VE SLA VA ČI ŽIK-PRO KA ŠE VA

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

research areas: morphosyntax, semantics, typology, grammatical hierarchies.

DOI

THE POSITION OF TWO / THREE SENTENTIAL ADVERBS IN LITHUANIAN SENTENCES

The Position of Two/Three Sentence Adverbs in Lithuanian Sentences

ABSTRACT

The subject of this article is the position of sentential adverbs in sentences. On the basis of the examples found, the article identifies patterns in the ordering of two or three adverbs within a single sentence. It seeks to determine whether the position of an adverb in a sentence is indeed entirely free, and whether two or three adverbs can be used in any position in that sentence. It identifies where sentential adverbs are most commonly used. The article draws primarily on examples from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas, as well as examples obtained using the Google search engine.

KEYWORDS: sentential adverbs, ordering of adverbs, patterns of sentences with two adverbs.

ANNOTATION

The article focuses on the position of sentence adverbs in a sentence. Based on the examples found in the study, the article establishes the models of positioning two/three adverbs in a single sentence. It is attempted to determine whether an adverb can indeed appear freely in a sentence and whether two or three adverbs can be used in any position of a single sentence. It was found in which position sentence adverbs are used most commonly. The article mostly refers to the examples taken from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian

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Language developed by the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Kaunas Vytautas Magnus University and the examples found through the web search engine Google.

KEYWORDS: sentence adverbs, positioning of adverbs, models of sentences with two adverbs.

1. INTRODUCTION

To date, linguists have not agreed on whether adverbs in sentence structure are adjuncts (English adjuncts) or specifiers (English specifiers¹). From the traditional point of view, adverbs are adjuncts², so their position in a sentence is free, for example:

a) The situation suddenly changed ‘The circumstances changed suddenly.’

b) The situation changed suddenly ‘The circumstances changed suddenly.’

c) Suddenly, the situation changed ‘The circumstances changed suddenly.’

Adverbs began to be treated as specifiers³ with the publication of Guglielmo Cinque’s book Adverbs and Functional Heads: A Cross-linguistic Perspective. He established that clausal adverbs (English clausal, sentential adverbs), which express mood, modality, tense, aspect, and voice, occur in a particular, fixed order in the sentence. In the book, he presented numerous examples of the ordering of two adverbs in sentences from various languages (see Cinque 1999). In his view, the order of adverbs is strictly defined in all languages: if at least two adverbs are used in one sentence, their order depends on the universal hierarchy of adverbs (English the universal hierarchy of clausal functional projections⁴), which is determined by sentence structure and the semantics of the adverbs⁵. G. Cinque’s hierarchy has been applied to various languages⁶, including Lithuanian adverbs (see Čižik-Prokaševa 2018). Veslava Čižik-Prokaševa established that G. Cinque’s hierarchy of adverbs is not universal and that Lithuanian data cannot confirm it, since in Lithuanian, in certain cases, some adverbs tend to be used in a sentence before others

¹ Erikas Zymanas (2011–2012: 13) nurodo keturias prieveiksmių aiškinimo hipotezes: Adjunction Hypothesis, Extended Projection Hypothesis, Multiple Specs Hypothesis ir AdvP-in-Spec Hypothesis. Apie jas plačiau žr. Čižik-Prokaševa 2018: 150.

² Plačiau apie adjunktų sąvoką žr.: Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 96; Holvoet 2009: 76t.

³ Plačiau apie specifikatorių sąvoką žr. Holvoet 2009: 86t.

⁴ Plačiau apie šią hierarchiją žr. Čižik-Prokaševa 2018: 151t.

⁵ Trumpai apie panašias ir skirtingas nuomones žr. Čižik-Prokaševa 2018: 152t ir ten nurodytą literatūrą.

⁶ Pvz., bandyta taikyti turkų (žr. Wilson, Saygın 2001), švedų (žr. Bejer 2002), hindi (žr. Bhatia 2006), anglų (žr. Zyman 2011–2012) kalbos prieveiksmiams.

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but most often, the relative order of two adverbs in a sentence is nevertheless free and may vary. This means that Lithuanian adverbs do not form any hierarchy according to their semantics; consequently, G. Cinque’s hierarchy of adverbs cannot be used as an argument to support the claim that adverbs are specifiers in a sentence. The question arose: if the order of clausal adverbs in Lithuanian does not directly depend on their semantics, might it usually be fixed rather than free, as has been assumed until now?

This article will describe the ordering of Lithuanian clausal adverbs in sentences and identify all the patterns found in which two / three adverbs are used in a single sentence. On the basis of the sentences collected, it will seek to determine whether only the position of an adverb in a sentence is entirely free, whether two / three adverbs can occur in any position in that sentence; where clausal adverbs are most commonly used; and which position can be considered neutral or unmarked. The article employs descriptive-analytical and contrastive analysis methods. A quantitative summary of the research data will identify tendencies in the use of adverbs in sentences.

The second section of this article briefly introduces the concept of the clausal adverb (adverbial); the third section briefly discusses the sentence positions assigned to Lithuanian adverbs; the fourth section reviews the patterns found among the collected sentences for the ordering of two / three adverbs in a sentence; and the final, fifth section summarizes the discussion.

The article draws primarily on examples from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereafter DLKT⁸), compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Kaunas Vytautas Magnus University, and examples obtained using the Google internet search engine (in this paper, these are presented with a link to the webpage⁹); several examples are from volume two of The Grammar of the Lithuanian Language (Ulvydas, ed., 1971), and several are from the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (electronic edition, hereafter LKŽ). A total of 1,000 examples were examined¹⁰.

⁷ For further discussion of the shortcomings of G. Cinque’s hierarchy, see: Bobaljik 1999; Wilson and Saygin 2001; Wenger 2009.

⁸ Available online: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt [accessed late 2014, early 2015, and 2017].

⁹ Some of the sentences presented have been transcribed using Lithuanian letters.

¹⁰ Various sentences were collected: simple, complex, and incomplete. The main criterion was the presence of two clausal adverbs of different semantics in the same sentence or clause. The list of adverbs in the sentences under review is provided at the end of the article, in Appendix 1. The list is based on G. Cinque’s classification of adverbs. In determining frequency, separate occurrences of the same adverbs are also counted. Sentences with two adverbs in which one adverb modifies the other were excluded from the description, for example: Sometimes I break free from someone walking alongside me and seemingly accidentally slipping and falling into my arms. Or perhaps not at allby accident? DLKT; That’s it! I wonder what he remembered—or perhaps it happened quite by chance, or maybe that was simply the one that happened to be at hand, DLKT. Also excluded are sentences with parentheticals,

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2. THE CONCEPT OF SENTENCE ADVERBIALS (CIRCUMSTANTIALS)

In Lithuanian grammars, the adverb is examined in terms of its semantic and grammatical meanings; its function and gradation are discussed (see: Kuropas, ed., 1957: 505ff.; Stundžia, ed., 1997: 189ff.; Schleicher 1856: 218ff.; Kuršaitis 2013: 24f., 27f., 273f., 39ff., 42; Palionis, comp., 1957: 138ff.; Otrębski 1956: 282ff.). The first definition of the adverb was given by Jonas Jablonskis in his 1922 grammar: “An adverb is an invariable (indeclinable and unconjugated) part of speech that functions as an adverbial in a sentence” (Jablonskis 1997: 162). The most comprehensive definition of the adverb is given in Grammar of the Lithuanian Language II: “An adverb is an indeclinable and unconjugated independent part of speech expressing a qualitative or quantitative feature of an action, state, quality, and occasionally an object, as well as various circumstances in which an action or state occurs (place, time, cause, purpose, etc.)” (Ulydas, ed., 1971: 425)¹¹. Broadly speaking, adverbs related to an action can be divided into predicate adverbs and sentence adverbs¹². Compare the following examples:

a) He certainly congratulated them.

b) He congratulated them warmly.

