TERMINOLOGY AND THE PRESENT

Robertas STUNŽINAS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

SYNONYMY IN CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGY

Statybos terminija pradėjo formuotis XIX a. viduryje: Keleivio (1849–1880) ir Aušros (1883–1886) mokslo populiarinimo straipsniuose rašyta apie statybas, statybines medžiagas ir jų rūšis. Tarpukariu Kauno Vytauto Didžiojo universitete buvo renkami, kuriami ir sisteminami statybos ir kitų sričių terminai. Vėliau statybos terminų ėmė rastis verstiniuose ir originaliuose statybos vadovėliuose, moksliniuose straipsniuose, monografijose. Nemažą dabartinės statybos terminijos dalį galima rasti XX a. vidurio bendruosiuose technikos, chemijos, fizikos terminų žodynuose. Nepriklausomybės laikotarpiu pasirodė net trys dideli statybos terminų žodynai: 1992 ir 1993 metais dvikalbiai Rusų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas (J. Kivilsà, A. Kudzys, A. Rosinas, spec. red. akad. A. Kudzys, Vilnius, 1992, 560 p., apie 21 000 terminų, toliau – RLSTŽ) ir Anglų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas (A. Kudzys, A. Rosinas, B. Kudzienė, spec. red. akad. A. Kudzys, Vilnius, 1993, 437 p., apie 21 000 terminų, toliau – ALSTŽ), 2002 metais – penkiakalbis Statybos terminų žodynas (A. Kudzys, A. Rosinas, B. Kudzienė, moksl. red. akad. A. Kudzys, Vilnius, 2002, 879 p., apie 23 000 terminų, toliau – STŽ). Šiame straipsnyje sandaros, kilmės, reikšmės ir raidos aspektais analizuojama šių žodynų sinonimija.

The sources examined were selected for several reasons. First, the aim was to encompass facts about synonymy in more than one field: construction terminology dictionaries cover the most frequently used terms in architecture, mechanics, geotechnics, hydraulic engineering, civil, industrial and transport construction, and water management. Since the dictionaries mentioned above are separated by a decade, the aim was to examine changes in synonymy. This time, the small groups of synonymous borrowed terms were excluded, i.e. rows of borrowed-term synonyms and rows of synonyms comprising borrowings and hybrids (terms formed from an international or borrowed root and a Lithuanian affix).

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rows of synonyms. A total of 1858¹ synonym rows are examined, of which 1653 are distinct.

Synonymy arises from differing usage by dictionary authors, the creation of neologisms, and varying proficiency in one’s native language; synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms often depends on language policy or the preferences of individual authors². In terminology, synonyms are associated with the same concept or object, but they do not describe its different properties. Synonymy is particularly characteristic of the early stages of terminology formation, when the best term for naming a concept has not yet been selected and several terms or variants coexist (Gaivenis 2002: 125). In the construction terminology dictionaries, two types of synonymy can be distinguished according to the origin of synonymous terms or their synonymous components: common-origin synonymy, i.e. synonymy of purely Lithuanian terms, and mixed-origin synonymy, i.e. synonymy between Lithuanian and borrowed terms. In the material examined, rows of synonyms of purely Lithuanian terms account for 51.2%³, while mixed-origin synonymy is slightly less common. Rows of synonyms of one-word terms predominate, accounting for 53.4% of all the synonym rows examined. Compound-term rows are slightly less numerous, at 24.7%, as are rows of terms with mixed structure, at 21.9%. Data for the types discussed are presented in the table.

The table shows that the greatest number of synonym rows are presented in the earlier construction terminology dictionaries. The relatively small number of synonym rows in the new STŽ suggests that construction terminology has become considerably more established over the decade. One can also observe an almost even distribution among the types of synonymy: most rows of one-word-term synonyms and mixed-structure synonyms are presented in the earlier dictionaries. The greatest number of rows of compound-term synonyms is presented in STŽ, and the fewest in RLSTŽ. Although the new STŽ contains the greatest number of rows of compound-term synonyms, synonym diversity is not characteristic of this dictionary: most synonymous components recur. It should also be noted that synonymy in dictionaries from different periods is not uniform—only 2.6% of all the synonym rows examined can be

¹ Not all synonymous terms presented in these dictionaries are examined here. Some of the Russian–Lithuanian Construction Terminology Dictionary and the English–Lithuanian Construction Terminology Dictionary synonymous terms are debatable (for more detail, see Kaulakienė 1994: 100).

