CONSIDERATIONS, PROPOSALS

Angelė KAULAKIENĖ, Vytautas VALIUKĖNAS

COMPUTING AND ITS MAIN TERMS

One issue of “Lietuvos rytas” reported that neither the recently published “Explanatory Dictionary of Computing” by K.V. Paulauskas and R. Jasinevičius nor the explanatory glossary “Informatics and Computer Equipment,” prepared a little later by V. Dagys, A. Klušaitė, and A. Žandaris, had yet changed the everyday language of computer specialists and ordinary computer enthusiasts [1]. It is certain that they have not changed it yet, and they are unlikely to do so soon.

In general, Lithuanian computing terminology is being developed in a somewhat unusual way compared with the terminology of other sciences. The first computing services in Lithuania began to be established around 1960, and by the end of 1969 there were already 200 computing bureaus and 30 computing stations in operation; 11,000 keypunches and 79 sets of punched-card computing machines were in use. Punched-card computing complexes, powerful and fast electronically controlled computers, began to be used in computing centers to process various kinds of information [2].

Along with the new computing technology, many new devices, mechanisms, components, operating characteristics, and work operations appeared, and they needed names. Specialists encountered an obvious shortage of Lithuanian terms for computing technology. This gap was partly filled at the time by the “Russian-Lithuanian-English Dictionary of Computing Technology Terms,” published in 1971, which for a long time was probably the only work in this field.

In recent years, as a flood of new computing concepts has poured in—concepts over which even specialists themselves often disagree—another problem has emerged, namely: which term to choose, a loanword or a Lithuanian equivalent, or whether to use both interchangeably. The terminology used in the “Computing” column of “Lietuvos rytas,” in textbooks [3–5], and in the latest computing dictionaries [6–7] reflects this situation. It is rich in loanwords, synonyms, and variants. Thus, the current stage of computing terminology is something like

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the initial stage of its formation, whose main characteristics are synonymy and variation. These are partly determined by other languages as well. As noted in the preface to the “Explanatory Dictionary of Computing” [7], considerable numbers of the same or very similar concepts are created simultaneously in many research centers and laboratories, but they are often named differently. There are especially many synonymous computing terms in English, because the countries that use this language are pioneers in computing. On the other hand, the abundance of English synonyms is also due to the fact that England and the United States have no state institutions for standardizing the language of science and technology [7].

Thus, synonymy and variation in the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian computing terminology are a natural part of its development. Therefore, there is little reason to worry or be indignant if one dictionary gives the terms byla, rinkmena [6] for a named collection of data stored in external memory, while another gives failas, rinkmena [7]. Only time will show which of these synonymous terms will prevail. Users will be able to choose. But what should be done when there is no choice, when foreignisms are imposed, for example, hostai, cf. English hosts, formatavimas, cf. English formatting, portas, cf. English port, routeris, cf. English router, svopingas, cf. English swapping, and so on.

This article will discuss some selected matters and reflect on one or another computing term.

1. Computing or computer science

At present, two terms are used to name the field of science and technology encompassing the design, manufacture, operation, etc., of computers: computing and computer science. Which one should be chosen? It seems that the authors of the term computer science added the French suffix -ique to the English word computer, a suffix generally used to form adjectives, for example, chimie (Lithuanian: chemija) – chimique (Lithuanian: cheminis), économie (Lithuanian: ekonomija) – économique (Lithuanian: ekonomiškas, ekonominis), and so on. Over time, some such adjectives in French became nouns, for example, électronique (Lithuanian: elektronika), balistique (Lithuanian: balistika), and so on.

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From French, these terms entered Lithuanian, Russian, and other languages. The textbook “Kompiuterika” [4] states that “the proposed term fits well into the whole system of analogous terms: technika, ekonomika, informatika, matematika, and so on.” This assertion should be questioned. First, the terms mentioned are related to words in Greek (technikos, oikonomikē (technē), mathēmatikē < mathēma) and Latin (informare), whose French equivalents are technique, économique, informatique, mathématique. Second, the French use the term science des ordinateurs [9] to name this field of science. Thus, we coin a French term and attempt to justify it by drawing on analogous names of fields of science that actually exist.