In sentence (a), the adverb certainly modifies the entire sentence he congratulated them, whereas in sentence (b), the adverb modifies the sentence predicate—it indicates that the action was performed in a particular manner.

A sentence adverb (circumstantial) is an adverb (circumstantial) that modifies not the predicate but the entire complete sentence¹³, which has its own modality, tense

¹⁰ because it is held that they describe the speech act performed by the speaker, rather than the sentence itself (cf. “a parenthetical is a word, phrase, or clause expressing the speaker’s attitude toward the subject under discussion or additional comments related to it” (Morkūnas, comp., 2008: 227); “unconnected parentheticals are not very aptly called sentence constituents, since they are not true grammatical members of the sentence, but only semantic additions to the sentence’s content on another level” (Labutis 1998: 348).

¹¹ In short, an adverb is a part of speech that functions as one of the circumstantials (sentence constituents). Circumstantials are distinguished on the basis of their semantics and their affiliation with a particular part of speech (see: Ulydas, ed., 1976: 479; Ambrazas, ed., 1985: 561; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 487; Ambrazas 1997: 489; Morkūnas, comp., 2008: 27). Thus, the criteria for distinguishing circumstantials are not syntactic. Axel Holvoet considers that the most accurate approach would be to distinguish the categories of circumstantials and objects on the basis of syntactic relations. For further discussion and the problems that arise, see Holvoet 2009: 8ff., 14ff.

¹² Cf. “there is in fact no strict boundary between predicate and sentence circumstantials, and circumstantials are arranged along a certain scale” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 96).

¹³ Plg.: „some adverbs refer to a whole statement and not just a part of it“ (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/sentence-adverbs); „a sentential adverb is an adverb that

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both a mood marker and the characteristic truth conditions of sentences¹⁴ (see Holvoet, Čižik-Prokševa 2005: 66; Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 99). Predicate adjuncts can modify linguistic units that do not have the properties of an independent sentence (e.g., a predicate adjunct personally can modify a structure lacking tense and mood markers, to recite Maironis’s poems), whereas sentence adjuncts can modify only units that have the properties of an independent sentence (e.g., perhaps can modify recites Maironis’s poems, but not to recite Maironis’s poems” (Holvoet, Pajėdienė 2005: 115). Sentence adjuncts “modify the main sentence predication in a broad sense, i.e., the additional predication they introduce specifies the entire situation implied by the main predication, including its obligatory participants (cf. Father has already eaten), or they modify the proposition about that situation itself, for example, evaluating this proposition in terms of probability (cf. Perhaps Father has already eaten” (Holvoet, Mikulskas 2009: 8).

The following restrictions on sentence adverbs are identified in foreign-language literature¹⁵:

a) sentence adverbs cannot be used in interrogative sentences, e.g., *Will John probably / certainly / evidently come? Cf. *Will Jonas most likely / probably / perhaps come?

b) sentence adverbs cannot be used in conditional sentences, e.g., *If the socialists probably / possibly / evidently / undoubtedly win the elections, the rich will worry about a luxury tax. Cf. *If the socialists are most likely / probably / perhaps to win the elections, the rich will pay a luxury tax;

c) sentence adverbs cannot be used in imperative sentences, e.g., *Probably / certainly / evidently go away! Cf. *Jonas, most likely / probably / perhaps leave!

d) they cannot be negated and do not fall within the scope of negation, e.g.: Probably / possibly / evidently / undoubtedly, the socialists won the elections and *Improbably / impossibly / not evidently / doubtfully, the socialists won the elections. Cf.: Petras will most likely / probably / perhaps fall asleep and *Petras will not most likely / probably / perhaps fall asleep; The conservatives probably / possibly / evidently / undoubtedly didn’t win the elections and *The conservatives didn’t probably / possibly / evidently / undoubtedly win the elections.

modifies a whole sentence or clause“ (https://www.cambridge.org/grammarandbeyond/grammar-practice-activities/2017/06/teaching-sentential-adverbs-and-adverbials).

¹⁴ Plg. „modal (sentential) adverbs should be interpreted as predicates over the truth of the proposition expressed by the respective sentence and that sentences with modal adverbs express two propositions“ (Bellert 1977: 345).

¹⁵ It should be noted that some authors use the term sentential adverbs in the titles of their articles and books, but use the term modal adverbs in the body of the text (e.g., Bellert 1977; Cruschina 2010).

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Cf. The conservatives will most likely / probably / perhaps not win and *The conservatives will not win most likely / probably / perhaps.

For a more detailed discussion, see: Bellert 1977; Piñón 2006; Cruschina 2010 and the literature cited there. Such restrictions do not apply to all the sentence adverbs discussed in this article¹⁶.

3. THE POSITION OF ADVERBS IN THE SENTENCE

As is well known, Lithuanian word order depends first and foremost on the syntactic relations and semantic relations between words in a sentence, and also on whether or not the sentence is divided into topic and focus, and whether something is to be emphasized or highlighted. In Lithuanian, the core of a sentence usually consists of the predicate, subject, and object, and sometimes an adverbial. In Lithuanian three-member sentence patterns, the neutral and predominant order in standard language is SVO, e.g., The leader reads a book, although for pragmatic reasons all the words in this sentence can occupy any sentence position (all six variants of this sentence can be grammatical). It is therefore claimed that Lithuanian word order is free¹⁷; it depends mainly on the semantic relations between words in a sentence and on information structure and context, and is determined by the situation and the desire to highlight and emphasize certain parts of the sentence (for more, see: Balkevičius 1963: 25ff.; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 194ff.; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 645ff.; Labutis 1998: 24ff.; Ambrazas 2006: 66ff.). Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos and Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikos chapters devoted to adverbs do not discuss their position in the sentence (see: Ulydas, ed., 1971: 42ff.; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 410ff.). Some information can be found in the section on the order of the constituents of a phrase. The section on verb phrases states that “the neutral and predominant position is before the verb (AdvV),” that “this is most characteristic of manner adverbs and case forms and prepositional constructions with corresponding meanings, as well as of place, time, and cause adverbs that do not correspond to nominal forms”; such adverbs “occur after the verb only when they bear the main semantic stress” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 653; see also Ambrazas 2006: 75ff.). Regarding the position of other adverbs, it is stated that it varies considerably, while greater semantic

¹⁶ I remind the reader that the list of sentence adverbs surveyed is provided at the end of the article, in Appendix 1.

¹⁷ Only a few cases of grammatically defined word order are distinguished in Lithuanian, e.g., the position of prepositions before noun or pronoun case forms, the position of negation before the negative word, the position of interrogative particles at the beginning of the sentence, and the position of a relative subordinate clause after the word it modifies (see: Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 646; Sirtautas, Grenda 1988: 196ff.).

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adverbs bearing semantic stress are either placed after the verb or moved to the beginning of the sentence (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 653). The section on adjective phrases states that “the usual neutral position of adverbs is before adjectives (AdvAdv)” (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 656). The section on adverb phrases states that “adverbs precede the adverbs whose meaning they modify _(Adv₁Adv)” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 657). It is also noted that “in certain cases (e.g., temporal adverbs), adverbs can even attach to nouns, cf.: Vilnius today; Our village yesterday (tomorrow)” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 410).

