NOTES, DISCUSSIONS, PROPOSALS, MISCELLANEA

ONE TERM NEXT TO ANOTHER. I

Body, kuzovas, karoserija

Totorių kyząu „žievės krepsys“, pasiskolintas rusų (Фасмер 1967), naujoje dirvoje vešliai pumpuravo: кузовъ – „коробъ, гнутый, плетеный или обшитый по остову коробища, вместилище разнаго рода“. Кузовъ каретный, тележный – „вязана и обшитая клътка, на дрогахъ, для поклажи и сидѣнья“. Коробельный кузовъ – „судно вѣрнѣть, безъ отдѣлки и вооруженія“. || „корзина, мости́на, куженка, плетушка, плетеница; берестянка, кошель, котомка, лукошко, зобня, разнаго вида, для ягодъ, грибовъ ипр. || Кузовъ плвд. „наузень и наузникъ, кадочка, дуглянка, подвѣшиваемая съ узою въ лѣсахъ, для поимки дикихъ или бортевыхъ роевъ. || Кузово́къ, –во́чекъ, кузове́ня, –ве́нька, кузовня́, кузо́вка – „корзинка, лукошко, для носки чего на рукахъ“ || Кузовокъ – „рыба жаркихъ морей Ostration, округлая, въ видѣ кузова“ || „раковина Calceola“. Кузо́вка? кстр. „родъ гриба“ (Даль 1979). Iki automobilio dar buvo toli, bet kalba dirbo savo darbą. Skolintas naujažodis buvo ekspansyvus ne tik rusų kalboje, bet teko ir baltarusiams – кузов, lenkams – kuzub, kozub. Šie užliejo beveik visą lietuvių kalbos plotą – kūžavas, kuzāvas, kūžābas, kuzābas, kūzabas, kuzāpas. LKŽ VI 1962 pirmąją kelia reikšmę 1. „į medį įkeliamas iš stuobrio išskobtas ar iš žievės padarytas avilys“ – ryt. aukšt. kūzavas ir kuzavas (ir K. Sirvydo 1642 m. žodyno – Bárć. Mellificium sylvestre. Kuzáwas), Kuciūnų ir Upninkų kuzabas 1. Plačiai vartojama reikšmė „iš medžio žievės padarytas indelis uogoms rinkti, aukšlys“ – ryt. dz. kūzavas 3., lietuvininkų, Rudnios, Seredžiaus, Gudžiūnų, A. Juškos žodyno kūzabas, kuzabas 2., Skirsnemunės, Šimkaičių kūzapas 1. „Inkilo“ reikšmę turi tik žem. kūzavas ir kuzavas 2. Jau iš K. Sirvydo 1642 m. žodyno žinoma reikšmė „dėžė malūne, į kurią pilami grūdai malant“ (Kosz młyński nád kamieniem. Infundibulum. Kuzawas męlníčos) išlaikyta zanavykų – kuzabas 3. Kuzapas 2. Jurbarke yra „arpo dalis, pro kurią pilami javai arpuojant“. Širvintiškių ir molėtiškių kūzabas ir kuzabas yra 5. „didelė pintinė pašarui nešti, dok-

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las; “the quantity of fodder that fits in a cart.” In Molėtai dialect kūżabas also means 6. figuratively, “belly.” And 7. figuratively, “a fat, pot-bellied person or animal” is kūżabas in the Kapsai dialect (Bartninkai) and Western Dzūkai dialect (Kučiūnai, Valkininkai). In Valkininkai and Liškiava, kūżabas means 8. “a fish of this kind, with a large head and large eyes,” while in F. Kuršaitis’s German–Lithuanian dictionary, kūżabas (Kolbe) means 9. “a bulrush seed head, catkin.”

Most interestingly, kūżabas means 4. “the body of a cart or sleigh” in Sintautai (LKŽ VI 1962).

This foreign word has, of course, not enriched Lithuanian; it is wholly unnecessary in the standard language. KarŽ 1919 and TechnŽ 1920 render кузов as vežčios. RLŽ 1932: кузов – krežis, rėzgis; // (cart) body, polingė; // (ship) hull. Kuzovas, although used for quite a long time in colloquial speech during the postwar occupation years, was never accepted in the standard language or terminology.

Polingė is known from F. Nesselmanno’s 1853 Lithuanian–German dictionary, where it is glossed as Wagenkasten; its source is also given as Ragainė (Ragnit). It was used somewhat in writing, but very imprecisely: kėbulas is actually not “polingė” but “antlingė.” DŽ 1954 and 1972: polingė, see kėbulas. Today, polingė is no longer used at all.

And where does kėbulas come from, and where is it used? LKŽ V 1959 records kėbalas in Daukšiai, meaning “rafter, beam”; then kėbla 2. “a device (crosspiece) placed on the front axle of wheels or on a sleigh when hauling logs” in Kupiškis and Pasvalys; kėblai 1. “the two wheels of a cart” MTt IV 27 [that is, the word Mežlavežtis in the chapter of M. Katkus’s Balanos gadynės: Having returned with an empty cart, he finds a loaded log-sledge at home; this sledge stands without its front wheels, with a certain block in their place as a support. The empty cart’s wheels are removed from the front axle—that is, they are taken off the “kėblai”; the kėblai are brought to the loaded sledge and one wheel is raised so that the axle pin of the loaded sledge enters the hole in the axle of the cart brought up; <…> M. Katkus. Balanos gadynė. Vilnius: Vaga, 1989, p. 21], 2. “a rectangular frame made of poles placed on a sleigh; ‘drogai,’ ‘lugė’” in Viduklė; kėblas 1. “the upper part of a cart’s wheels (the wheel box)” in Surviliškis; kėblas 3. see kėblai 2. in Pandėlys, kėblė 2. “brikutc, coreliai” in Krėkenava; kėblės in Smilgiai (Panevėžys district), kėblės in Pagiriai (Kėdainiai district), kėblos in Ančiškis (Panevėžys district), Pagiriai—“boards nailed together and placed on a sleigh to make it wider”; kėblos 1. “the wooden part of a cart without wheels and axles” in Paberžė and Surviliškis; 2. “old-fashioned carts that had a small log on each side instead of axles” in Surviliškis. Finally, kėbulas, already recorded in 1894 by M. Micžinis

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in the dictionary: body. m. vãgis, blukis. puldo kolasy, kablõk. му́ловще тельги, излучистый туловъ, кузовъ. It is characteristic that—as with kuzabas 8.—kėbulas 2. means “spiny pufferfish” (Ostracion) rš. E. Fraenkel links the words kėbla and kėblė (together with kebėža—“a clumsy, awkward person; a lout, a clod, a hulking fellow” LKŽ V 1959) to kabeiti (Fraenkel 1955–1965). It is also quite possible to derive kėbulas more directly from kebti (kemba, kebo) “to snag, cling,” usually apkebti (A. Juška’s dictionary; Dusetos, Jūžintai, Obeliai).