² Apie terminų sinonimiją plačiau žr. Keinys 1980.

³ The data presented have been rounded.

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found in the earlier RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ, and in the new STŽ (the development of synonyms will be discussed later).

Table

Rows of synonymous terms in construction terminology by origin and number of components

Rows of synonyms by origin of synonymous components Dictionary Rows of synonymous terms by structure Rows of single-word terms Rows of compound terms Mixed rows Total Rows of synonyms of Lithuanian and borrowed terms RLSTŽ 212 38 111 361 ALSTŽ 147 75 73 295 STŽ 75 114 62 251 Rows of synonyms of Lithuanian terms RLSTŽ 287 91 59 437 ALSTŽ 167 66 44 277 STŽ 105 76 56 237 Total 993 460 405 1858

1. Synonymy of Lithuanian and borrowed terms

The analysis of synonym rows in construction terminology dictionaries is best begun with the least debatable group of synonyms—synonyms of different origins. Some linguists do not consider such synonymous terms to be synonyms at all; for example, the Polish terminologist E. Grodzinski calls unambiguous terms of different origins heteronyms (see Суперанская 2003: 48). In construction terminology, synonymy of different origins is an uncommon layer of synonymy, and the synonyms in this group have the fewest differences in lexical meaning.

In terms of structure, synonymy between Lithuanian and borrowed terms is heterogeneous—nine smaller groups can be distinguished. The largest group consists of synonym rows of single-word terms: of the 783 distinct synonym rows in this group, 332 are rows of synonyms of single-word terms. The most frequent here (272 instances) are rows containing Lithuanian and international

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terms, e.g.: adsorbcija, įgertis STŽ 13, aeratorius, vėdintuvas ALSTŽ 8, amortizacija, dėvėjimasis STŽ 19, aparatas, prietaisas ALSTŽ 14, apmušalas, tapetas ALSTŽ 238, atnaujinimas, renovacija STŽ 50, bandiklis, testeris STŽ 66, bazė, atrama STŽ 72, damba, pylimas ALSTŽ 94, defektas, trūkumas ALSTŽ 98, deflektorius, kreiptuvas RLSTŽ 241, dinamometras, jėgomatis STŽ 121, dumpkaras, savivartis STŽ 131, ekskavatorius, žemkasė STŽ 138, ekvivalentas, atitikmuo STŽ 140, eskizas, apmatai STŽ 146, fabrikas, gamykla ALSTŽ 137, gembė, konsolė RLSTŽ 144, iduba, niša ALSTŽ 10, išplova, erozija ALSTŽ 293, ištekliai, resursai ALSTŽ 281, iteracija, kartojimas ALSTŽ 188, kohezija, sankiba ALSTŽ 66, kolektorius, rinktuvas ALSTŽ 186. In the group of synonym pairs of single-word terms, international terms are usually preferred⁴, a feature common to all the dictionaries examined, e.g.: dezintregatorius, smulkintuvas ALSTŽ 108, diskas, skridinys RLSTŽ 75, ekspertas, žinovas RLSTŽ 482, kioskas, krautuvėlė RLSTŽ 164, kolona, statramstis ALSTŽ 67, konstanta, pastovioji STŽ 275, markė, ženklas RLSTŽ 173, rampa, pakyla RLSTŽ 333, šarmyras, lanksta ALSTŽ 189. There are three times fewer synonym pairs whose primary terms are Lithuanian, e.g.: deglas, fakelas RLSTŽ 450, griovys, tranšėja ALSTŽ 110, nuotrauka, fotografija RLSTŽ 376, primtuvas, resiveris ALSTŽ 274, strypas, štanga ALSTŽ 285. The preference for international terms should primarily be explained by the dictionaries’ structure (Lithuanian is the second language in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ); moreover, the dictionary authors relied heavily on foreign literature. The emergence of Lithuanian terms (especially in earlier dictionaries) was driven by the search for substitutes for international terms.