These grammars also mention cases in which two or more adverbs with different meanings occur in a sentence: in neutral cases, manner adverbs immediately precede the verb, while other adverbs precede manner adverbs. Three examples are given: He always sleeps peacefully. The rye is growing beautifully this year. Yesterday we deliberately waited a long time¹⁸ (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 654). It is also noted that “emphasized and contextually linked manner adverbs can also occur at the beginning of the sentence, before other adverbs. He almost never ran in leaps and bounds” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 654; Ambrazas 2006: 76).

There are cases in which the position of adverbs cannot be changed: phrases whose head is the positive form of a qualitative adverb and whose dependent is a quantitative adverb expressing degree and intensity, which indicate qualitative relations (e.g., completely foolishly, infinitely kindly, very well); phrases consisting of two quantitative adverbs (e.g., very much, unexpectedly little); phrases whose head is a comparative adverb (e.g., twice as fast, noticeably shorter); and phrases consisting of two qualitative adverbs that express attributive relations (e.g., dark blue, lightning fast, fabulously beautiful) (for a more detailed discussion, see Valulytė 1976: 271ff.). Such cases are not included in the description.

From what has been said, it is clear that in Lithuanian an adverb can occur in various positions¹⁹, but the primary and neutral position of an adverb is before the word it modifies. Since Lithuanian syntax and grammar works do not distinguish sentence adverbs²⁰, regarding their position in the senten-

¹⁸ It should be noted that the third example contains no manner adverb at all; it includes two time adverbs and one purpose adverb.

¹⁹ No specialized studies describing the position of adverbs in the sentence have been conducted. Only one or two studies examining adverb semantics can be found, e.g.: Burov 2011; Judžentytė 2013; Butkevičiūtė 2015.

²⁰ In his 1922 grammar, J. Jablonskis uses the phrase sakinio aplinkybė ‘sentence adverbial’ when discussing usual adverbials (see Palionis, ed., 1957: 475). Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje it is noted that “word forms and constructions with adverbial meanings, syntactically dependent on the predicate,”

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There is no information. Foreign literature notes that “sentential adverbs are indeed granted a certain amount of distributional freedom with respect to their placement in the sentence” (Cruschina 2010: 5); “the grammar of sentential adverbs is flexible, because most of them can be placed at any of several points in the sentence without changing the meaning” (https://www.cambridge.org/grammarandbeyond/grammar-practice-activities/2017/06/teaching-sentential-adverbs-and-adverbials).

We examined those cases in Lithuanian where two or three sentential adverbs are used in one sentence.

4. MODELS OF SENTENCES WITH TWO / THREE ADVERBS

Since in Lithuanian a sentence can usually be formed with just two constituents—the subject and the predicate—in determining the sentence patterns with two / three adverbs used in Lithuanian, we first considered the positions of the adverbs in relation to the predicate and the subject—these latter constituents are considered the main ones. We then examined whether any other sentence constituent intervenes between these four main constituents. If the predicate requires one or more additional sentence constituents, but they occur after or before these four main constituents, they are considered extended constituents and do not affect the use of sentential adverbs. Such constituents can usually be omitted without affecting the meaning of the sentence, and are therefore not included in the pattern. It was determined that all the patterns found can be divided into five types with subtypes. The first type consists of four constituents: two adverbs, the subject, and the predicate; its subtype consists of three adverbs, the subject, and the predicate. The second type consists of five constituents: two adverbs, the subject, the predicate, and a fifth constituent intervening between the four main constituents; its subtype consists of three adverbs, the subject, the predicate, and an intervening constituent. The third type consists of six constituents: the subject, the predicate, two adverbs, and two additional constituents intervening between the main constituents; its subtype consists of three adverbs, the subject, the predicate, and two additional intervening constituents. The fourth type consists of basic sentences: two adverbs and the predicate (its subtype consists of three adverbs and the predicate), as well as two adverbs, an intervening constituent, and the predicate. The fifth type consists of only two adverbs. All types are described in five sections.

pagal savo reikšmę gali būti siejamos su visu sakiniu“ (Ambrazas, red., 1996: 626). Angliškai išleistoje Lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje išskiriama modalinių prieveiksmių grupė (Ambrazas, ed., 1997: 377).

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4.1. First type

As already mentioned, the first type consists of four main constituents—two adverbs, the subject, and the predicate²¹. Eleven patterns can be formed from these four constituents: V-pr-pr-T²², V-pr-T-pr, V-T-pr-pr, pr-V-pr-T, pr-pr-V-T, pr-pr-T-V, pr-V-T-pr, T-V-pr-pr, T-pr-V-pr, T-pr-pr-V, pr-T-pr-V. Examples were found only for the first seven patterns. No sentences were found in which the predicate occurred before the adverbs and the subject. A total of 918 first-type sentences were found (out of 1000). They are discussed according to frequency of use.

V-pr-pr-T

In Lithuanian, two adverbs most often occur after the subject and before the predicate. The subject may be expressed (see sentence 1) or understood²³ (see sentence 2):

1) Poor child! You must be very hungry. DLKT

2) I understood that I would never be able to sing like that, so I have hardly sung since. DLKT

A total of 752 such examples were found (out of 1000); they make up 75.2 percent of all the examples discussed.

pr-pr-T-V

A pattern in which two adverbs are used directly before the predicate and subject is much less common in Lithuanian, e.g.:

3) We have prepared some proposals for you to extend the deadline for not changing the profile of medicines for at least some period of time, and afterwards the law of the market will probably take hold: if one closes, another will open. DLKT

4) Jews used to be given shelter in those towns where once usually stayed postal couriers as well. (http://klaipeda.diena.lt/naujienos/klaipeda/miesto-pulsas/pasto-kelyje-nuotykiai-633510#VKEBBZUc5s)

²¹Sometimes intervening elements include dependents of sentence constituents or other sentence constituents, e.g. a modifier (see sentences 3, 4, 36, 37), a conjunction (see sentences 4, 5), a parenthetical (see sentence 18), or an inserted clause (see sentence 34). However, they are not included in the pattern because of their secondary role in the sentence and because they have no effect on the position of adverbs in the sentence.

²²The following abbreviations are used in the article: pr – adverb, V – subject, T – predicate, _T₁ – the first component of a compound or complex predicate, _T₂ – the second component of a compound or complex predicate, P – object, Apl – adverbial. Although in the examples the adverbs under investigation function as adverbials, in all the patterns examined, sentence adverbs are marked with the abbreviation pr, rather than Apl – this distinguishes them from other adverbials used in the sentence.

²³This is most often the case when the adverbs occur in the second clause of a complex sentence, while the subject is expressed in the first clause.

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Thirty-seven such examples were found; they account for 3.7 percent of all the examples discussed.

Adv–Adv–V–S

Almost as common in Lithuanian as the model just described is the model in which two adverbs are used directly before the subject and predicate, for example: 5) In James’s view, it is the other way around: first a person must act as if these principles existed, perhaps later they will be confirmed. DLKT 6) After the harvest, when the crops have usually already been gathered, one can collect whatever is found on the ground in gardens and fields, and no one is punished for it. (http://www.delfi.lt/verslas/kaimas/nemokamas-budas-apsirupinti-darzovemis-kurio-jus-greiciausiai-nezinojote.d?id=66348850)

A total of 36 such examples were found; they constitute 3.6 percent of all the examples discussed.