Kėbulas is given in RŽ 1948 and DŽ 1954 as “the upper part of a cart or automobile; ‘body.’”

The Poles, too, did not admit the Turkism kuzub into the standard language. But first, after all, they borrowed a word from French: carrosserie (< carrosse < Italian carrozza: carro “cart” < Latin carrus “cart”)—Polish karoseria. Later they also created their own terms—nadwozie, skrzynia ładunkowa. The Germans likewise have both Karosserie, in Wagenkasten, Wagenoberbau, … In English there is only the English word—(car) body. In Lithuanian usage, according to LKŽ V 1959, karoserė was used somewhat in written texts. TŽŽ 1936 also has karoserė, “the body of an automobile.” Kėbulas is not listed separately in LE XI 1957—only karoserija (from French carrosserie), “body, the upper part or box of a cart or automobile.” TerminŽ 1949 still shows variation: кузов—kėbulas, polingė, karoserija: опрокидывающийся кузов – apverčiamasis kėbulas and капоссерия – kėbulas, karoserija. And PolŽ 1959 gives кузов—kėbulas, karoserija. ALKPoLŽ 1958 gives car body—kėbulas, body—2. kėbulas. Karoserija is quite unnecessarily inserted in some current bilingual dictionaries: carrosserie—(automobile) kėbulas, karoserija PLKŽ 1976; Karosserie—automobilio kėbulas, karoserija VLKŽ I 1989; кузов—2. (automobile, cart) kėbulas, polingė, karoserija RLKŽ I 1967. Karoserijos is absent from TŽŽ 1951, but appears in TŽŽ 1969, 1985, and 2001; and the definition of karoserijos in TŽŽ I 1999 does not even include the word kėbulas—that is already anti-codification. LTE I 1976 has both kėbulas, and kėbulas with accessories—↑ karoserija (506), but LTE V 1979 has an entry for kėbulas which does not even mention karoserija, though it has a separate entry karoserija [French carrosserie—the body of a carriage]—“the body of a vehicle with interior and exterior fittings.” Why should an object with fittings have to be called something different? Why burden terminology with such convolutions, which set Lithuanian apart from the terminology and conceptual systems of other languages?! PolŽ 1984 gives кузов—kėbulas. Only kėbulas is prescribed by PATŽ 1995: lengvojo automobilio kėbulas 134, autobuso kėbulas 149, krovininis kėbulas 148a. VL,LVKATŽ 1996 likewise gives only kėbulas—Aufbau, Karosserie, Kasten, Oberbau, Obergestell, Überbau, automobile body—Wagenaufbau,

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Wagenkasten, Wagenoberteil, truck body—Lastwagenaufbau, and likewise Karosserie—body. TechEnc I 2000 gives only kėbulas 210; II 2003 gives only kėbulas; VLE II 2002 likewise gives only kėbulas 311.

Stake, post, kaška

No one could really say what the first post of some timber or piled settlement, bridge, or castle—its outer bailey or suburb—driven into Lithuanian soil was called in Lithuanian (a distinct language since the 7th century); there was probably more than one word for it, too, (i)kalti. It was hardly baslys, since that is only stuck in (: besti), that is, thrust in—perhaps adequate only for some footbridge (it is already in K. Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary: Kot. Vallus. palus. i. stipes. sudes. Baslis tuynas). Perhaps mietas, since it is not only thrust in (ŽD 1943: 321), but also driven in with blows—compare Latvian miet “to drive in, thrust, insert” (Būga 1959: 256). Kuolas is quite plausible (from kalti, Būga 1959: 345–346, or also kulti, ŽD 1943: 26, “to drive in”; compare kūlė 1. “striking tool,” 6. “club, cudgel,” LKŽ VI 1962)—compare the first dictionary of K. Sirvydas (about 1620): Kot / palus, i, sudes. kuolas; Pal / palus, i, stipes, sudes, kuolas and K. Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary: pal / Palus, i. m. Kuotas (though pal mostowy / Sublica, sublicium. Kaszka). K. Donelaitis’s only kuolas in Metai is quite significant:

Dočys, as I have already mentioned, set fire to that man’s little house, lit his pipe, and, having gone off to sleep, tore it apart one night before the roosters crowed last year, so that only one post remained of his house.

(K. Donelaitis. Writings, Vilnius: Vaga, 1977, 236–237—see 269)

It could be either a log-building post, a pillar, or a foundation pier, but not just an undefined “stake, pole” (Kabelka 1964). In F. Kurschat’s dictionary, Pfahl [“stake; post”—J. K.] is kūlas.

It is unlikely that a raštas was driven into the ground—that was probably built only of logs (while floors were paved). Nor was it probably a beam—a beam rests precisely on posts, kaškas. It may have been šūlas 2., “an upright post or pillar supporting a building, gate, fence, bridge, and the like”: A house on posts—good Lord, how shameful: in the old days they used to put only a shed on posts! (Miežiškiai) LKŽ XV 1991. Also significant here is the evidence in K. Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary: stup wkopany w ziemię / Palus in sepibus. szulas inkastas ziameu. Nor can we rule out stulpas 2., “a post supporting or holding up a structure”: The granary stands on posts (A. Juška’s dictionary). The bridge post—

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pas (F. Kuršaičio žodynas) LKŽ XIII 1984, p. 1g. K. Sirvydo pirmojo žodyno filar / basis, columnen, columna. stulpas ir 1642 m. žodyno Filar / Columna, pila. Stulpas.

Perhaps there may also have been stapas, pastapas. Thus there may have been, and probably were, quite a few Lithuanian forms of various kinds in various places.

The Samogitian form was probably kalstas “support; post, stake (= polis)”: Mūsų triscinis ant kalstais padarytas (ant stulpais) (Darbėnai). There used to be a bridge over the river, because even now the decayed kalstai (stakes) still protrude from the water (Salantai) LKŽ V 1959.

