)

Br – Butrimonys (Alytus District)

Ck – Ceikiniai (Ignalina District)

Čb – Čiõbiškis (Širvintos District)

Čk – Čekiškė (Kaunas District)

Čn – Čiulėnai (Molėtai District)

Dbg – Dubingiai (Molėtai District)

Dn – Dubėnai (Alytus district)

Dg – Daugai (Alytus district)

Dgč – Degùčiai (Zarasai district)

Dgl – Daugėliai (Utena district)

Dglč – Daugėlaičiai (Radviliškis district)

Dglk – Daugėliskiai (Kaunas district)

DglN – Naujasis Daugėliškis (Ignalina district)

Dšt – Dūkštas (Ignalina district)

Dl – Deltuva (Ukmergė district)

Dr – Darbėnai (Kretinga district)

Drž – Daržininkai (Varėna district)

Ds – Dusetos (Zarasai district)

Dv – Dieveniškės (Šalčininkai district)

Eiš – Eišiškės (Šalčininkai district)

Gdr – Giedraičiai (Molėtai district)

Glv – Gėlvonai (Širvintos district)

Gb – Grybėnai (Ignalina district)

Grg – Gargždai (Klaipėda district)

Grnd – Grendavė (Trakai district)

Gž – Gìžai (Vilkaviškis district)

Ign – Ignalina

Imbr – Įmbradas (Zarasai district)

Int – Įnturkė (Molėtai district)

Jk – Jãkėnai (Varėna district)

Jnš – Jõniškis

Jon – Jonavà

JnšM – Jõniškis (Molėtai district)

Jsv – Jõsvainiai (Kėdainiai district)

Jz – Jieżnas (Prienai district)

Jž – Jūžintai (Rokiškis district)

Kbš – Kibyšiai (Varėna district)

Kdn – Kėdainiai

Klt – Kal̃tanėnai (Švenčionys district)

Kln – Kal̃tinėnai (Šilalė district)

Klvr – Kalvarija (Marijampolė municipality)

Klvrž – Žemaičių Kalvarija (Plungė district)

Km – Kamajai (Rokiškis district)

Kp – Kupiškis

Kč – Kãpčiamiestis (Lazdijai district)

Kr – Kuprėliškis (Biržai district)

Kd – Kirdėnai (Utena district)

Krk – Krãkės (Kėdainiai district)

Krn – Krekenavà (Panevėžys district)

Kn – Krúonis (Kaišiadorys district)

Krs – Krãunas (Rokiškis district)

Krok – Krõkialaukis (Alytus district)

Ks – Kašakìškis (Panevėžys district)

Ksn – Krosna (Lazdijai district)

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(< Lithuanian gãlas ‘end, edge’)

Kt – Kùtkiškės (Utena District)

Kur – Kurkliai (Anykščiai District)

Kvr – Kavárskas (Anykščiai District)

KzR – Kazlų Rūda

Kzt – Kažiškis (Ignalina District)

Lbv – Liubãvas (Kalvarija Municipality)

Ldk – Lydõkiai (Ukmergė District)

Ldn – Liudinãvas (Marijampolė Municipality)

Lėl – Leliónai (Utena District)

Lkm – Linkmenys (Ignalina District)

Lks – Laũksodis (Pakruojis District)

Lksr – Laũksargiai (Tauragė District)

Lkš – Lukšiai (Šakiai District)

Lln – Lielionys (Prienai District)

Lm – Lomiai (Tauragė District)

Lnkv – Linkuva (Pakruojis District)

Lp – Lėpalingis (Druskininkai Municipality)

Luok – Luokė (Molėtai District)

Lzd – Lazdijai

Mck – Mickūnai (Vilnius District)

Ml – Mielagėnai (Ignalina District)

Mt – Molėtai

Mc – Marcinkonys (Varėna District)

Mj – Marijampolė

Mk – Merkinė (Varėna District)

Ms – Mosėdis (Skuodas District)

Msn – Musninkai (Širvintos District)

Mž̌ – Miežiškiai (Panevėžys District)

Nmč – Nemenčinė (Vilnius District)

Nmn – Nemunaitis (Alytus District)

Nmž – Žemaičių Naumiestis (Šilutė District)

Ng – Noragėliai (Lazdijai District)

Ob – Obeliai (Rokiškis District)

Onš – Onuškis (Trakai District)

Ps – Pabaiskas (Ukmergė District)

Pd – Padubysys (now Bazilionai) (Šiauliai District)

Pv – Pãdiėvytis (Šilalė District)

Pg – Pagiriai (Kėdainiai District)

Pkn – Pakalniai (Utena District)

Pn – Pakūnis (Prienai District)

Pkšt – Pukštakiai (Plungė District)

Pls – Pelėsà (Belarus)

Plš – Palūšė (Ignalina District)

Plt – Plateliai (Plungė District)

Pn – Panevėžys

Pnd – Pandėlys (Rokiškis District)