V–Adv–S–Adv

A model in which one adverb is used before the predicate and the other after it, with both following the subject, is even less common in Lithuanian, for example: 7) Usually, without giving it much thought, we think that a child behaves badly on purpose, simply because they “don’t want” to be good. (http://www.psichoterapija-jums.lt/Straipsniai-kaip_bendrauti_su_mazais_vaikais.htm) 8) Although they always come to Lithuania for a short time, they nevertheless always find time to hug and say a kind word to every child from our school under their care. (http://www.spec.simas.lm.lt/?page=3)

A total of 13 such examples were found; they constitute 1.3 percent of all the examples discussed.

V–S–Adv–Adv

A model in which both adverbs are used after the subject and predicate is even less common in Lithuanian, for example: 9) A young child does not behave badly on purpose—they lack sufficient experience and do not know that being hit hurts. (http://www.manosevieta.lt/t/temos/tevai-ir-vaikai/kai-sauteja-mazasis-tonas) 10) Such talents are born only once and usually by chance. (http://kriu.lt/faktai/vidas-ginevicius)

A total of 6 such examples were found; they constitute 0.6 percent of all the examples discussed.

adv–V–adv–T

The model in which one adverb is used before the subject, another after it, and both before the predicate is very rare in Lithuanian, e.g.: 11) Unfortunately, the toddler is usually taken back to the children’s group the very next day, as soon as their condition improves. (http://www.delfi.lt/gyvenimas/namai_ir_seima/kodel-vaikas-nuolat-serga.d?id=31314265)

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12) Soon from briefly stopped at his friend’s house and reported that he had been in an accident. (http://www.alietuvis.com/index.php/component/k2/item/766-nuo-jav-teisesaugos-besislapstes-nusikaltelis-lenkas-sugrazintas-i-cikaga)

Five such examples were found; they constitute 0.5 percent of all the examples under discussion.

adv-V-T-adv

Another model used in Lithuanian has one adverb before the subject and predicate, and another after them, e.g.:

13) Fishing nuances. Do bream always behave typically? (http://www.15min.lt/naujiena/laisvalaikis/zukle/zukles-niuansai-ar-visada-karsiai-elgiasi-tipiskai-144-167051)

14) Perhaps they don’t get along anymore. LKŽ

Two such examples were found; they constitute 0.2 percent of all the examples under discussion.

The first type would also include models consisting of five words but four constituents—sentences with a compound or complex predicate. Such sentences would be those of the model V-T-adv-adv-T₂, the model adv-V-T₁-adv-T₂, and the model V-T₁-adv-T₂-adv.

V-T₁-pr-pr-T₂

In sentences with this pattern, two adverbs occur after the verb form and before the infinitive (see sentences 15, 16) or before the nominal part (see sentences 17, 18). This is because the adverbs modify the infinitive or the nominal part of the predicate “more” than they do the verb form. In such sentences, the subject may be implicit:

15) Having caught the ball and fallen off the motorcycle, he had to quickly straddle the “steel steed” again. DKT

16) If he stays at Tvaronienė’s, he might be a very good neighbor, but not one with whom you would always want to be together. DKT

17) It was precisely because of these qualities that he was once almost stolen from the intelligence directorate of the Main Staff of the Navy, and successfully and quietly climbed the career ladder in the KGB’s First Chief Directorate. DKT

18) Minkštas, by contrast, is almost always the same – white, juicy, and refreshing. (http://lt/www.granin.lt/atrask-m-s-prekin-zenkla/273/)

Thirteen sentences with this pattern were found. One of these sentences had an even more complex predicate:

19) There are even more similar examples: The Labour Party leader Viktoras is away on a business trip in Russia today, while the leader of the Rubikon Party, Artūras, at that time

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circumstances had compelled [him/her] to emigrate to Warsaw briefly and in a hurry. (http://racas.lt/kas-lietuvoje-siandien-zino-daugiausiai/)

pr-V-T₁-pr-_T2

In a sentence with this pattern, one adverb occurs before the subject and the copula, while the other occurs after them and before the predicative complement. Only 1 such sentence was found:

20) Neuroscientifically, it was established that the memory of both humans and animals retrieves information several hours after it has been absorbed, despite the fact that for a short period it had been completely forgotten. (http://www.delfi.lt/mokslas/mokslas/kod-mes-labai-greitai-pamirstame-naujus-verdus.d?id=6121477)

V-T₁-pr-_T2-pr

In this pattern, the subject (implicit) and the verbal form of the compound predicate occur at the beginning, followed by one adverb, an infinitive, and another adverb. Only 1 such sentence was found:

21) I know that I do not deliberately know how to do things badly and with all my strength I strive to be decent beyond the values proclaimed by any law that meets the requirements of Human Conscience. (http://www.spauda.lt/plato/politika.htm)

4.1.1. This type of pattern yields a model consisting of three adverbs and a subject with a predicate. As in the case with two adverbs, when three adverbs are present, the dominant pattern is one in which the adverbs occur before the predicate and after the subject – V-pr-pr-pr-T. The subject may be expressed or implicit; the predicate may require other obligatory constituents not included in the model, which follow it:

22) He would perhaps quietly measure for a long time, tell his client to sit right there and wait. DLKT

23) This concern belongs to a father who last saw his youngest son in 1914 and never saw him again after that: although A. Einstein visited Europe many times after the war, he never wanted to meet Eduard. DLKT

24) We should not abuse people's goodwill by being so vague and saying nothing, and think that perhaps we might somehow hold out for another 5 years. DLKT. A total of 41 such examples were found; they constitute 4.1 percent of all examples under discussion.

The pattern pr-pr-pr-T-V, in which the adverbs occur before the predicate and the subject follows them, is much less frequent. Only four such examples were found:

25) After the cast is removed, swelling usually remains bothersome for quite a long time. DLKT

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26) [...] American teenagers first write their first and last names, then vary gender, race, or occupation, after that they most often indicate places, a state, or “American.” DLKT

Two examples of model 2 V-pr-pr-T-pr were found, in which two adverbs are used before the predicate and one after it:

27) While in Lithuania I really often feel bad because everything is fine for me. (http://www.tavovaikas.lt/veidai/daugiavaike-emigrante-is-lietuvos-daznai-jauciuosi-blogai-todel-kad-man-viskas-gerai.d?id=6484597)

28) No, first we’ll practice or rehearse, then we’ll make plans again. DLKT

Examples of model 2 pr-pr-pr-V-T were found, in which three adverbs are used before the subject and predicate:

29) Everything fell silent for a while, then everything quieted down again in an instant. DLKT

30) [...] -ies, unfamiliar, narrow-eyed girls with unfamiliar athletic boys—even embracing, they hid under those stairs; generally, perhaps more boldly: then we would all gather again and trudge farther along those endless tracks... DLKT

Only one example of model 1 V-pr-T-pr-pr was found, in which one adverb is used before the predicate and the other two after it. The subject is implicit in this sentence; it should have been used at the beginning of the sentence:

31) I’ll write sometime soon about the effect of chaos and being. (http://nassaclinics.wordpress.com/tag/kofeinas/)

Two more models belonging to this subtype consist of six words, and are five-member patterns. The pattern of one sentence would be V-pr-pr-T₁-pr-T₂—the constituents in this sentence are arranged as follows: subject, two adverbs, a compound verbal form of the predicate, another adverb, and an infinitive (see sentence 32). The pattern of the second sentence would be V-pr-T₁-pr-pr-T₂—the constituents in this sentence are arranged as follows: subject (implicit), an adverb, a compound verbal form of the predicate, two more adverbs, and an infinitive (see sentence 33):

32) Andrius Pojus has dashed off; soon he will again have to step away briefly from his family living in Milan, because a special concert awaits him in his hometown—Jurbarkas. (http://www.atlikejai.com/ugni-peres-eurovizininkas-a-pojus-ruosiasi-gimtojo-miesto-isbandymams/)

33) Matas no longer comes, although the other night he promised to visit again soon. (Ulydas, ed., 1971: 455)

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4.2. The second type

As already mentioned, the second type consists of five main constituents: two adverbs, a subject, a predicate, and a fifth constituent, which occurs between the four main constituents. This fifth constituent may be an object or an adjunct. Few such examples were found in DLKT—57 sentences.