For some forms, their Lithuanian character is still not well known. The kaška in K. Sirvydas’s dictionary, mentioned earlier, is one such form (also Most ná pálách / Sublicius pons Tiltas vnt kaszku); LKŽ V 1959 lists it without a cross (the sign for a borrowing not used in contemporary speech): ¹kaška 6. “supporting post, stake, pole” Vadokliai, Šeduva (not in K. Sirvydas). The parenthetical note does indicate a possibly foreign origin—cf. Polish kaczka. However, that indication of origin undoubtedly applies only to the meaning ¹kaška 1. “wooden fastening of an old-fashioned door; hinge, latch” (A. Juška’s dictionary, S. Daukantas, M. Valančius. Mosėdis, Salantai, Barstyčiai, Surviliškis, Onuškis (Rokiškis district)), and also to the variants kaškė (L. Ivinskis, A. Kašarauskas, A. Juška’s dictionary) and kačka 1. “wooden door fastening, latch,” which is neither marked with a cross nor derived from Polish kaczka, but agrees with it completely; see ¹kaška 1. [The direction of the cross-reference should in fact be the opposite—J. K.] A. Juška’s dictionary (ir kačkos 1. Vaižgantas). Dialectologists tend to regard this dialectal kaška ir kačkos as Polonisms—“cf. Polish dialectal kaczka [in standard language ‘duck’—J. K.] ‘hook at the end of a rod for holding a collar’” (LKA I 1977: 56). But Polish kaczka can in no way account for either the ¹kaška 6. under discussion, nor kačka 2. “crossbeam of a bridge” (the dictionaries of P. Ruigys, K. Milkus and F. Nesselmanno), nor ¹kaška 2. pp. pl. “a stick placed along the sides of a cart to make it easier to load brushwood, hay...” (northern part of Eastern Aukštaitija), kačka 4. “sleigh brace” (Linkmenys), kačkos 2. “seat, support on a sleigh or cart,” cf. kačka 4. (Kuktiškės, Utena, Daugailiai, Salakas, Dusetos), ¹kaška 3. “head of a rake” (Anykščiai, Rūmiškės), kačka 3. “head of a rake, šiekšta” (Krekenava, Birštonas, Kruonis), ¹kaška 4. “stick, rod, kaškinė” (Biržai, Kupiškis), kaškinė “a stick, thicker than a switch, branchy and knobbly” (Kupiškis, A. Juška’s dictionary) and kačkinė, see kaškinė (Rokiškis, Traupis, Debeikiai, Kavarskas), kaškašieškštis “pole for securing a cart, hay pole” (A. Juška’s dictionary (Viekšniai)). Less clear are ¹kaška 5. “the notch in a bridge fastening”

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(A. Juška’s dictionary) and kaškelė “a semicircle placed by the ploughshare so that it turns the sod better” (Kupiškis). In any case, kaška are probably homonyms—a native word and a borrowed one; moreover, the native kaška and borrowed kačka have undergone contamination. Kaškos is not mentioned among Slavic words by P. Skardžius in his dissertation “Dic slawische Lehnwörter im Altlitauischen” (Skardžius 1998: 157). Kaškinę P. Skardžius lists among Lithuanian derivatives (ŽD 1943: 264). However, kaškos are absent from studies of word formation in old writings (Ambrazas 1993 and 2000). K. Būga mentions the word kaška, without explanation, in a list consisting entirely of Lithuanian words: vaškas, taškas, kaška, tuškas, puškas, blaškas, pliuškis (Būga 1961: 859). Kaškos Lithuanian character is strongly supported by kešai “a wooden seat with a support placed on a sleigh” (Vyžuonos, Tauragnai) and kešės “the sides of a cart; a rack” (Vyžiai, Šilutė district). This is not yet an etymology, but it is already possible to say that kaška is Lithuanian and may have been coined by bridge builders not only in K. Sirvydas’s time, but much earlier. Kaška is listed in RLŽ 1932: свая – polis: мост на сваях – tiltas ant polių a. kašku.

There were (and are) also undoubtedly foreign words.

Pirmiausia tai jau prie kuolo minėtas K. Sirvydo 1642 m. tuinas: Kol. Vallus. palus. i. stipes. sudes. Baslis tuynas ir Kot ostry / záciosány / ábo żelázem násádzony. Stylus. Smaylas tuynas. LKŽ XVI 1995 ²tuinas – be kryžiuko, bet nurodytas iš brus. тын, lenk. тyn. Rus. тын – statiniai, statinių tvora RLKŽ IV 1985 – bendrasis slavų skolinys iš sen. vok. aukšt. tûn „tvora, aptvaras“ (dabart. vok. Zaun – ir „aštriavore“), plg. sen. isl. tún „sodyba; kiemas, sodas“, air. dún „tvirtovė“ (Фасмер 1973; Fraenkel 1955–1965). Tuinas vartojamas beveik visų rytų aukštaičių (ir žemaičių pakraštėliais) – 1. „tvoros statinis, pinutis (ppr. iš eglės šakos)“, 2. „baslys, miets (ppr. tvoros, kalamas statmenai)“, 3. „statinių tvora, žiogriai“ (tuinai) LKŽ XVI 1995. „Polio“ reikšmės neturi. Tačiau tuino žemaitiškas (su aukštaičių pakraštėliais) variantas <stuinis> LKŽ XIII 1984 – ne tik „statinis, baslys“ (Alsėdžiai, Šiaulėnai), bet ir 2. „stulpas“: Tiltas ant stūiniais padirbtas J. Jablonskis (Alsėdžiai). Tai – iš pietų (nors jiems patiems teko iš vakarų).

And the west supplied another form—this one from Middle Low German pāl (modern German Pfahl): pōlis, found in the southwestern fringe of Samogitia (Nemakščiai, Palanga)—which has kalstas!—as well as in BsMt II 248 (Padovinys), and widespread in written sources since M. Miežinis’s dictionary (1894) (RLŽ 1932 pōlis), LKŽ X 1976. German Pfahl is borrowed from Latin palus “stick, stake, pole; post” (: pangere 1. “to drive in; <…>”) LoLietŽ 1996. Perhaps that is why pōlis was included in TŽŽ 1969 and 2001—in the latter, even the etymon is given, not

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German but Latin—palus. Polis is certainly not an international word for us. In the Romance languages it is not a borrowing but an inherited Latin word—Italian palo, French pal “stake, pole: pile” (but also technical pilot “pile,” pile 2. “bridge support,” pilier 1. “post, pillar, support,” pilori “pillory” PLKŽ 1976 < Latin pila 1. “post, support” LoLieŽ 1996; Late Latin pilare—hence pilorius). English pale 1. 1) “stake, pole” (and pole 1 1. 1.) “stem, pole, post, rod”), but the technical term “pile, post” is pile II 1. (whereas pillar 1. 1.) means “post, column; support, brace”) ALKŽ 1975. Polish likewise has filar 1) architecture “column, post”: filar mostowy “bridge pier,” but also pal 1. “stake, pole,” 2. construction “pile” LeLieŽ 1979. Latvians also have the Germanism pālis, but also their own word balsts 1. “support, brace, prop, [foot]rest”: tilta balsti “bridge piers” LaLieŽ 1977 662.

Russian свая is a native word (: вить “to twist, wind,” cf. винить: вити, вая́ть “to forge,” cf. свайка 1. “a small pestle (a Russian folk game),” 2. “a spike (for stowage work)” RLKŽ IV 1985 and савок “a pole used as a turning lever when stacking firewood” (Фасмер 1971; КЭСРЯ 1971).