The terms computer science, “the branch of science and technology that studies electronic calculating machines and the principles of their use” [10–12], and computing, “the application of computers” [10], are used in English.

If we wish to avoid the phrase computer science and technology, we could choose the term computing; compare also English engineering, French ingénierie [9], Lithuanian inžinerija. Therefore, preference should be given to the term computing.

2. Terms for computer types

Some terms for computer types have not yet become established, for example, portable or portable computer, personal or personal computer. Drawing on the words of Prof. S. Šalkauskis, a pioneer of our terminology, that borrowing “is justified for terminological purposes primarily when the term required cannot be obtained either by adapting a word from ordinary language or by forming a new term through compounding or derivation” [13], in this case we can confidently propose Lithuanian equivalents.

Thus, the borrowed type element personal in the compound term personal computer should be replaced by its Lithuanian equivalent asmeninis. In English, this kind of computer is known by two synonyms: personal computer and private computer [11], while in French it has as many as three: ordinateur personnel, ordinateur individuel and ordinateur privé [9].

Instead of the term portable computer, use laptop.

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computer. The group of personal computers includes home computers, cf. English home computer, French ordinateur domestique, desktop computers, cf. English desktop computer, French ordinateur portable, portable computers, cf. English portable computer, laptop computer, notebook computer, French ordinateur portatif, etc.

At present, the participle nešiojamas, -a is being used in an attempt to replace three English words with different meanings. The participle nešiojamas, -a, formed from the verb nešioti, might best correspond to the English word portable or the French word portatif. The English term laptop computer would mean “a computer placed on one’s lap.” It could be called a skreitin computer. This is a portable computer, powered independently, weighing 4–5 kg. Notebook computer should be called a pocket computer. Notebook computer has as a synonym hand-held computer [10]. Besides the computers listed, one can also mention a large computer, sometimes called a general-purpose computer, cf. English mainframe c.; an embedded computer, cf. English embedded c.; an auxiliary computer, cf. English satellite c.; a main computer, cf. English host c., master c., source c.; a subordinate computer, cf. English slave c.; an interface computer, cf. English interface c.; a target computer, cf. English target c., object c.; a control computer, cf. English control c.; a professional computer, cf. English work-station, which is usually more powerful than a personal computer and intended to automate a workplace. It is also called a workstation. Recently, the term network computer has also appeared in the press, cf. English network computer.

3. Terms for computer devices

Many other devices are usually associated with a computer; they are called peripheral devices, cf. English peripheral device, peripheral, French dispositif périphérique.

3.1. These include a printer, cf. English printer, scanner, cf. English scanner, and reader, cf. English reader, French lecteur, plotter, cf. English plotter, keyboard, cf. English keyboard, mouse, cf. English mouse, French souris, etc.

Printers are dot-matrix, cf. English dot-matrix printer, stylus

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printer, wire printer, drum printers, cf. English barrel printer, drum printer, electrothermal printers, cf. English electrothermal printer, electrographic printers, cf. French imprimante électrographique, electrostatic printers, cf. English electrostatic printer, terminal printers, cf. French imprimante terminale, band printers, cf. English band printer, laser printers, cf. English laser printer, matrix printers, cf. English matrix printer, non-impact printers, cf. English non-impact printer, inkjet printers, cf. English ink-jet printer, impact printers, cf. English impact printer, thermal printers, cf. English thermal printer, daisy-wheel printers (or printers with a “daisy” [3]), cf. English daisy-wheel printer, petal printer, French imprimante à marguerite, imprimante à rosace, high-speed printers, cf. French imprimante rapide, and so on.

In general, printers may be monochrome, cf. English monochrome printer, or multicolor, cf. English color printer. Monochrome printers print text in only one color, while multicolor printers can print in several colors. We believe the English term color printer could be rendered as color printer.

A Lithuanian equivalent for the English term display could be the derivative vaizduoklis, formed from the verb vaizduoti, meaning “to represent, to show an image (through images)” [14], since it is “a device for displaying (reproducing) textual and graphic information” [10].