Rows of synonyms containing Lithuanian and hybrid terms (60 rows were found) are also included in the synonymy of Lithuanian and borrowed terms. In such synonym pairs, the hybrid terms are most often the primary terms, e.g.: adekvatumas, atitikimas ALSTŽ 6, diskretumas, netolydumas STŽ 122, dualumas, dvejopumas RLSTŽ 71, efektyvumas, veiksmingumas ALSTŽ 123, homogeniškumas, vienalytiškumas RLSTŽ 61, monolitiškumas, vientisumas RLSTŽ 462, šlifotuvas, gludintuvas STŽ 616, uni-

⁴ Admittedly, the dictionaries examined also contain synonym pairs in which the international term is primary in one instance, and the Lithuanian term in another. This is mostly characteristic of earlier bilingual dictionaries in which Lithuanian is the second language, e.g.: oranžerija, šiltnamis ALSTŽ 82, šiltnamis, oranžerija ALSTŽ 179.

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flaking, (stand)ardization⁵ RLSTŽ 437. In all sources, there are half as many synonym series with main Lithuanian terms, e.g.: (re)pairing, adjustment RLSTŽ 115, formatting, formalization RLSTŽ 246, drafting, designing ALSTŽ 115, hauling, transpor- tation ALSTŽ 347, soaking, impregnation RLSTŽ 314, sorting, classification ALSTŽ 311, suction, pumping STŽ 524, flexibility, elasticity ALSTŽ 123, labeler, marker RLSTŽ 174.

Synonym series of compound terms make up 27.4% (215 found in total) of all synonym series in this group. This subgroup contains mostly synonym series with synonymous dependent components, e.g.: overground [elevated]⁶ railway ALSTŽ 270, circulating [recirculating] pump STŽ 525, duality [dual] principle ALSTŽ 263, equivalent [equivalent] load RLSTŽ 200, equivalent [equivalent] thickness STŽ 586, fixed [specified] effect STŽ 440, selective [selective] heating STŽ 609. Hybrid terms are the most characteristic expression of borrowed components; synonym series with Lithuanian and international components are half as numerous, e.g.: effective [operative] value STŽ 473, possible [virtual] work STŽ 105, repairable [repair] part STŽ 97, reversible [reverse] fan ALSTŽ 138, reserve [spare] equipment STŽ 200, airtight [insulating] layer ALSTŽ 196, gravity-fed [gravity] supply STŽ 642, systematic [constant] error ALSTŽ 131, principal [overall] dimensions ALSTŽ 107.

Looking at the main terms in the synonym series, a slight discrepancy can be observed: earlier terminology dictionaries do not show a pattern of term precedence, whereas the STŽ gives preference to terms with borrowed components, e.g.: effective [operative] value STŽ 473, nominal [nominal] capacity STŽ 624, nominal [nominal] probability STŽ 645, design [calculated] water capacity STŽ 692. As already mentioned, a variety of synonyms for compound terms is not characteristic of this dictionary, since most synonymous components recur, e.g.: monolithic [monolithic] construction STŽ 571, monolithic [monolithic] floors STŽ 178, nominal [nominal] height STŽ 60, nominal [nominal] diameter STŽ 120, nominal [nominal] diameter

⁵In dictionaries, parentheses denote optional parts of terms. The analysis of synonymous terms included terms with optional parts.

⁶Synonymous term components are given in square brackets.

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STŽ 532; design [calculated] power STŽ 158, design [calculated] situation STŽ 522, design [calculated] speed STŽ 175.

Differences in the main components are not characteristic of synonymy among compound terms (13 series were found), e.g.: lighting equipment [apparatus] ALSTŽ 130, paint primer [undercoat] ALSTŽ 298, gas separator [separator] RLSTŽ 55, soil reinforcement [stabilization] ALSTŽ 315, equipment reorganization [reconstruction] RLSTŽ 261, column base [base] STŽ 376, building section [section] ALSTŽ 239, ball-and-socket joint [flexible joint] ALSTŽ 20, construction method [method] ALSTŽ 220, absorbent coating [insulation] ALSTŽ 63.