Eighty years ago, polis was adopted by the Terminology Commission (VĮ 1924: 61).

Tiktai polis teikiamas TechnŽ 1949, PolŽ 1959 ir 1984, StatŽ 2002. Bendrojoje norminamojoje leksikografijoje terminas irgi yra tik polis – pōlis tech. „sija, raštas, įkaltas į žemę statiniui atremti“ DŽ 1954, pōlis tech. DŽ 1972; vėliau aiškinime pridėtas ir lietuviškas sinonimas – „strypas, įkaltas į žemę statiniui atremti, kalstas“ DŽ 1993. Kalstas DŽ yra kaip paprastas žodis – žem. „kalamas raštas, stapas, polis“ DŽ 1954; DŽ 1972 – be žem., o DŽ 1993 – 1. „paramstis“, 2. „stulpas, polis“, nors kalstakalė DŽ 1954 ir 1972, kaip ir pōliakalis DŽ 1954, pōliakalė DŽ 1972, žymima termino pažyma – tech., tik DŽ 1993 kalstakalė jau be tech. ir be aiškinimo – „poliakalė“. Kalstas gana dažnas verčiamuosiuose žodynuose: kalstas – свая (polis) [ir polis – (tilto) свая] LRKŽ 1971, kalstas – свая [ir polis tech. – свая] LRKŽ 1988, свая – polis, stapas, pastapas, kalstas tam. RLKŽ IV 1985, kalstas – pile (polis) LAKŽ 1991, kalstas – pālis, balsts [ir polis – pālis] LieLaŽ 1995.

Thus, the construction term polis is a borrowing. The form polius, which even appeared in dictionaries, has now disappeared. The term polis is so well established that it is even used metaphorically, for example: Therefore Kant is resolved to build an optimistic-ethical worldview on piles driven into the ground by ethics (A. Schweitzer. Culture and Ethics, Vilnius: Mintis, 1989, 201).

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Dictionaries also give: stapas “a supporting beam driven into the ground; pile”: bridge stapai DŽ 1954 and 1972; “supporting beam; pile” DŽ 1993; “supporting beam, pile, prop”: A prop has been placed beneath the sagging beam (A. Juška’s dictionary). Bridge props (DŽ) LKŽ XIII 1984; свая – pile, stapas, pastapas, kalstas dialectal RLKŽ IV 1985, but DŽ 1954 pastapas – technical: “support for reinforcing underground excavations”; DŽ 1972 – “supporting post, prop; column”: supports for underground excavations, supports for shrines; DŽ 1993 – “supporting post, prop”: The beam has buckled; only the prop is holding it. LKŽ IX 1973 records pastapas from Samogitian (also paståpas) and written sources with the meanings: 1. “supporting post, prop” || “reinforcing support for underground excavations” DŽ || “building column” Vl, Vydūnas || figurative “a supporting, sustaining thing, support”: You can never go astray, for you have truth as your staff and prop (M. Daukša’s Postilė, 547); 2. “end of a stake, tip of a pole”; 3. “a certain piece of wood, a leg used to support fish traps.” Thus treating stapas and pastapas as synonyms of polis (SinŽ 1980) is not supported by evidence from living speech. The artificial and unnecessary form is raštabslis TechŽ 1920 (свая), as is Material for a railway nomenclature glossary (manuscript, circa 1933) LKŽ XI 1978.

Thus polis is a term, while kalstas is an ordinary word from the Samogitian dialect, but clearly motivated (which meets the requirement for a new term, if it is not a loanword), and has long appeared in normative dictionaries, though not as a term. Shifts toward Lithuanian forms in language and terminology policy are not very pronounced, but are somewhat noticeable. With a perspective for Lithuanizing terminology established and a considered strategy of consistent steps in place, kalstas should first be proposed for Lithuanian archaeology—the basis in living speech would be just what is needed and readily understood. A modest (and inconsistent) movement is visible in hydrotechnical terminology: pile – 1. polis, stapas, pole – 1. stem; post; support, 2. marker, 3. polis, pile-driver – pile driver, driver – 2. technical pile driver; rammer; driver, but pile driver – pile driver, kalstakalė, hammer – 2. construction rammer; pile driver, kalstakalė, 3. technical, new kalstagrąžtis (a boring drill), ram – 1. pile driver; rammer; kalstakalė, jack – 4. technical press; kalstagrąžtis, jach – drill (jachhammer) – kalstagrąžtis HidrotechŽ 2000.

Ankstesnių žodynų įlaidinis polius – шпунтовая свая PolŽ 1984, sheet [interlocking, grooved] pile, sheeter – Spundpfahl – palplanche – шпунтовая свая StatŽ 2002 negerai, nepagrįstai keičiamas: grooved pile – įlaidas; junglusis polis, interlocking pile – sujungtieji įlaidai; junglusis polis, sheet pile – įlai-

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pile; sheet pile, sheeter – construction sheet pile; sheet pile, spraustas (cf. also piling – 2. sheet-pile wall, plank piling – timber sheet-pile wall, interlocking steel sheet piling – interlocking steel sheet-pile wall, plank piling – timber sheet-pile wall, interlocking steel sheet piling – interlocking steel sheet-pile wall, pile sheeting – sheet-pile wall / spraustasienė, bach sheeting – lower sheet-pile wall / sheet-pile wall (e.g. downstream of the sill), front sheeting – front sheet-pile wall / sheet-pile wall (e.g. upstream of the sill),..., even interlocking sheeting – interlocking sheet-pile wall (e.g. metal sheet piles), steel sheeting – steel sheet-pile wall. This confusion is exacerbated and reinforced by the fact that in the press įlaida(s) occurs in the general sense of “pile”: A powerful <···> pile driver <···> drives steel sheet piles into the lagoon bed, <···> Drg 1984 97 4; they have driven 2,700 tonnes of metal sheet piles into the lagoon bed, and are finishing filling the gaps between their walls with soil T 1985 228 1. A sheet pile is actually “a projection on one component by which it is joined to the groove of another component <···>. Wooden, metal, plastic, or reinforced-concrete elements joined by interlocking and driven into the ground form a continuous sheet-pile wall” TechEnc II 2003, rebate – Falz – rainure – шунгъм, цементъ StatŽ 2000.

Thus the term polis; kalstas is already an established candidate; įlaidas is an error that must be eliminated immediately.

Tap and crane

That the Lithuanian language is archaic is a source of joy to Indo-European scholarship and a matter of national pride. That the nation’s linguistic thought and practice, impoverished by serfdom and occupations, failed to recover properly even in modern times, when the standard language was being formed and taking shape, but instead remained stagnant like kisielius—this should be cause for weeping, yet there is none of that; we are encrusted and content...