V-pr-pr-P / Apl-T

The most common word order in second-type sentences is: subject, two adverbs, object (see sentences 34 and 35) or adjunct (see sentence 36), and predicate. The subject is most often omitted (see sentences 35 and 36):

34) The old man, pretending to bend down to pick up the key he had dropped on the floor, deliberately took a long time to pick it up and listened to see if there was anyone outside the door... (http://antologija.lt/text/urgis-savickis-noveles/39)

35) Then, when I heard her, I was truly very surprised and, of course, remembered where you worked, but later I deliberately teased you. DLKT

36) They were always near us. Most likely, they created us too. And later deliberately blocked in our genetic codes the ability to see them. DLKT

Thirty-four such sentences were found. This amounts to 3.4 percent of all the examples discussed.

adv-adv-O / Circ-T-V

This word-order pattern occurred much less frequently: two adverbs, an object (see sentences 37 and 38) or an adverbial (see sentence 39), a predicate, and a subject. Five sentences following this word-order pattern were found:

37) Little Vytukas was like a lifeless thing, – after that, the old steward often told everyone, – he was lying on the floor. DLKT

38) Soon, briefly our little car was joined by a police officer. (http://iter vitae.lt/tag/aratas/)

39) So perhaps the second Gazejas will soon appear in the square. DLKT

V-O-adv-adv-T / T₁T₂

Even less frequent—only three instances—was this word-order pattern: subject, object, two adverbs, predicate (the predicate may be simple or compound):

40) And that law usually does not suit him at all; surely it was not created because of him. DLKT

41) We will definitely write more about them. DLKT

42) Therefore, taking this into account, the number of tax inspectors should be increased to approximately one and a half thousand, but this year we probably certainly won’t manage either to recruit them all or to train them. DLKT

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Even fewer sentences were found with other word-order patterns—only one sentence each. V-pr-P-pr-T: in this pattern, the object is inserted between the two adverbs, while the subject is implicit:

43) Hello, good afternoon, I wanted to ask whether it could be that I have an allergy: about a week ago, pimples appeared on my face, I have never had any before. I am 22 years old. (http://www.sveikaszmogus.lt/Alergines_ligos1)

V-T-P-pr-pr: in this pattern, the object and two adverbs are used after the subject and predicate, which in this case is compound; only the copula of the predicate is omitted:

44) After death, she is determined to be buried at Rasa’s beside her mother Patricia, who, as everyone already knows, poisoned herself with vinegar some time ago after that, when it became clear that little Feliksėlis, having taken advantage of her favors of love, had managed to seduce even the unplanned Zosinelė... DKT

pr-pr-T-P-V: in this pattern, the two adverbs come before the predicate, while the object and subject follow the predicate:

45) Now perhaps Deputy A. Januška could briefly state his position. DKT

pr-P-pr-T-V: in this pattern, the object is inserted between the two adverbs, followed by the predicate and the subject:

46) Until now, politicians have not cared at all about reducing the number of demonstrations in Lithuania. (http://puteikis.blogspot.com/2014/01/iki-siol-politikams-visai-nerupejo.html)

pr-pr-V-P-T: in this pattern, the two adverbs precede the subject, while the object and predicate follow it:

47) [...] here they were bought in bulk, or the merchant monopolists seized them even in advance, before they had arrived, and after that, these goods were usually transported by Dutch ships either to Amsterdam [...]. DKT

pr-P-V-pr-T: the elements in this pattern are arranged as follows: one adverb, the object, the subject, a second adverb, and the predicate:

48) She didn’t run off from us either, Jakubovska. Probably the yarn seller has not brought those threads yet. DKT

As mentioned in Section 4.1, the first type also includes a pattern consisting of five words but four constituents—namely, sentences with a complex or compound predicate. Four sentences of a similar type were found: two sentences with a complex predicate, in which an object or an adverbial and two adverbs are inserted between its forms (pattern V-T₁-P / Apl-pr-pr-T₂, see sentences 49 and 50); one sentence,

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in which a compound predicate is used and an object is inserted between its forms (model V-pr-pr-T₁-P-T₂, see sentence 51), and 1 sentence in which two adverbs and an object intervened between the forms of the compound predicate (model V-T₁-pr-pr-P-T₂, see sentence 52); such sentences are assigned to the second type:

49) He is thinking about how to meet him again. Asking Sūnievė whether they are planning to go there again soon is not really feasible. DKT

50) If you do not experience the desired symptoms, you can start eating such a food product normally again. (http://www.mpe.lt/lt/FoodDetective/13_Food Detective)

51) The teacher manages to get to know the children better. On Fridays, when the parents come, they usually always ask them to take part in the lesson. This is very important for the children. DKT

52) With amazement, straight through:), what a pity I didn’t see it, I’ll probably absolutely have to download that match; whoever agrees with me, click Like! (https://www.facebook.com/15min/posts/20013199941359)

4.2.1. The typical pattern for this type consists of models with three adverbs, a subject, a predicate, and an object or an adverbial. Only 5 such sentences were found.

V-pr-pr-P-pr-T: the constituents of this model occur in the following order: subject, two adverbs, object, one more adverb, and predicate. Only 2 sentences of this model were found:

53) It shows how one mother first roughly grabs the child, then soon begins to hold the child close again against herself. DKT

54) If they rage and acquire monstrous traits, the people cling on, and then they never get rid of them. DKT

V-pr-pr-pr-P-T: the constituents of this model occur in the following order: subject, three adverbs, object, and predicate. Only 1 sentence of this model was provided:

55) Perhaps she will never see himagain and will no longer be able to get over it... DKT

pr-pr-pr-V-P-T: the constituents of this model occur in the following order: three adverbs, subject, object, and predicate. Only 1 sentence of this model was provided:

56) No, well, perhaps no one will ever kiss us again! DKT

pr-pr-pr-Apl-(T)-V: the constituents of this model occur in the following order: three adverbs, an adverbial, an implied predicate, and a subject. Only 1 sentence of this model was provided:

57) But perhaps for a long time now only the sad ghosts have been dwelling on that street. DKT

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4.3. Third type

As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, the third type consists of six constituents: a subject, a predicate, two adverbs, and two additional constituents inserted between the main constituents, as well as three adverbs together with the constituents listed above. These additional constituents may be two objects or one object and one adverbial. Only 3 such sentences were found.

pr-P-pr-V-T-pr

One sentence pattern would be as follows: one adverb, two objects, a subject, a predicate, and a second adverb:

58) Usually, they rarely leave the girl with her grandparents – only then, when he himself gets ready to go out somewhere with them. (http://www.15min.lt/zmones/naujiena/lietuva/viesuome-retai-matoma-karolina-liukaityte-su-mylimu-ju-arnu-jurskiu-atvyko-i-labdaros-rengini-3-461944)

V-pr-pr-Apl-P-T

Another sentence pattern of this type would be as follows: a subject (implicit), two adverbs, an adverbial, an object, and a predicate:

59) Surely maybe sometimes we’ll significantly lower the prices. DKT

pr-V-pr-pr-P-Apl-T

The next sentence would belong to a subtype of this type. Its pattern would be as follows: an adverb, a subject, two adverbs, an object, an adverbial, and a predicate:

60) – No, then he sometimes already spoke Lithuanian with me. DKT

One sentence was found whose pattern is even more complex—it consists of 8 constituents. Since this type of sentence was the only one, it was tentatively assigned to a subtype of this type. Its pattern would be as follows: three adverbs, an object, two adverbials, a predicate, a subject, i.e. pr-pr-pr-P-Apl-Apl-T-V:

61) Perhaps never before has animosity pushed science forward so quickly and successfully. DKT

4.4. The fourth type

The fourth type consists of impersonal sentences. Their patterns consist either of just three constituents: two adverbs and a predicate (the subtype consists of three adverbs and a predicate), or of four constituents: two adverbs, an object, and a predicate. Since only 8 such sentences were found, they are grouped into a single type of impersonal sentence.