There are few synonym series of terms that differ in all components (15 found), e.g.: high water level, upper reach ALSTŽ 365, hydraulic shock absorber, water-hammer damper ALSTŽ 96, calcium oxide, quicklime ALSTŽ 235, load-bearing element, structural component ALSTŽ 124, drainage conduit, water-supply gallery for emptying ALSTŽ 91, flat arch, shallow vault ALSTŽ 16, impact drill, drilling hammer ALSTŽ 169, district heating channel, heating tunnel ALSTŽ 119, storage basin, water reservoir STŽ 72, technical resource, service life ALSTŽ 199, triumphal arch, arch of honor RLSTŽ 12, low water level, lower reach ALSTŽ 365.

The dictionaries in question contain many mixed series—the synonym series pairing one-word and two-word terms, two-word and three-word terms (and other combinations) account for 30.2% of all heterogeneous synonym series. The most common are synonym pairs consisting of one-word and two-word terms. The most frequent here are synonym series pairing heterogeneous or Lithuanian compound terms with one-word borrowed terms (155 series found), e.g.: abrasives, abrasive material RLSTŽ 177, adsorption, surface absorption RLSTŽ 8, hydrant, water standpipe RLSTŽ 57, hydroelectric plant, hydropower station RLSTŽ 58, inclinometer, angle gauge RLSTŽ 113, injector, jet pump ALSTŽ 183, insulating material, insulant⁷ RLSTŽ 177, power transmission, transmission RLSTŽ 257,

⁷This term may also be treated as a shortened form of a compound term.

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cubic specimen, cube STŽ 69, slump, sawtooth roof RLSTŽ 471, telemetry, remote measurement ALSTŽ 217.

A look at the head terms in the synonym series reveals a slight discrepancy. In earlier dictionaries, there are equal numbers of synonym series with compound head terms and with one-word head terms, for example: open pit, quarry ALSTŽ 93, drainage pipe, drain ALSTŽ 246, van, covered wagon RLSTŽ 458, first layer, soil ALSTŽ 63, terracotta, fired clay ALSTŽ 338, viaduct, road culvert ALSTŽ 235, RLSTŽ 321. The new dictionary gives preference to compound terms—the number of synonym series with one-word head terms is three times lower, for example: ballast laying, ballasting STŽ 259, dragline, cable excavator STŽ 125, wood-wool concrete, wood-wool board STŽ 74, filtration, seepage flow STŽ 150, writing desk, secretary STŽ 561, dry residue, radical STŽ 312. Apparently, the dictionary’s authors adhered more closely to the principle of terminological clarity, since compound terms often designate a concept more precisely, for example: contracting agreement, contract ALSTŽ 80, hip, triangular slope RLSTŽ 34.

In the subgroup of mixed series, synonym series combining compound terms of different origins with one-word Lithuanian terms are less common (61 series were found), for example: analytical specimen, test sample STŽ 655, dust fraction, dust STŽ 154, smoke duct, chimney ALSTŽ 149, sensitivity factor, sensitivity STŽ 148, freight elevator, lift ALSTŽ 125, dowel, sheared element ALSTŽ 78, welding machine, welder RLSTŽ 6, 11, refrigerator, cold-storage room ALSTŽ 82, thermal insulating material, insulation STŽ 222. Here, compound terms are preferred; synonym series with one-word head terms are four times less numerous, for example: gas duct, gas pipeline ALSTŽ 149, locomotive shed, locomotive depot RLSTŽ 73, beam grillage, beam grid ALSTŽ 165, fine-grained soil, dust STŽ 182.

In the subgroup of mixed series, there are few synonym pairs with synonymous dependent elements (20 series were found), for example: automotive [pneumatic-tyred] crane ALSTŽ 87, drafting-room [design office] manager STŽ 699, sound-insulating [acoustic] panel RLSTŽ 270, hydrophobic [water-repellent] cement ALSTŽ 55, composite-section [composite] beam RLSTŽ 19, waterproof [hydrophobic] plaster STŽ 650, reactivity [reactive] filler STŽ 677, purportedly

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static [quasi-static] effect STŽ 440, water-supply and sewerage [water management] works RLSTŽ 324. In the earlier dictionaries, no preference among terms is apparent; in the new STŽ, synonym series with three-word head terms are almost three times more numerous.