In 1879 the Klaipėda newspaper Lietuviszka ceitunga wrote: He forbade his apprentice... to turn the c o c k of the melting pot. This is LKŽ III 1956, gaidys 7, “tap.” Naturally, it was not a word coined by the Lietuvininkai themselves, but a borrowing of the meaning of German Hahn, ‘cock’. As early as 1870, in Part I of F. Kurschat’s German–Lithuanian dictionary: Hahn – 3) Hahn an einer Röhre – capas (Zapfen), gaidys; in 1874 – Part II, II Krahn 2) Zapfen am Fass – onkis – this is a borrowing from the diminutive form Hahn, German Hahnchen. A. Lelio’s 1919 Polish–Lithuanian dictionary gives a word from living speech: kran – <···>; (drwcniany) parvagys – cf. ’pervagis, pervagys 2. “wooden tap, a plug opened to drain liquid from a barrel” (Samogitian) || “a gutter for draining brine” (Veiviržėnai) LKŽ IX 1973.

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TechnŽ 1920 кран – tap. The subsequent period is presented inconsistently and not entirely accurately by J. Jablonskis’s researcher A. Piročkinas: “The correction of the word kranas can also be instructive; recently some have begun avoiding it too, as did the first [Terminology] Commission, which replaced it with pervągis, tap. The commission [the second—the new one] led by Jablonskis [from 1925. III. 21] restored kranas, though leaving its substitutes in parentheses too: ‘ends with taps (pervagiais, taps).’ From this we can infer that the commission was not always unanimous either: apparently some members emerged who liked these neologisms. But is that a reason, after 60 years, to replace the widespread loanword kranas with the word tap?” (Piročkinas 1986: 27). Elsewhere, contradicting himself, the author writes: “Nevertheless, one or another neologism condemned by Jablonskis found its way into the standard language by various routes”—along with tap, he mentions klijuotė, mostas, sankasa, sraigtas (Piročkinas 1986: 56). Without clarifying those “various routes,” the author needlessly obscures the issue. And the history is long.

RLŽ 1932: кран – čiaupas, laidukas, volė; <···>. V. Kamantauskas jau taiso: kranas (lenk. кран) – čiaupas; (gerve) keliamasis (KL 1933). Bet TŽŽ 1936 čiaupo net nemini: kranas 1. (ol.) „prietaisas skysčiams arba dujoms išleisti iš rezervuaro ir sulaikyti“ (2. (vok.) „prekių kilnojamoji mašina“). Padėtį atitaiso LEnc V 1937 – čiaupas, KP 1939: kranas (gud., lenk. кран) – čiaupas, -ai. LKŽ II, 1947 ¹čiaupas 1. „vamzdelio pavidalo latakėlis, įkalamas į medį sulai tekėti“ (Kupiškis), 2. „kranas, snapas (indo)“ (raštai), o LKŽ II₂ 1969 – 1. „kranas, indo snapas“. LKŽ VI 1962 ¹kranas „prietaisas skysčiams ar dujoms iš rezervuaro, indo išleisti ar sulaikyti; čiaupas“ (Viduklė, Vaižgantas), ²кранус (vok. Krahn) „sunkumų keliamoji mašina“. TechnŽ 1949 кран – 1. čiaupas, TŽŽ 1951 kranas² (ol. kraan) – „č i a u - p a s, prietaisas <···>“.

Thus replacing kranas with tap began relatively late and took a long time. DŽ also lagged in standardization: kranas 1. “device <···>; tap,” čiaupas 2. “pipe with a device for releasing liquids from a reservoir; crane” DŽ 1954; čiaupas – 1. “device <···>; crane” DŽ 1972. This lagged behind terminology—TechnŽ 1949 and PolŽ 1959: кран – 1. tap, ALKPolŽ 1958 cock – tap. Through inertia, kranas persisted in various dictionaries for a very long time: кран – 1. tap, faucet, crane RLKŽ I 1967; kranas – 1. кран: water-supply crane – водопроводный кран, although also čiaupas – кран: water-supply tap – водопроводный кран LRKŽ 1971, and likewise LRKŽ 1988; Hahn² – 1. tap, crane VLKŽ I 1989; cock – 4) crane, tap ALKŽ 1975; krānsᵃ

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– crane, tap LaLič 1977, even кран – tap, “crane” (but кран экспертного торможения – railway. emergency brake handle) RLKŽ II 1983. It is no wonder that, among others, Z. Zinkevičius mentions kranas in 1992, writing: “Some loanwords of this kind, which were then strongly driven out of the standard language, still occasionally occur today, especially in colloquial speech” (Zinkevičius 1992: 289).

This tail was already trailing along at the time when kranas was decisively replaced only by čiaupu: kranas – not recommended, colloquial “tap” KPP 1976, кран – 1. tap: water, air, washbasin, sauna, fuel, brake, mixing, fire; valve, gate, float, plug, ball, three-way tap (2. transport. kranas) PolŽ 1984, kranas² non-standard čiaupas TŽŽ 1985, kranas 2. see čiaupas DŽ 1993, kranas² – čiaupas TŽŽ 2001. Yet there is inconsistency here, too: KPP 1985 and TT 1992 do not correct kranas, and kranas “tap” is not included in TŽŽ I 1999.

Kranas “tap” derives from Dutch kraan “well-sweep” (< “winch”). Other languages use a somewhat different motivation—“cock”: German Hahn, English (stop) cock (also tap tap, American faucet), Polish kurek (and kran, also zawór kurkowy or czopowy), Czech kohout(ek). French robinet is also animal-motivated—after the ram in medieval tales named Robin. Čiaupas is an example of a successful terminologization of a dialect word whose motivation is fairly clear (: čiaupti¹).

The lifting machine kranas is etymologically of clearly bird-based motivation: “As early as the fourteenth century, Germans gave the name of the crane to a device for loading cargo onto ships (der Kran; the bird is now called der Kranich)” (Sabaliauskas 1994: 97). The same is true of English Crane, French grue, Italian gru, Czech jeřáb, Polish żuraw, Russian журавль. Even Ancient Greek granos “crane” also means “device for lifting heavy loads” (КЭСРЯ 1971; Sabaliauskas 1994: 97).

¹ At least that is how it seems at first glance. But there are doubts, too. Although P. Skardžius, from Subačius, endorsed čiaupą in KP 1939, K. Vosylė, compiler of the Kupiškis dialect dictionary, has the word čiaupas only from LKŽ II₁; there are no new attestations (author’s conversations with K. Vosylė on 2004-12-13 and 14). The expected čiaupą čiaupti is not attested. Čiaupas could also be a remaking of Polish czop 1) “peg, stopper” LeLič 1979—compare Samogitian Polonisms with the same meaning: čepas 2. and čapas; the Germanism of the Lietuvininkai (and borderland) capas 3., as well as 4. “the spout of a jug, bucket, or small bottle, <…>” (Pilviškiai, Nemunaitis)” LKŽ II₂ 1969. Despite uncertainty about its origin, čiaupas is already firmly established in the standard language; and if it is used as a label by educated plumbers, it will become firmly established in colloquial speech as well.