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adv–adv–P

One of these sentence patterns consists of just three constituents: two adverbs and a predicate. Only 1 such sentence was found:

62) [...] the word is not merely an empty shell without a core, merely a metaphor with which one tries to resurrect from nonexistence that which has lost its vitality and reality, that which in fact perhaps no longer exists. DLT

adv–P–adv–P₁–₂

The other sentence pattern consists of four words but three constituents. The order is as follows: one adverb, one part of a compound or complex predicate, another adverb, and the other part of the compound or complex predicate. Two sentences of this pattern were found:

63) Until now, it has not been well understood how nanoparticles interact with other substances, especially with body tissues. (http://rtn.elektronika.lt/mi/0304/kiek.html)

64) Soon one has to stop briefly. (http://www.vilkobroliai.lt/2013/12/01/pasakojimas-apie-ekspedicija-rusvandenė-pelky-nų-ir-miskų-upelė-%E2%80%93-viesile-2-dalis/)

adv–adv–O–P

This model consists of two adverbs, an object, and a predicate. Two sentences of this type were found:

65) And if we hurry to buy a new floppy-disk game just so it will clear our heads, soon they will no longer be enough. DLT

66) You can go, just not too far; I will need you again soon. DLT

adv–adv–adv–P

This subtype consists of sentences with three adverbs and a predicate. Two such sentences were found:

67) Perhaps temporary this, perhaps soon it will be needed again by intellectuals serving the structures of power, but one thing is clear—the relationship with those in power is becoming increasingly complicated... DLT

68) At least you can console yourself that, if the company goes bankrupt, perhaps some assets will still remain. DLT

adv–adv–V₁–O–V₂

The last model assigned to this type consists of two adverbs, a compound predicate, and an object inserted between the verbal part of the predicate and the infinitive. Only 1 such sentence was found:

69) But perhaps I no longer have to suffer for long. DLT

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4.5. Fifth type

The fifth type consists of only two constituents—two adverbs (model adv–adv). They are used as parentheticals²⁴ or as non-sentence fragments²⁵. Such detached adverbial clauses are assigned to a separate type because it is impossible to predict precisely the order in which these adverbs would be used together with the subject and predicate. For example, the sentence That was a way of life. Times and countries change, but not always quickly can be “reconstructed” in several ways, for example:

a) Times and countries change, but they do not always change quickly.

b) Times and countries change, but they do not always change quickly.

c) Times and countries change, but they do not always change quickly.

d) Times and countries change, but they do not always change quickly.

13 sentences of the fifth type were found:

70) Probably every one of us has killed something, usually by accident, right? DLKT

71) There were occasional intermarriages, and migration took place—some people left the tribe—sometimes temporarily, sometimes permanently; others returned. DLKT

72) But everything began to change; he no longer felt any shame, and the two who were shown knew each other so well, as if they had always done so and always together. DLKT

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of 1,000 sentences containing one / three sentence adverbs identified 43 usage patterns. They were divided into five types. The first type consists of four constituents: two adverbs, a subject, and a predicate; its subtype consists of three adverbs, a subject, and a predicate. The second type consists of five constituents: two adverbs, a subject, a predicate, and a fifth constituent inserted between the four main constituents; its subtype consists of three adverbs, a subject, a predicate, and an inserted constituent. The third type consists of six constituents: a subject, a predicate, two adverbs, and two additional constituents inserted between the main constituents; its subtype consists of three adverbs, a subject, a predicate, and two additional inserted constituents. The fourth type consists of impersonal sentences: two adverbs and a predicate (its subtype comprises three adverbs and a predicate), as well as two adverbs, an inserted constituent, and a predicate. The fifth type

²⁴ Plačiau apie įspraudus žr. Ambrazas, red., 1996: 645.

²⁵ Plačiau apie neplniuosius sakinius žr.: Balkevičius 1963: 153tt; Labutis 1998: 138tt.

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consists of only two adverbs. Sentences of the first type are the most numerous—98; there are far fewer sentences of the second type—57; only 4 sentences of the third type occurred, only 8 of the fourth, and only 13 of the fifth type.

It was established that adverbs may occur before the predicate together with an inserted constituent or constituents (15 patterns); adverbs may occur one after another directly before the predicate (10 patterns); they may occur immediately before and after the predicate (4 patterns), immediately before and after the first constituent of a compound or complex predicate (3 patterns), between the parts of a compound or complex predicate (3 patterns); adverbs may also occur directly after the predicate (2 patterns), directly before the subject and predicate (2 patterns), before and after the subject together with the predicate (1 pattern), before and after the subject together with the first constituent of a compound / compound predicate (1 pattern), before an inserted constituent and the subject together with the predicate, and after the subject together with the predicate (1 pattern); and they may occur by themselves (1 pattern). There was not a single sentence in which the predicate occurred before the other main constituents.

The most frequently used sentences are those with the pattern V-pr-pr-T: they account for as much as 75.2 percent of all the sentences discussed. Sentences with other patterns are used much less frequently. As many as 22 patterns occurred only once (see Table 1).

In 34 patterns (out of 42²⁶), the adverbs occur before the predicate, accounting for 97.3 percent of all the sentences discussed. In 6 patterns, one adverb occurs before the predicate and the other after it. In 2 patterns, both adverbs occur after the predicate. This means that the probability that an adverb will occur in a sentence before the predicate is greater than 97 percent.²⁷

In 24 patterns, two / three adverbs occur next to the predicate; in 8 patterns, one adverb occurs next to it while the other is separated by another constituent or constituents of the pattern; in 11 patterns, two / three adverbs are separated from the predicate by another constituent or constituents of the pattern. This indicates a “closer” relationship between adverbs and the predicate.

In 27 of the 43 patterns, two / three adverbs occur next to one another, while in 16 patterns one or more constituents of the pattern intervene between them. Thus, if two / three adverbs occur in a sentence, they are most likely (with a probability of 62.79 percent) to occur next to one another.

²⁶ Of 42, not 43, because the fifth type of pattern consists of adverbs alone.

²⁷ I will recall that the neutral position of an adverb is considered to be between the predicate and the direct object (see Ambrazas 1997: 698).