Although synonymous terms are supposed to denote one concept, from a linguistic point of view some synonyms of different origins are not identical in lexical meaning. The meanings of terms differ when one synonym has a broader or narrower meaning (this relationship can be represented as A>B or A<B), for example: English freight elevator – cargo lift, elevator ALSTŽ 125, Russian уплотнение вибрированием – vibration compaction, vibration RLSTŽ 437, Russian круглый металл – round metal, rods RLSTŽ 184, light [small-sized] crane – English midget construction crane, German Bau(stellen)kleinkran, Russian лёгкий строительный кран STŽ 284, Russian лечебница – hospital, clinic RLSTŽ 167. Some terms differ not only in scope of meaning, but also in conceptual content (A≠B), for example: grinding, polishing; English sanding, polishing, Russian шлифование, полирование STŽ 615. It can be seen that most Lithuanian synonyms occur in bilingual dictionaries in which Lithuanian is the second language. This is also due to the broader meaning of a term in another language, which is covered by several Lithuanian synonyms, for example: English draughting – drafting, design ALSTŽ 115, English cool-house – orangery, greenhouse ALSTŽ 82, or “synonymous” naming possibilities, for example: Russian рудничная лампа – mineworker’s [mine] lamp RLSTŽ 164. From a linguistic point of view, such synonym series should be classified as cases of partial synonymy; terminologically, they are not synonyms at all.

Over the course of a decade, the synonymy of Lithuanian and borrowed terms has changed considerably. Earlier dictionaries contain synonym series with borrowings that should be corrected or are inadmissible, for example: other, puzzle RLSTŽ 93, spindle, pin ALSTŽ 313, groove, shunt ALSTŽ 269, pipe collar, spigot ALSTŽ 246. The new STŽ contains fewer inadmissible borrowings, for example: thin sheet, single-layer plywood STŽ 617.

Taking 530 synonym series from earlier construction terminology dictionaries separately and comparing them with the terminology of the new STŽ, it can be seen that in STŽ, most often only one of the synonyms listed in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ is used

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member, e.g.: farvateris, laivakelis ALSŽ 61 – laivakelis STŽ 300; filingas, išprūda RLSTŽ 452 – išprūda STŽ 204; fotografija, nuotrauka RLSTŽ 376 – nuotrauka STŽ 367; konsolė, gembė RLSTŽ 144 – gembė STŽ 166; vizyras, taikiklis ALSTŽ 142 – taikiklis STŽ 622. In the synonymy of one-word terms in earlier dictionaries, such cases account for 38%; in that of compound terms, 39%; and in mixed synonymy, 32%. Although borrowed terms were preferred in earlier dictionaries, the new dictionary gives greater prominence to native Lithuanian terms, which are included three times as often as loanwords. All this indicates the strengthening of Lithuanian terminology. A similar pattern is characteristic of mixed synonym sets. Earlier dictionaries preferred longer terms (compound and three-word terms often describe a concept more precisely), whereas STŽ now favors brevity and convenience, and shorter terms are more often included, e.g.: asignavimas, lėšų skyrimas RLSTŽ 16 – asignavimas STŽ 47; bokštinė talpykla, silosas ALSTŽ 46 – silosas STŽ 516; kempingas, aut turistų stovykla RLSTŽ 129 – kempingas STŽ 251; klijuotoji fanera, klijuotė RLSTŽ 75 – klijuotė STŽ 258; valma, trikampis šlaitas RLSTŽ 34 – valma STŽ 687.

In the new dictionary, instances in which synonyms are not linked are common: many members of synonym sets in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ are presented in the new STŽ as separate terms, e.g.: damba, pylimas ALSTŽ 94 – damba STŽ 98, pylimas STŽ 409; diskas, skraidinys RLSTŽ 75 – diskas STŽ 122, skraidinys STŽ 543; eksperimentas, bandymas RLSTŽ 482 – eksperimentas STŽ 139, bandymas STŽ 66; komplektas, rinkinys RLSTŽ 56 – komplektas STŽ 271, rinkinys STŽ 481. In the synonymy of one-word terms in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ, such cases of separation account for 34%; in that of compound terms, 22%; and in mixed synonymy, 32%.