In computer science, an external device called scanner, in English, should be called a reader, not a skeneris. This English word is polysemous. In some technical fields (e.g., oscillography) it means a scanning device or a sweep generator, in radio communications (e.g., radar) it means a surveillance device or reconnaissance device, and in computer science, a lexical analyzer. In addition, in computer science and facsimile communications, devices that recognize and (scan) written text during scanning and surveying processes are called scanner. A device of this kind should be called a reading device or a reader. However, reader would be more suitable for a device called reader, in English, lecteur, in French, and читающее устройство, устройство считывания. Thus, the Lithuanian equivalent of the English term scanner would be reader. There are flatbed, miniature, portable and other kinds of readers. Readers are widely used in computerized inventory systems in shops, warehouses, and elsewhere to record product names, the mass or quantity of products, their prices, and so on. para-

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for determining meters.

3.2. External devices also include so-called terminal devices, cf. English terminal. The user or operator of a terminal device interacts with the computing system. Terminal devices include information or data input or output devices (keyboard, display, printer).

Several computers and terminal devices can be connected into a common system, i.e., a computer network can be formed, cf. English computer network. If several personal computers are connected to one another, such a network is called a personal computer network, cf. English personal computer network. They are further classified as local, cf. English local area network, LAN, global, or international, cf. English wide area network, WAN, global, cf. English global computer network, French réseau global, computer networks, data transmission, cf. English data network, and other networks.

According to data transmission methods, local networks are classified into direct (baseband) transmission, cf. English baseband LAN, French réseau local à la base de bande, and broadband (modulated-carrier) transmission, cf. English broadband LAN, French réseau à large bande, networks.

In computer networks, any device that sends or receives data is called a terminal device. Therefore, there are many more types of terminal devices than those mentioned. These include input and output, cf. English dumb terminal, hard-copy, cf. English hard-copy terminal, graphics, cf. English graphics terminal, editing, cf. English editing terminal, text, cf. English alphanumeric terminal, character terminal, operator, cf. English console terminal, control terminal, packet, cf. English packet-mode terminal, batch-processing, cf. English remote batch terminal, subordinate, cf. English slave terminal, image, cf. English CRT terminal, video terminal, remote, remote terminal, special-purpose, or job-oriented, cf. English job-oriented terminal, point-of-sale, cf. English point-of-sale, POS terminal, intelligent, cf. English intelligent terminal, virtual, cf. English virtual terminal, and other terminal devices.

Computer networks are constructed using coaxial, fiber-optic, twisted-pair, and other cables, intermediate couplers, cf. English adap-

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ter, device adapter, network interface devices, cf. English gateway, which could be called network gateways, file servers, cf. English file server, French serveur de fichiers, remote file servers, cf. English remote file server, printer control stations, cf. English print server, communication controllers, cf. English communication controller, and other devices.

Network interface devices, or network gateways, include interface bridges, cf. English bridge, and interface filters, cf. English filter. A network interface device, or gateway, ensures interconnection between networks. An interface bridge provides a connection between local networks at different locations, while an interface filter provides a connection between two local networks of the same type. The latter receives data from one local network, stores it, and forwards it to another local network. The network is controlled by a main controlling computer, cf. English server, which could simply be called a controller.

Data travels from the source (or sender) to the receiver (or recipient) along a particular part of the network called a track, or route, cf. English route, French route, chemin. A track, or route, is the set of data-transmission network facilities through which data is conveyed from a source to a receiver. This term is used to form other compound terms, namely track, or route, selection, cf. English routing, French routage, and track, or route switch, cf. English router, French router. A track, or route, switch is a device that forwards data from one network location to another and selects the best transmission tracks (routes) and optimal data-flow parameters.

3.3. Written information can be exchanged over computer networks.

This is called computer mail, cf. English computer mail, or electronic mail, cf. English electronic mail, e-mail. The French use a single term, courrier électronique, meaning “electronic correspondence,” i.e., the exchange of letters or other written information by electronic means and computers connected to global or worldwide computer networks. At present, the term electronic mail is becoming established in Lithuanian computer terminology.