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That kranas is motivated by “crane” may be clear even from the image—compare: The crane stretches out its neck—the lifting crane T 1976 285 4. Now there is the usual construction-site disorder here, the crane like a huge crane, <...> L and M 1976 33 7. And was there no possibility, or attempt, to call the crane gerve? Bird-based motivation for tools and devices is also very characteristic of Lithuanian—compare gerve 4. “lever; lever pole; sweep” (Biržai), 5. “potato-digging blade, hoe” (Telšiai, Gadūnavas, Laižuva), 6. “part of a millstone” (P. Sragys), 7. “small tree supporting the millstone against the mill” (Sidabravas, Pašvitinys, A. Juška’s dictionary), 13. “curved handle of a scythe” (Rietavas), gervelė 1. “device for digging or weeding potatoes” (Akmenė, Laižuva, Viekšniai), 2. “part of a millstone, fox” (Onuškis in Rokiškis district, Kupiškis, Užpaliai, Klaipėda), 3. “crosspiece in a millstone against which the millstone axle (spindle) rests” (Jūžintai), 4. “cord for raising the upper millstone” (Šimonys), 5. “stick for raising millstones” (Panemunis in Rokiškis district, Kupiškis), 6. “part of a loom” (Kupiškis), 7. “very thin strip of wood for threading fabric into a reed” (Salamiestis, Suvainiškis), 8. “handle of a spade, pitchfork, or other handled tool” (Sudeikiai, Duokiškis, Salos, Lazūnai), 9. “roof ridge ornament, ridge ornament” (Kupiškis), 10. “wedge (= wedge – J. K.) for splitting logs” (Šimonys) LKŽ III 1956. In F. Kurschat’s dictionary, II Krahn – 1) eine Hebemaschine, krōns. according to Mielche: gērbe. In the dictionaries of P. Ruigys, K. Milkus, and F. Kurschat, the bird “crane” is geršė 2. (1. “heron” in L. Rėza’s Bible and F. Kurschat’s dictionary). In A. Lelio’s English–Lithuanian dictionary, crane – gervė, gerve.

RLŽ 1932 also records another similarly motivated name for a hoist: кран – <...>; // a lifting device with rotating parts, kaklis. Kaklis comes from K. Sirvydas’s 1642 dictionary: Kierat / kormy co wyciąga z dołu. Ergata, ea. Kaklis kuriuo ką ištraukia. Yra kaklis also occurs in F. Nesselmanno’s dictionary—Krahn, das Instrument, mit dem Lasten auf die Schiffe gehoben werden.

Nor should the German-origin Polonism ¹kāparas be forgotten: 1. “device for lifting heavy objects, lever” (Polish kafar <, German dialectal kapfer), Krosna, Daukšiai, Marijampolė, Pilviškiai, Vilkaviškis, Veliuona, Gruzdžiai, Užventis, Kupiškis; kāpara in Luokė (LKŽ V 1959), but only kaparai in SD 83; see ¹kāparas 1.—an error: this is the plant kaparis.

F. Kuršaičio žodyne (1874) kronas – regioninis skolinys, LKŽ VI 1962 fiksuotas ir iš Švėkšnos. Bendrinėje kalboje jis negalėjo turėti perspektyvos. Kranas jau yra A. Lelio 1919 m. lenkų–lietuvių kalbų žodyne (kran), visiškai įtvirtinamas TŽŽ 1936 – kranas 2. (vok.) „prekių kilnojamoji mašina“. Netapęs gerve, kranas negijo ir kito atitikmens kaip kai kurios kal-

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… there is also Polish kran, but usually dźwig, Latvian krāns, but also celtnis. Hoist is given in TechnŽ 1920 (подъемный кран), later—as a synonym for crane—in TechnŽ 1949, RLKŽ I 1967, and even PolŽ 1984. LKŽ V 1959 defines hoist as 1. technical “a device for lifting heavy loads,” from RLŽ 1932 122, the writings of M. Šalčius, and the 1952 Tiesa (but it is not “crane”). DŽ 1954 and 1972 give hoist also as 2. “a device for lifting heavy loads”: goods hoists, and as 4. “lifting machine; elevator”; DŽ 1993 gives 1. technical “a device for lifting heavy loads”: level-luffing, screw, jib hoist, mine-shaft hoist, rail hoist (2. “funicular,” 3. “elevator,” <…>). In terminology, however, there is only one crane.

Crane meaning “faucet,” long since begun to be replaced by a Lithuanian term, was replaced in terminology rather sooner, but lingered in ordinary language for far too long, creating the problem of distinguishing it from crane meaning “lifting machine.” Since this problem existed in Russian as well, under bilingual conditions its solution was simply dictated by Russian: кран водопроводный – water-supply faucet, кран подъемный – lifting crane PolŽ 1959 (in essence, already so in TechnŽ 1949). This remains the case to this day in numerous bilingual dictionaries: кран – 2. hoist, lifting crane, <…> RLKŽ I 1967, кран – 2. кран: lifting crane – подъемный кран LRKŽ 1971 (and likewise LRKŽ 1988), кран – crane: подъемный кран – lifting crane RLKŽ II 1983, Kran – lifting crane VLKŽ I 1989, grue – 4. technical lifting crane PLKŽ 1976, crane – 1. (faucet) robinet, 2. (lifting) grue LPKŽ 1992, crane – 2) lifting crane ALKŽ 1975, crane – 2) technical lifting crane ALKŽ 1998, DALKŽ 1998, DAKŽ 2001, crane – 2. (lifting) crane LAKŽ 1979 and 1991, NLAKŽ 2002, dźwigarka and dźwignik – technical lifting crane, jack LcLičŽ 1979, crane – (lifting) dźwig LicLcŽ 1991, celtnis – 1. lifting crane LaLičŽ 1977, crane: lifting crane – krāns, celtnis LicLaŽ 1995. Even KPP 1976, although crane is marked non-recommended in the sense “faucet,” gives it as used: lifting crane // hoist. Some support for, or confidence in, all this could of course come only formally from lifting crane in LTE V 1979. But that too has already been done away with—crane “a periodically operating lifting machine <…>” TechEnc II 2003.