Only 5.2% of the synonym sets in earlier dictionaries can be found in STŽ. The vast majority of such synonym sets are sets of one-word terms, e.g.: altimetras, aukščiamatis RLSTŽ 52, STŽ 59; eskizas, apmatai ALSTŽ 116, STŽ 146; bandiklis, testeris RLSTŽ 300, STŽ 66. Synonym sets consisting of compound terms and mixed sets are rare, e.g.: gamtinė medžiaga, natūralioji medžiaga ALSTŽ 216, STŽ 332; vienasluoksnė fanera, šponas RLSTŽ 476, šponas, vienasluoksnė fanera STŽ 617.

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2. Synonymy of Lithuanian Terms

In construction terminology, as in the terminology of any field, synonyms in the native language have emerged through the search for new or more suitable ways of designating concepts. The collected material shows that over the decade monogenic synonymy has changed considerably: many members of synonym sets in earlier dictionaries are presented as separate terms in the new dictionary, and an even larger proportion of the members of those sets are no longer present.

In terms of the structure of synonymous terms and their synonymic relations, this group can be divided into nine smaller groups. As regards types of synonymy, lexical synonymy predominates among Lithuanian terms; in terms of structure, sets of one-word term synonyms predominate. Such sets make up 55.6% of all monogenic synonyms—a total of 484 sets were found. Lexical synonym sets predominate in this subgroup, e.g.: aidas, atgarsis STŽ 14, aplinka, terpė ALSTŽ 128, aptvaras, gardas RLSTŽ 88, apvandeninimas, užtvindymas RLSTŽ 213, apvažiavimas, aplinkkelis RLSTŽ 224, atliupimas, atplėšimas RLSTŽ 237, atmatos, atliekos ALSTŽ 275, atvežimas, atgabenimas RLSTŽ 279, bandymas, tikrinimas RLSTŽ 115, brinkimas, kilsnojimasis STŽ 84, burbulas, pūslė ALSTŽ 34, dauba, loma RLSTŽ 151, 170, dėjimas, klojimas ALSTŽ 22, drožtuvas, oblius STŽ 128, grąžtas, urbtvuvas STŽ 173, griova, duba ALSTŽ 274, nuosvyra, iškyša ALSTŽ 235, paslaugos, patarnavimai RLSTŽ 443, pastatymas, sudarymas ALSTŽ 78, pavadinimas, vardas RLSTŽ 200, sąnašos, samplovos ALSTŽ 20, skylė, kiaurymė RLSTŽ 356, (su)tvirtinimas, (su)stiprinimas ALSTŽ 324, žaibolaidis, perkūnsargis RLSTŽ 64, žalingumas, kenksmingumas RLSTŽ 47. A great many (over 300) such synonym sets can be found in earlier dictionaries, e.g.: ąsa, kilpa RLSTŽ 360, briauna, kraštas RLSTŽ 30, 222, įkainojimas, įvertinimas RLSTŽ 247, įkaitinimas, išildymas RLSTŽ 197, pašildymas, pakaitinimas ALSTŽ 175, skylmušys, prakalas RLSTŽ 77, sklandumas, tolygumas RLSTŽ 266, žiedelis, išrait as ALSTŽ 14, žiotys, išvadas ALSTŽ 234. The abundance of one-word lexical synonyms in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ should be explained by the instability of synonymy in construction terminology and by the characteristics of translation dictionaries.