3.4. Data (or information) are recorded, stored, and processed in devices called memory in Lithuanian literature; cf. English memory, storage, French mémoire. Many authors lump together in one place the—

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memory, that is, the faculty of remembering, and the electronic device that contains knowledge and data about some subject or event. It would be more appropriate to call such a device used in computing a memory unit. There are various types. These include semiconductor, cf. English semiconductor memory; integrated, cf. French mémoire intégrée; diode, cf. French mémoire à diodes; ferrite, cf. French mémoire à ferrite; magneto-optical, cf. French mémoire magnéto-optique; optoelectronic, cf. French mémoire opto-électronique; disk, cf. English disk storage; static, cf. English static memory; dynamic, cf. English dynamic memory; internal, cf. English internal memory; external, cf. English auxiliary memory, external memory, external storage, peripheral storage, backing storage; main, cf. English main memory, French mémoire primaire, mémoire principale; add-on, cf. English add-in memory; high-speed, cf. English immediate access memory; nonvolatile, cf. English non-volatile memory; volatile, cf. English volatile memory; write-once, cf. English writeonce memory; operational, cf. French mémoire opérationnelle, mémoire opératrice; super-operational, cf. English cache memory, scratchpad memory, French mémoire cachable, mémoire cache; image, cf. English image memory; read-only, cf. English read-only memory; direct-access, cf. English random-access memory, programmable read-only, cf. English programmable read-only memory, and other memory units.

4. Speed and operating rate

In the press one may come across, or hear on the radio or television, statements such as “the company sold its fastest supercomputer,” “the computer is very fast,” “data are transmitted at a speed of 5 Mb/s,” “the reading speed of compact discs is increasing,” and so on. In all these examples the word speed should be replaced by the word operating rate. After all, a computer does not move; its position in space does not change, i.e., its speed is zero. What is meant is its operating rate, that is, the number of operations (or events) performed per unit of time. Therefore, the expressions mentioned above should be corrected as follows: the company sold its highest-performance computer, the reading rate of compact discs is increasing, and so on. By terminologizing the word operating rate, many other compound terms could also be formed with it, for example: data (informa-

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tion) transmission rate, recording, reading, or printing rate, a double- or quadruple-speed reader, and so on.

5. Time and duration

The concepts of time and period (duration) should not be confused. Literature often contains compound terms such as access time, sampling time, selection time, and so on. It would be more appropriate to write and say access duration, selection duration, connection duration, observation duration, data (information) transmission duration, writing or reading duration, sampling duration, command or program execution duration, etc.

Literatūra

1. Burgis B. Kada žodynų terminai prigis kalboje? / Lietuvos rytas, 1996 m. balandžio 29 d., Nr.99.

2. Kulvietis P. Gamybos mokslinis techninis potencialas ir jo efektyvumas. V., 1972.

3. Viljamas R., Maklynas K. Kompiuteriai mokykloje / Vertė V.Dagys, M.Žukaitė. K., 1989.

4. Burgis B., Čirica V., Kulikauskas A., Lašienė A., Smolinskas J. Kompiuterika. K. 1994.

5. Kovertaitė V.R. Internet. K., 1995.

6. Informatika ir kompiuterių įranga: Aiškinamasis anglų-lietuvių kalbų terminų žodynėlis / Parengė V.Dagys, A.Klupšaitė, A.Žandaris. V., 1995.

7. Paulauskas K.V., Jasin(evičius) R. Aiškinamasis kompiuterijos žodynas. K., 1995.

8. Petit Larousse illustré. Paris, 1972.

9. Боровкова А.Л. Французско-русский словарь по информатике и вычислительной технике. М., 1994.

10. Борковский А.Б. Англо-русский словарь по программированию и информатике (с толкованием). М., 1992.

11. Кузьмич Н.М., Никитин В.П. Англо-русский словарь по радио- и микроэлектронике. Минск, 1994.

12. Толковый словарь по вычислительным системам. М., 1989.

13. Šalkauskis S. Raštai. V., 1991.T.2.

14. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. / Vyr.red.St.Keinys. V., 1993.

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