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TABLE 1. Usage patterns of sentences with two / three sentential adverbs

TYPE

PATTERN

NUMBER OF EXAMPLES

PERCENTAGE

Type 1

V-pr-pr-T

752

75,2%

pr-pr-T-V

37

3,7%

pr-pr-V-T

36

3,6%

V-pr-T-pr

13

1,3%

V-T-pr-pr

6

0,6%

pr-V-pr-T

5

0,5%

pr-V-T-pr

2

0,2%

V-T₁-pr-pr-T₂

13

1,3%

pr-V-T₁-pr-T₂

1

0,1%

V-T₁-pr-T₂-pr

1

0,1%

V-pr-pr-pr-T

41

4,1%

pr-pr-pr-T-V

4

0,4%

V-pr-pr-T-pr

2

0,2%

pr-pr-pr-V-T

2

0,2%

V-pr-T-pr-pr

1

0,1%

V-pr-pr-T₁-pr-T₂

1

0,1%

V-pr-T₁-pr-T₂

1

0,1%

Type 2

V-pr-pr-P / Apl-T

34

3,4%

pr-pr-P / Apl-T-V

5

0,5%

V-P-pr-pr-T / T₁T₂

3

0,3%

V-pr-P-pr-T

1

0,1%

V-T-P-pr-pr

1

0,1%

pr-pr-T-P-V

1

0,1%

pr-P-pr-T-V

1

0,1%

pr-pr-V-P-T

1

0,1%

pr-P-V-pr-T

1

0,1%

V-T₁-P / Apl-pr-pr-T₂

2

0,2%

V-pr-pr-T₁-P-T₂

1

0,1%

V-T₁-pr-pr-P-T₂

1

0,1%

V-pr-pr-P-pr-T

2

0,2%

V-pr-pr-pr-P-T

1

0,1%

pr-pr-pr-V-P-T

1

0,1%

pr-pr-pr-Apl-(T)-V

1

0,1%

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TYPE

MODEL

NUMBER OF EXAMPLES

PERCENTAGE

type 3

pr-P-P-V-T-pr

1

0,1%

V-pr-pr-Apl-P-T

1

0,1%

pr-V-pr-pr-P-Apl-T

1

0,1%

pr-pr-pr-P-Apl-Apl-T-V

1

0,1%

type 4

pr-pr-T

1

0,1%

_{pr-T₁-pr-T₂}

2

0,1%

pr-pr-P-T

2

0,2%

pr-pr-pr-T

2

0,2%

_{pr-pr-T₁-P-T₂}

1

0,1%

type 5

pr-pr

13

1,3%

For pragmatic reasons, adverbs may occur in various sentence positions. Sometimes this happens when the adverb itself receives greater emphasis and is moved from its usual position to another; at other times, when the subject or the object / adjunct of the sentence receives greater emphasis. However, as the study has shown, these are isolated cases. If we look at patterns of types 1, 2 and 3 (which make up 97.9 per cent of all the sentences discussed), we see that sentence adverbs are most commonly used after the subject and before the predicate (accounting for 85.4 per cent of all the sentences discussed). This position should be regarded as the neutral and basic position for sentence adverbs. Thus, sentence adverbs do not differ in position from predicate adverbs.

All this shows that freedom of word order in Lithuanian is only relative, not absolute²⁸, while the position of sentence adverbs is fairly fixed and is most often inseparable from the predicate.

R E F E R E N C E S

Ambrazas Vytautas 2006: Lietuvių kalbos istorinė sintaksė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

Ambrazas Vytautas, ed., 1997: Lithuanian Grammar. Vilnius: Baltos lankos.

Ambrazas Vytautas, red., 1985: Грамматика литовского языка. Vilnius: Mokslas.

²⁸ Žr.: Balkevičius 1963: 26; Sirtuas, Grenda 1988: 194tt.

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Ambrazas Vytautas, red., 1996: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

Balevičius Jonas 1963: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos sintaksė. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

Beijer Fabian 2002: On the Relative Order of IP-adverbials. Prieiga internete: http://ciseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.13.1511&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

Bellert Irena 1977: On semantic and distributional properties of sentential adverbs. – Linguistic Inquiry 8, 337–351.

Bhatia Archna 2006: Testing Cinque’s hierarchy: Adverb Placement in Hindi. – ISO working papers in linguistics. Vol. 6. Madison: University of Wisconsin. Linguistics Student Organization, 10–25. Prieiga internete: http://vanhise.lss.wisc.edu/ling/files/ling_old_web/iso/wpl/6/bhatia.pdf.

Bobaljik Jonathan David 1999: Adverbs: The Hierarchy Paradox. – Glot International 4.9/10, 1–6. Prieiga internete: http://www.bobaljik.uconn.edu/papers/adverbs.pdf.

Burov Aleksej 2011: Laiko prieveiksmis – leksinė priemonė laiko suvokimo modeliams reikšti. Tarpdalykinė Nybelungų giesmės (B rankraštis) analizė. Daktaro disertacijos santrauka. Vilnius. Prieiga internete: https://www.google.lt/url?sa=t&ct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=50&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi478WxnqTgAhUV8uAKHaISDcU4KBAwMA16BAgAEAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftalpykla.elaba.lt%2Felaba-fedora%2Fobjects%2Felaba%3A1997426%2Fdatastreams%2FMAIN%2Fcontent&usg=AOvVaw0YFOFlsD3ek-CpbdZHUwcH.

Butkevičiūtė Beta 2015: Dėl vietos prieveiksmių bū-, ora- ir ąra- vartosenos turkų kalboje. – Taikomoji kalbotyra 7. Prieiga internete: https://taikomojikalbotyra.lt/oj/index.php/taikomoji-kalbotyra/article/view/68.

Cinque Guglielmo 1999: Adverbs and Functional Heads: A Cross-linguistic Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cruschina Silvio 2010: On the syntactic status of sentential adverbs and modal particles. Prieiga internete: https://www.academia.edu/2097508/On_the_syntactic_status_of_sentential_adverbs_and_modal_particles_2010_.

Čižik-Prokaševa Veslava 2018: Cinque’s prieveiksmių hierarchija ir lietuvių kalbos duomenys. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXVII, 149–215.

DLKT – the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in KaunasDabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas. Available online: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/

Holvoet Axel 2009: Bendrosios sintaksės pagrindai. Vilnius: Sapnų sala.

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Holvoet Axel, Čižik-Prokaševa Veslava 2005: Papildiniai ir aplinkybės. – Gramatinių funkcijų tyrimai (Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 3), red. Holvoet Axel, Judžentis Artūras, Mikulskas Rolandas. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 65–92.

Holvoet Axel, Mikulskas Rolandas 2009: Laisvieji antriniai predikatyvai. Prieiga internete: old.lki.lt/LKI_LT/images/Padaliniai/Gramatikos_skyrus/Laisvieji%20antriniai%20predikatyvai.pdf.

Holvoet Axel, Pajėdienė Jūratė 2005: Aplinkybės ir jų tipai. – Gramatinių funkcijų tyrimai (Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 3), red. Axel Holvoet, Artūras Judžentis, Rolandas Mikulskas. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 93–116.

Jablonskis Jonas 1997: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika (1922 m.). Trečias fotografuotinis leidimas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

Judžentytė Gintarė 2013: Lietuvių kalbos vietos prieveiksmių semantinių tyrimų apžvalga. – Lietuvių kalba 7. Prieiga internete: http://www.lietuviukalba.lt/index.php/lietuviu-kalba/article/view/49.

Kruopas Jonas, ats. red., 1957: M. Danielis Kleini „Pirmoji lietuvių kalbos gramatika“ (1653). Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

Kuršaitis Frydrichas 2013: Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1876. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla (parengė B. Kabašinskaitė).

Labutis Vitas 1998: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė (antrasis pataisytas leidimas). Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla.

LKŽe – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, vols. 1–20 (1941–2002), electronic edition, editor-in-chief Gertrūda Naktinė. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 2005. Available online: www.lkz.lt

Morkūnas Kazys, sud., 2008: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija. Vilnius: mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

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Dviejų / trijų sakinių prieveiksmių vieta lietuvių kalbos sakiniuose

Sirtautas Vytautas, Grenda Česys 1988: Lietuvių kalbos sintaksė. Vilnius: Mokslas.