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About a quarter of synonym sets of one-word terms consist of derivational synonyms⁸. Derivational synonyms can be defined as terms expressed by derivatives belonging to the same derivational category, sharing the same root and differing in derivational formants (for more on this, see Vaskelienė 2000: 75). In construction terminology, derivational synonyms are most often expressed by same-root derivatives with different suffixes, e.g.: audeklas, audinys STŽ 58, greitintuvas, greitiklis RLSTŽ 441, grindikas ALSTŽ 241, gulstainis, gulščiukas ALSTŽ 185, įvedimas, įvestis STŽ 220, jungiklis, jungtukas RLSTŽ 49, paplatėjimas, platmena STŽ 386, rėžiklis, rėžtuvas RLSTŽ 345, rinkiklis, rinktuvas RLSTŽ 377, sukibimas, sukibtis STŽ 594, sukimas, suktis STŽ 594, tiekiklis, tiektuvas RLSTŽ 277, tyrinėtojas, tyrėjas RLSTŽ 118. It should be noted that synonymous same-root derivatives with different suffixes may denote different concepts and therefore should be avoided as synonyms, e.g.: paplatėjimas, platmena STŽ 386, sunkimasis, sunktis STŽ 596. Terms expressed by derivatives with the suffix -imas can have both a purely action-related meaning and more concrete meanings.

The dictionaries analyzed contain many derivational synonyms distinguished by prefixes. Most commonly, same-root derivatives with prefixes and different suffixes or endings are used synonymously, e.g.: apskaičiavimas, suskaičiavimas RLSTŽ 282, atitvara, aptvara ALSTŽ 139, atsijos, išsijos ALSTŽ 39, įsiskverbimas, prasiskverbimas ALSTŽ 242, išretinimas, praretinimas STŽ 210, ištekis, protėkis STŽ 212, (iš)valymas, pravalymas RLSTŽ 318, nuolauža, atlauža RLSTŽ 215, nuoraiza, atraiža RLSTŽ 222, persmauga, sąsmauga STŽ 406, užtepimas, aptepimas RLSTŽ 202.

Instances were also observed in which one term in a synonym set is prefixed and the other is not, e.g.: nusodintuvas, sodintuvas STŽ 370, pasiteiravimas, teiravimasis RLSTŽ 388, plėtimasis, išsiplėtimas STŽ 419, išsišakojimasis, šakojimasis STŽ 211. A few synonym pairs consist of same-root terms formed with different endings and suffixes, e.g.: geba, sugebėjimas RLSTŽ 387, išjungimas, išjunga STŽ 207, išgava, gavyba RLSTŽ 51, (iš)mokėjimas, išmoka RLSTŽ 50, viscosity,

⁸ Derivational synonyms may be regarded as a separate type of synonym or as a subtype of lexical synonyms (Vaskelienė 2000: 75). In this article, derivational synonyms are treated as a separate type of synonym.

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slurry ALSTŽ 309, level, elevation ALSTŽ 198, masonry, brickwork RLSTŽ 131, marking, mark STŽ 371, elongation, lengthening STŽ 379. Such synonyms, like the previously mentioned synonymous derivatives with the same root but different suffixes, should be differentiated and presented as separate terms. One synonym pair consists of terms expressed by mixed-formation and suffix-derived forms, e.g.: need, requirement STŽ 437; and one synonym pair consists of terms expressed by a compound and a derivative with an inflectional ending, e.g.: roofer, roof-layer RLSTŽ 158.

Compound terms are also classed as working synonyms. Some of these synonyms are expressed by compounds with a noun as the second component. In these compounds, the defining components are synonymous, e.g.: fire wall, blind wall RLSTŽ 30, gear wheel, toothed wheel RLSTŽ 107, rack, gear rack RLSTŽ 345, roof drainpipe, downpipe RLSTŽ 427. Only one synonym pair with synonymous defining components was found, e.g.: greenhouse, hothouse RLSTŽ 415. Compounds with verbal second components were also observed. Most of these synonyms have synonymous defining components, e.g.: earth excavator, ditch digger RLSTŽ 103, timber hauler, wood hauler RLSTŽ 166, watershed, divide RLSTŽ 44, glue mixer, glue applicator RLSTŽ 133.