Recidyvas yra LeLičŽ 1979: dźwig – 2) tech. kranas, gervė ir kran – 2. gervė, kranas. Čia veikiausiai yra lenkų kalbos, griežtai neskiriančios „krano“ ir „gervės“ poveikis – plg. кран – dźwig, dźwignica (żuraw lub suwnica) WST 1973, kran II „rodzaj dźwigu; żuraw“ SWO 1997. Lietuvių kalboje panašus neskyrimas yra retenybė, atsitiktinumas: кран – 2. keltuvas, kelia-

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masis kranas, trauktuvė, gerve RLKŽ I 1967. Trauktuvė žinoma iš K. Sirvydo 1642 m. žodyno: windā / Tractoria machina, tractorium organum. Trauktuvė. Reikšmė žr. trauktuvas 1. „prietaisas kam aukštyn traukti, kelti, kėliklis“ trauktuvė dar vartota 1853 m. F. Nesselmanno žodyne, XIX a. rankraštiniame D. Sutkevičiaus ir L. Ivinskio žodynuose, o reikšmę „suktuvas“ – A. Šolco ir J. Talmanto 1929 m. kišeniniame vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodyne.

Winch in Lithuanian technical terminology is the name of another mechanism: winch, winding drum—“a lifting mechanism that raises a load by winding a rope or chain onto a drum. <···> Δ with a concave friction drum is called a capstan, or a capstan; <···>. Fishing nets are hauled by capstans, as are wagons; ships are warped to shore. Δ is often installed in cranes, hoists, elevators, and scrapers” LTE IV 1978. Thus a winch can be part of a crane. In terms of folk terminology, winch is quite understandable; winding drum is clearer, but here there is another drawback—there are many different kinds of winding drums. LTE did not achieve consistency: although it gives winch (while capstan is mentioned only in the explanation), “a winding drum with a horizontal shaft, on which a rope is wound to raise an anchor or moor a vessel” is already called a windlass LTE II 1977. TechEnc II 2003 does not include winch; TechEnc I 2000 has windlass, winding drum. J. Banaitis gives four separate terms: winch – лебедка – winch, winding drum – ворот, вьюшка – reel, winch, capstan (ship’s winch) – шпиль – capstan, windlass – брашпиль – windlass.

Tanker and tank

“In 1886 the first tanker was launched—the 90-meter-long German ship Glückauf—and by the beginning of the 20th century oil was carried across the seas almost exclusively by tankers” (Kopaliński 2001). Yet only TŽŽ 1936 lists tanker (English)—“a ship adapted for transporting various liquids without separate packaging (containers).” TechnŽ 1949 has neither mankep nor mank; ALKPolŽ 1958 does not list tanker, although it has both tank – 1. reservoir, tank, cistern, 2. pool, and tank car – tank wagon; tank truck, tanker truck – tanker truck. Only DŽ 1954 has tanker, “a ship for carrying liquid cargo in bulk.” It was modeled on German Tankschiff. Tanker is given in PolŽ 1959 and 1984, JŽPTŽ 1992, and JTLŽŽ 1994. In the press, tanker continued to hang around for 50 years, mostly in translations. Quite unexpectedly, tankerис appeared in StatŽ 2002.

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For the derivative tanker to be clearer and more firmly established, it needs motivation. For a long time, such motivation was lacking or inadequate and unclear. TŽŽ 1936 defines tank as 2. “a huge cistern built into the ground for storing gasoline, kerosene, and other liquids”; DŽ 1954 lists tank only as a military term; ALKPolŽ 1958 gives tank as 1. reservoir, tank, cistern, not tank. DŽ 1972 already gives tank as 1. “a large container for storing and transporting liquids or gases”: gasoline tanks, but in DŽ 1993 this meaning is already numbered 2 and has no illustration. TŽŽ 1985 defines tank as 2. “cistern, reservoir.” So it is unclear—after all, those very explanatory words are available, cistern, reservoir; but where, for what purpose, and what exactly is this tank—perhaps a gasoline tank is a gas tank? Even the encyclopedia does not clarify: tanker—“‹⋯›. Cargo is poured into several or a dozen reservoirs located between transverse and longitudinal bulkheads, and pumped out through pipes” LTE XI 1983. If they are reservoirs, why call it a tanker? If it is a tanker, why are those reservoirs not tanks? And what is the connection with the combat vehicle called a tank?

Thus we must trace the origin. English tank meaning “reservoir, tank, cistern” is a loanword from Portuguese tanque [some derive it from estanque < estancar “to dam” (cf. stagnum 1. “standing water; lake; pool, swamp, puddle, backwater,” 2. “artificial pond, pool, basin” LoLičŽ 1996) < Vulgar Latin stantire “to stop (a flow)” / “pond, pool; trough; container, tank” (Webster’s Dictionary Unabridged 1981; Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary 1996); others derive it from Hindi tankh “tank, reservoir” (Sabaliauskas 1994: 349). A wholly new chapter in the history of this word opened almost 90 years ago, through military technology and warfare specialists: “The first tank used in combat was the British ‘Mark I’ (in the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1915)” (Kopaliński 2001) [other sources give a later date—1916 (LTE XI 1983)]. “The English word tank, meaning a cistern, was initially used to mislead the enemy” (Kopaliński 2001). But the secret code name stuck indelibly. “In the French press, the word tank was first used on September 22, 1916” (Sabaliauskas 1994: 349). It also stuck with the German enemy—it was Tank, only later replaced by the German word of French (ultimately Latin) origin Panzer (also Panzerkampfwagen), though the meaning “tank, reservoir, cistern” of Tank remained. French tank is also called in French char de combat (“combat vehicle”), char d’assaut (“assault vehicle”), char blindé (“armored vehicle”). Polish tank is already quite obsolete—now czołg (czołgać się—“to crawl, creep; to move stealthily”), and likewise “tank crewman”—czołgista, though also panczneny; and tank meaning “reservoir, container”

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In dictionaries it is marked psn. (used only in fot. “developing tank”)—now zbiornik, and so “tanker” is more often zbiornikowiec than tankowiec, although tankować is used to mean “to supply with fuel (of ships, locomotives).”

Tanko dar nėra KarŽ 1919, STŽŽ 1923, SNŽŽ 1924. Paplito tarmėse kaip palyginimas: Tos bobos didybė – kaip tankas Kupiškis. Kaip tankas ta karvė Vainutas; taip pat reikšmę „kas labai stambus, tvirto sudėjimo“ (Želva, Miežiškiai), net 4. prk. „batas trumpu aulu“ (Salantai, Lenkimai, Mažeikiai, Tirkšliai) – plg. танкетка – 1. storas puspadis, 2. dg. танкеты, сторападзіі баталіі (moteriški) RLKŽ IV 1985, suvalkiečių branavykai („šarvuočiai“) „darbiniai batai“ (ZŠŽ 2003).