Stundžia Bonifacas, spec. red., 1997: Sapūno ir Šulco gramatika Compendium Gramaticae Lithuanicae. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

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Valiulytė Elena 1976: Prieveiksminiai junginiai. – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 3. Sintaksė, red. Kazys Ulvydas. Vilnius: Mintis, 271–275.

Wenger Neven 2009: Cinque’s Functional Hierarchy. Syntax Reading Circle (SRC) notes (2009/02/09). Heidelberg: Universität Heidelberg. Prieiga internete: http://www.iwo-iwan.info/mediapool/36/361457/data/SRC_Part_I/Neven_-_Cinque_s_Functional_Hierarchy.pdf.

Wilson Stephen, Saygin Ayşe Pinar 2001: Adverbs and Functional Heads in Turkish: Linear Order and Scope. – Proceedings of WECOL 2001: Western Conference on Linguistics. Seattle, WA, USA. Prieiga internete: http://crl.ucsd.edu/~saygin/papers/WECOLpaper.pdf.

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APPENDIX 1

Classification of adverbs²⁹

Mood_evidential (adverbs of uncertainty) Eng. allegedly Lith. greičiausiai, tikrai, tikriausiai Mod_epistemic (adverbs of probability) Eng. probably Lith. turbūt T_past (past-time adverbs) Eng. once Lith. kartą, kadase, kažkada, vakar T_future (future-time adverbs) Eng. then Lith. po, paskui Mod_irrealis (irrealis adverbs) Eng. perhaps Lith. galbūt, gal Mod_necessity (necessity adverbs) Eng. necessarily Lith. būtinai Mod_possibility (possibility adverbs) Eng. possibly Lith. galbūt, gal Asp_habitual (habituality adverbs) Eng. usually Lith. paprastai, dažniausiai Asp_repetitive (repetitive adverbs) Eng. again Lith. vėl, dar Asp_{frequentative} (frequency adverbs) Eng. often Lith. dažnai, neretai, kartais Mod_volitional (volitional adverbs) Eng. intentionally Lith. tyčia, sąmoningai, specialiai Asp_celerative (speed adverbs) Eng. quickly Lith. greitai, skubiai T_anterior (priority adverbs) Eng. already Lith. jau Asp_terminative (completive adverbs) Eng. no longer Lith. (already) nebe, daugiau ne Asp_continuative (continuative adverbs) Eng. still Lith. iki šiol, vis dar Asp_perfect (absolute adverbs) Eng. always Lith. visada, visuomet Asp_{retrospective} (retrospective adverbs) Eng. just Lith. ką tik Asp_proximate (proximity adverbs) Eng. soon Lith. greitai, netrukus Asp_durative (duration adverbs) Eng. briefly Lith. trumpai, trumpam, ilgai Asp_{generic/progr.} (characteristic adverbs) Eng. characteristically Lith. tipiškai, kaip paprastai Asp_prospective (prospective adverbs) Eng. almost Lith. beveik, vos ne Asp_{sg.completive} (completive adverbs) Eng. completely Lith. visai, visiškai Voice (manner adverbs) Eng. well Lith. gerai, blogai

²⁹The table presents the adverbs examined in the article and the terms used by G. Cinque, translated by the author. I recall that Lithuanian syntax and grammar distinguish manner adverbs and circumstantial adverbs (the latter comprise adverbs of place, time, cause and purpose).

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The position of two- and three-sentence adverbs in Lithuanian sentences

The Position of Two/Three Sentence Adverbs in Lithuanian Sentences

SUMMARY

By referring to the examples found in the study, the article establishes the models of positioning of two/three adverbs in a single sentence. It is attempted to determine whether an adverb can indeed appear freely in a sentence and whether two or three adverbs can be used in any position in a single sentence. It was found in which position sentence adverbs are used most commonly. The article mostly refers to the examples taken from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language developed by the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Kaunas Vytautas Magnus University and the examples found through the web search engine Google.

After analysing 1,000 sentences with two/three sentence adverbs, 43 models were distinguished. They were divided into five types. The first type has four members: two adverbs, the subject and the predicate; the subtype of this type includes three adverbs, the subject and the predicate. The second type consists of five members: two adverbs, the subject, the predicate and the fifth member, which intervenes between the four principal members; the subtype of this type consists of three adverbs, the subject, the predicate and an intervening member. The third type is comprised of six members: the subject, the predicate, two adverbs and two additional members intervening between the principal members; the subtype of this type consists of three adverbs, the subject, the predicate and two additional intervening members. The fourth type is comprised of impersonal sentences: two adverbs and the predicate (its subtype consists of three adverbs and the predicate) and two adverbs, an intervening member and the predicate. The fifth type is represented by two adverbs only. The sentences of the first type prevail; they account for 918 sentences. The sentences of the second type are significantly less common; there are 57 sentences of this type. There were barely 4 sentences of the third type, only 8 sentences of the fourth type, and only 13 sentences of the fifth type.

Adverbs may precede the predicate but they can go together with the intervening member(s) (15 models); one adverb may follow another and go immediately before the predicate (10 models); they can appear immediately before and after the predicate (4 models); immediately before and after the first member of the complex or compound predicate (3 models); between the components of the complex or compound predicate (3 models). Adverbs may also go immediately after the predicate (2 models); they can immediately precede the subject and the predicate (2 models); they may be used before and after the subject with the predicate (1 model); before and after the subject with the first member of the complex/compound predicate (1 model); before the intervening members, the subject with the predicate and after the subject with the predicate (1 model); they can also be used on their own (1 model).

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Sentences of the model S-adv-adv-P prevail: they account for as many as 75.2 per cent of the sentences under discussion. The sentences of other models are much less common. As many as 22 models were used only once (see Table 1).

Adverbs precede the predicate in 34 models (out of 42), which account for 97.3 per cent of all the sentences concerned. One adverb precedes the predicate and another follows it in 6 models. Both adverbs go after the predicate in 2 models. It means that the probability that a sentence adverb will precede the predicate in a sentence is higher than 97 per cent.

In 24 models two/three adverbs appear next to the predicate; in 8 models one adverb goes next to the predicate and another is separated by (an)other member(s) of the model; in 11 models, two/three adverbs are separated from the predicate by (an)other member(s) of the model. It shows a “closer” relation between adverbs and the predicate.

Out of 43 models, two or three adverbs go one after another in 27 models, whereas one or several members of the model intervene between them in 16 models. It means that if two or three adverbs are used in a sentence, they will most likely appear one after another (with the probability of 62.79 per cent).

For pragmatic purposes adverbs may appear in various positions in a sentence. Sometimes it happens that the adverb itself is associated with a greater meaning; yet in other cases a greater meaning falls to the subject or the object/adverbial modifier in a sentence. However, as shown by the study, these are isolated cases only. If we take a look at the models of types 1, 2 and 3 (they account for 97.9 per cent of all the sentences under discussion), we will see that sentence adverbs are usually used after the subject and before the predicate (85.4 per cent of all the sentences in question). This position should be considered a neutral and principal position of sentence adverbs. It means that by their position sentence adverbs do not differ from predicate adverbs.

The above data show that the freedom of word order in the Lithuanian language is only conditional, not absolute, and the position of sentence adverbs is rather fixed and is usually associated with the predicate.

Submitted on December 20, 2018.

VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

5 Petro Vileišio St., LT-10308 Vilnius, Lithuania

[email protected]

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