Pnm – Panemunėlis (Rokiškis district)

Pnt – Panoteriai (Jonava district)

Pp – Papilė (Akmenė district)

Pl – Papilys (Biržai district)

Pr – Paparčiai (Kaišiadorys district)

Prl – Perloja (Varėna district)

Pv – Parovėja (Biržai district)

Pst – Pãstovas (Belarus)

Pš – Pašvitinys (Pakruojis district)

Pš – Pašušvys (Radviliškis district)

Pun – Punia (Alytus district)

Pv – Pivašiūnai (Alytus district)

Pžl – Pažūoliai (Molėtai district)

Rat – Ratininkai (Alytus district)

Rd – Radviliškis

Rč – Rūdaičiai (Kretinga district)

RdN – Nemunėlio Radviliškis (Biržai district)

Rgl – Ragėliai (Rokiškis district)

Rgv – Raguva (Panevėžys district)

Rim – Rimšė (Ignalina district)

Rk – Rokiškis

Rm – Ramygala (Panevėžys district)

Rmš – Rumšiškės (Kaišiadorys district)

Rod – Ródūna (Belarus)

Ršk – Reškutėnai (Švenčionys district)

Rn – Rąčiai (Druskininkai municipality)

Rd – Rudnia (Varėna district)

Rz – Rozalimas (Pakruojis district)

Sd – Seda (Mažeikiai district)

Sdk – Sudeikiai (Utena district)

Sem – Semeliškės (Elektrėnai municipality)

Skdv – Skaudvilė (Tauragė district)

Skp – Skãpiškis (Kupiškis district)

Skš – Sõškiai (Ignalina district)

Sl – Salos (Rokiškis district)

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Sd – Saldūtiškis (Utena district)

Smn – Simnas (Alytus district)

St – Sintautai (Šakiai district)

Sr – Seredžius (Jurbarkas district)

Srj – Seirijai (Lazdijai district)

Sk – Šešikai (Ukmergė district)

Stč – Stačiūnai (Pakruojis district)

Stk – Stakliškės (Prienai district)

Str – Strūnaitis (Švenčionys district)

Sug – Sugintai (Molėtai district)

Sv – Svėdasai (Anykščiai district)

Svk – Švikos (Švenčionys district)

Šaul – Šaulėnai (Druskininkai municipal territory)

Šil – Šilavotas (Prienai District)

Šil – Šilėnai (Ignalina District)

Škt – Šaukotas (Radviliškis District)

Ščn – Šalčininkai

Šl – Šilalė

Šn – Šiaulėnai (Radviliškis District)

Šlv – Šiluva (Raseiniai District)

Šmn – Šimonys (Kupiškis District)

Šr – Širvintos

Šš – Šešuoliai (Ukmergė District)

Št – Šėta (Kėdainiai District)

Šut – Šutai (Švenčionys District)

Šv – Švėkšna (Šilutė District)

Švnt – Šventa (Švenčionys District)

Tj – Taujėnai (Ukmergė District)

Tg – Tauragė

Tgn – Tauragnai (Utena District)

Trkm – Taurakiemis (Kaunas District)

Tsk – Tiskūnai (Kėdainiai District)

Tvr – Tverečius (Ignalina District)

Upn – Ūpningai (Jonava District)

Ut – Utena

Užp – Užpaliai (Utena District)

Užv – Užventis (Kelmė District)

Vad – Vadokliai (Panevėžys District)

Varn – Varniai (Telšiai District)

Vb – Vabalninkas (Biržai District)

Vdn – Videniškiai (Molėtai District)

Všk – Vidiškiai (Ukmergė District)

Vies – Viesos (Širvintos District)

Vl – Veliuona (Jurbarkas District)

Vln – Vilūnai (Kaišiadorys District)

Vp – Vėpriai (Ukmergė District)

Vdv – Veduva (Raseiniai District)

Vrn – Varėna

Všt – Vištytis (Vilkaviškis District)

Vs – Vievis (territory of Elektrėnai Municipality)

Vžn – Vyžuonos (Utena District)

Žk – Žūkai (Ignalina District)

Žp – Zapyškis (Kaunas District)

Žr – Zarasai

Žg – Žagarė (Joniškis District)

Žl – Želva (Ukmergė District)

Žmt – Žemaitkiemis (Ukmergė District)

Žm – Žirmūnai (Belarus)

Žsl – Žasliai (Kaišiadorys District)

Žž – Žiežmariai (Kaišiadorys District)

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SOURCES AND LITERATURE

Ambras Saulius 2000: Daktavardžių darybos raida 2. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

Bartunikė Nerija 2008: Joniškio rajono teritorijos toponimai: darba ir raidos polinkiai. Daktaro disertacija. Šiauliai: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Šiaulių universitetas.

Blažienė Grasilda 200: Die baltischen Ortsnamen im Samland. Hydronymia Europaea, Sonderband 2. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Būga Kazimieras 1961: Rinktiniai raštai 3. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

Butkus Alvydas 1995: Lietuvių pravardės. Kaunas: Aesti.

Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian, ed. Vytautas Ambrazas. Vilnius: Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing House, 1994.

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Endzelė Renata 2005: Šiaurės vidurio Lietuvos vietovardžiai. Daktaro disertacija. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas.

Gerullis Georg 1922: Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen. Berlin und Leipzig: Vereinigung wissenschaftlicher Verleger, Walter de Gruyter & Co.

Holvoet Axel 2009: Bendrosios sintaksės pagrindai. Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas, Asociacija „Academia Salensis“.

Holvoet Axel, Artūras Judžentis 2003: Sintaksinių ryšių tipai. – Sintaksinių ryšių tyrimai (Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 1), red. Axel Holvoet, Artūras Judžentis. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 11–35.

Kviklys Bronius 196: Our Lithuania 3. Boston: Lithuanian Encyclopaedia Publishing House.

Labutis Vitas 1994: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė 1. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

LKG I – Grammar of the Lithuanian Language 1, ed. in chief Kazys Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis, 1965.

LKG II – Grammar of the Lithuanian Language 2, ed. in chief Kazys Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1971.

LKG III – Grammar of the Lithuanian Language 3, ed. in chief Kazys Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976.

LKŽe – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language 1–20, 1941–2002, electronic edition, editorial board: Gertrūda Naktinienė (ed. in chief), Jonas Paulauskas, Rita Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2005. Available online: http://www.lkz.lt.

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LPB – Lithuanian Surname Database. Available online: http://lkis.iki.lt.

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Pospiszylowa Anna 1990: Toponimia południowej Warmii. Nazwy terenowe. Olsztyn: Wydawnictwa Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Olsztynie.

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Razmukaitė Marija 2003: Sudėtiniai Lietuvos oikonimai. – Baltu filoloģija 12(2), 63–80.

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Derivational features of Lithuanian place names containing the root gal- (< Lith. galas ‘end, edge’)

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Peculiarities of Formation of Lithuanian Toponyms with Root Gal- (< Lith. galas ‘end, edge’)

SUMMARY

The toponyms derive from Lith. gãlas ‘a place where a long object ends; an outside limit of an object (front, outermost part); edge, border; boundary’ and other common-root words of similar meaning constitute the largest entry (etymological word-family) of the third volume of The Dictionary of Lithuanian Toponyms (G–H). The toponyms with this root also abound in other Baltic languages. The toponyms with gal- stand out for their varied formation patterns and a special diversity of compound and composite formations; therefore, the analysis of their formation supplements and expands the description of the grammar of the Lithuanian language with new data.

The following characteristic features of the formation of the toponyms deriving from Lith. gãlas can be singled out:

1) The most common patterns of the formation of the toponyms with the (first) root gal- are pluralisation (Galai), suffixation, compounding and composition (prepositional constructions and composite toponyms);

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2) The most productive type of suffixal toponym formation is gal- + -inė (Gal-inė), -inė (Gal-inės), -inis (Gal-inis), -iniai (Gal-iniai, Gal-iniai). These derivatives belong to the nomina attributiva category;

3) The largest group of compound toponyms consists of names formed from galas, galai and common nouns (Gal-ā-balė, Gal-į-dabis, Gal-ý-laukė, Gal-ù-daržis, Gal-uo-žeras, etc.). A significant proportion of compound toponyms follow the pattern galas, galai + another toponym (Gal-ā-verknė, Gal-ia-kaušiai, Gal-igiai). These determinative compounds have a specific feature: the second component defines the first.

4) Prepositional toponyms are most commonly formed from the novel prepositions denoting a place galù, galè and common or proper nouns (toponyms and personal names) in the genitive case (Galù sodýbų, Galù Dėblono, Galè salų, Galè Širùntos). A number of prepositional constructions are also formed from the novel preposition expressing a direction galán and the common nouns in the genitive case (Galán miško, Galán pievos);

5) Most of the toponyms forming word-phrases are the phrases expressing quantitative (part) relations with the common and proper nouns (usually toponyms) in the genitive case where the component with gal- is the principal component (Gãlas pievos, Gãlas Vilkiaučio). The phrases with the common nouns in the genitive case expressing place relations where the component gal- is considered the dependent component constitute a slightly smaller group (Gãlo lankà, Galù šaltinis);

6) The following grammatical properties of the toponyms with gal- can be considered rare: locative primary toponyms Galuõs, Galuõse; models of the formation of compound toponyms gal- (← gãlas, galai) + proper noun (toponym, personal name), + adjective, + verb; compound toponyms formed from the illative galãn and a common or proper noun; word phrases where the adverbialized noun in the instrumental case, galù is used in combination with the noun in the nominative case (Galù raistèlis).

Received on October 30, 2018.

LAIMŪTIS BILKIS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

5 Petro Vileišio Street, Vilnius LT-10308, Lithuania

[email protected]

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