Thus, the conventional combat tankas turns out to be secondary, while we borrowers seem to have no primary sense, except in dictionaries and highly specialized fields. Indeed, the official press of the bright life wrote enthusiastically about excellent tankus even on cattle farms: Kai prijungs pieno liniją, pienas tiesiai iš karvės stiklo vamzdžiais per aušintuvus tekės į tankus TMtr 1973 3 1. The 1983 ŽŪMTŽ is incomparably more restrained: манк для молока – pieno cisterna, манкохлади-тель молока – ž. ū. pieno aušinamoji cisterna, though аэротенк – aerotankas. HidrotechŽ 2000 gives tank – 1. baseinas; rezervuaras; vandens talpykla, 2. bakas, cisterna, bunkeris, tik aeration tank – 1. mot. aerotankas (ir aerotank), 2. vndt. aerobaseinas, methane tank as nuot. metantankas, whereas StatŽ 2002 has metano tankas – methane carrier – Metant – methanier – танк сжиженного метана (but also metantankas, stovinimo reaktorius, as well as aerotankas), butano tankas – butane carrier – Butant – butanier – танк бутана. For Poles, it is not a tankas but a kamera: метатенк, see метатанк – komora fermentacyjna, gnilna, аэротенк, see аэротанк – 1. inž. san. komora napowietrzana, 2. kotł. odmulnik, zbiornik odmulin WST 1973. Lithuanian could also do without tanko here (at least metatanką should be corrected to metano tanką), although replacing aerotanko with something like aero rezervuaru—an international term with an international one—would not be easy.

English tanker means not only 1. tanklaivis, not only 2. cisterna, autocisterna DALKŽ 1998, DAKŽ 2001, nor only 2. American railway cisterna ALKŽ 1975, but also 3. aviation degalų lėktuvas DALKŽ 1998, DAKŽ 2001, though the precise technical term is танк-заправщик, replenishment tanker; in very nonstandard Lithuanian, tanklaivis pilstytojas JTLŽŽ 1994 (tanklaivis MkslL 2002 22 14 is quite possible as an aerial tanker, although right beside it is the very poor tankeras – degalus nešantis orlaivis).

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Or might tanklaivis be unnecessary, since it is not entirely clear? After all, there are naftovežis, mazuvežis, benzinevežis (which may be either a vehicle or a ship!), as well as English oiler and French pétrolier. The point, however, is that this tanklaivis may carry oil one time, fuel oil another, or any liquid in general; indeed, on a single voyage, it may carry different liquids in different tanks. NATO TŽ 2001 defines oiler / pétrolier as “a military or civilian tanker equipped with all the necessary apparatus for refuelling ships at sea”—tanklaivis.

And for tanklaivis to be clearer and better motivated, it is more important for a tanker to have a tanką, as Russian already does, than for aerotanką or metano tanką to have one; both its structure and borrowing policy are, after all, closer to Lithuanian than those of many other languages: танк II technical, “a specially equipped tank or compartment for storing or transporting liquids” АРиРАС„ЛДП“ 1969, танк₂—“a specially equipped reservoir for storing or transporting liquids” ССИС 1993. Russian terminology’s танкер (нефтеналивное судно) КПС 1955 initially lacked the foundation of танк, but acquired it later: танк судовой ПС 1976 and 1989. Lithuanian maritime terminology is following a similar path: mank – tankas, bakas, rezervuaras JŽPTŽ 1992, tankas – mank – tank, compartment JTLŽŽ 1994. There is even diptankas – дuптанк– deep tank JTLŽŽ 1994. Incidentally, diptankas is a very old term: diptankas maritime, “a deep tank in transport ships, used for taking in water ballast” TŽŽ 1951 (and 1969), diptánkas “a ship’s ballast-water tank” TŽŽ 1985 and 2001. TŽŽ 1951 and 1969 do not mention a tanker’s tanko at all, while TŽŽ 1985 and 2001 define tankas sense 2 just as vaguely as “cistern, reservoir.” This inconsistency should be eliminated: a tanker’s tankas is more necessary and better justified than the conspicuous Anglicism—the ship’s diptankas.

And now—as the lexicographic practice of the examples cited here shows, and as has long been overdue—the combat tankas and the tanker’s tankas are homonyms. In Lithuanian lexicography, this distinction has been observed for quite some time—but only in bilingual dictionaries (for example, ALKŽ 1975, RLKŽ IV 1985).

Conclusions

1. The word kuzovas, a Tatar Slavicism, is used with numerous variants and meanings in almost all dialects, but has not entered technical terminology. Kėbulas is a Lithuanian dialect word that has been terminologized (for the corresponding or similar part of a wagon). Karoserija in the sense “bodywork with accessories” is unnecessary and has no place in the international system of concepts and terms.

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2. The loanword polis is used consistently in terminology and even in ordinary speech. However, attempts are now emerging to realize the possibility, previously overlooked, of terminologizing the Samogitian word kalstas (for now, this would only be a Lithuanian equivalent of polio, not a replacement).

3. Čiaupas has been in use since 1920 (earlier, among Lithuanian Prussians, the German semantic loanword gaidys was used); it has become most firmly established in terminology and least so in colloquial speech. While a “tap” was called kranas (and for considerably longer), a “lifting machine” was called keliamasis kranas; now it is called kranas.

4. The word for tanker appeared earlier (1886) than the word for tank (1915)—initially as a secret code name, then becoming firmly established (although in some languages it was replaced by native words). By 1936, tankerį was already attested, and by 1954, tanklaivis (from German Tankschiff). For tanklaivis to be motivated and unambiguous, its base tankas (a homonym) is also needed—“a tank or compartment in a vessel for transporting liquids.”

LITERATURE AND SOURCES

ALKPolŽ 1958: Novodvorskis A. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų politechninis žodynas, Vilnius.

ALKŽ 1975: Anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Sudarė A. Laučka, B. Piesarskas, E. Stasiulevičiūtė, Vilnius.

ALKŽ 1998: Svecevičius B. Anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius.

Ambrazas S. 1993: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 1, Vilnius.

Ambrazas S. 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida 2, Vilnius.

Būga K. 1959: Rinktiniai raštai 2, Vilnius.

Būga K. 1961: Rinktiniai raštai 3, Vilnius.

DAKŽ 2001: Piesarskas B. Dabartinės anglų kalbos žodynas, Vilnius.

DALKŽ 1998: Piesarskas B. Didysis anglų–lietuvių kalbų žodynas, Vilnius.

Drg – Draugystė (newspaper).

DŽ 1954: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius.

DŽ 1972: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius.

DŽ 1993: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius.

Fraenkel E. 1955–1965: Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Göttingen.

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Jonas KLIMAVIČIUS

Received 2004-10-25

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

E. paštas [email protected]

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