Construction terminology dictionaries contain 234 distinct synonym series of compound terms. This group is dominated by cases of lexical synonymy between dependent components, e.g.: (matching) [required] profile STŽ 457, (permeability) [penetrability] test ALSTŽ 265, return [reverse] riser STŽ 577, return [non-return] valve STŽ 717, execution [implementation] procedure STŽ 667, spare [auxiliary] heater ALSTŽ 38, separating [free] admixture STŽ 448, thawing [defrosting] duration STŽ 661, cooling [chilling] room RLSTŽ 290, exhaust [extraction] fan ALSTŽ 137, suspended [inserted] beam RLSTŽ 20, specified [established] length STŽ 191, step [tread] width STŽ 430, initial [coarse] grinding STŽ 616, underground [subsurface] flow ALSTŽ 91, initial [primary] state RLSTŽ 384, upstream [main] dam STŽ 98, setting [hardening] accelerator ALSTŽ 281, carriageway [road] lane ALSTŽ 195, vibration [oscillation] period RLSTŽ 263, upper [soil] water STŽ 695, execution [completion] documentation RLSTŽ

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77, degree of harmfulness [degree of hazard] RLSTŽ 398, winter [cold-weather] conditions RLSTŽ 442.

There are almost four times fewer synonym series with synonymous head components (46 series were found), e.g.: concrete ageing [maturation] STŽ 506, resin collector [separator] RLSTŽ 376, gas release [formation] ALSTŽ 104, traffic interruption [stoppage] RLSTŽ 299, window assembly [frames] ALSTŽ 290, permissible value [magnitude] RLSTŽ 104, timber stacking [warping] RLSTŽ 149, metal consumption [capacity] RLSTŽ 184, installation hole [opening] RLSTŽ 238, specified dimension [size] RLSTŽ 329, foundation construction [laying] RLSTŽ 45, building core [nucleus] ALSTŽ 231, scaffolding erection [assembly] RLSTŽ 44, forced cooling [chilling] ALSTŽ 83, limit value [permissible value] RLSTŽ 104, construction product [article] STŽ 161, heat release [formation] ALSTŽ 104, short circuit [connection] STŽ 172, water level [surface] ALSTŽ 199, water lifting [pumping] RLSTŽ 86, water consumption [use] RLSTŽ 43, vibrating plate [platform] STŽ 428, single-sided sluice [shutter] RLSTŽ 260.

Construction terminology includes compound terms that differ in all their components but are synonymous; 12 synonym series were found, e.g.: high-growth forest, long-term timber RLSTŽ 165, bolted connection, bolted joint ALSTŽ 77, resistance force, load-bearing capacity ALSTŽ 151, wide face of a brick, brick bearing ALSTŽ 145, cross-section, shortest route ALSTŽ 93, sill dam, water sill ALSTŽ 95, rough surfacing, stone paving ALSTŽ 240, tubular culvert, road pipe ALSTŽ 91.

There are only a few instances of working synonymy among compound terms. Several synonym series with synonymous dependent components were found, e.g.: multilevel [sliding] plate ALSTŽ 306, stress [stress] analysis RLSTŽ 10, gradual [stepwise] prestressing STŽ 38, gradual [stepwise] pretensioning STŽ 216, settlement [subsidence] calculation RLSTŽ 341; and several synonym series with synonymous head components, e.g.: heat trap [collector] RLSTŽ 417, temporary enclosure [fence] ALSTŽ 126.

Synonym series involving grammatical synonyms make up a small proportion of the synonym series of compound terms. According to P. Kniūkšta’s conception,

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Grammatical synonyms should be defined as grammatical forms⁹ “that have identical or closely related semantically generalized meanings and perform analogous grammatical functions” (see ibid.). In construction terminology, the most characteristic expression of grammatical synonyms is formed by participial or verbal derivatives with the suffix -tinis and passive or active participles, e.g.: glued [glue-laminated] beam RLSTŽ 19, riveted [riveted] beam RLSTŽ 19, residual [remaining] stress RLSTŽ 205, welded [welded] beam RLSTŽ 21. Several synonym series were found in which the synonymous components are expressed by adjectives with the suffix -inis and a noun in the genitive case, e.g.: industrial [industry] construction RLSTŽ 405, butt [joint] bolt RLSTŽ 30.

Other combinations expressing synonymous components are isolated:

1) a passive participle and a noun in the genitive case, e.g.: driving [drive] force STŽ 224, clamping [clamping] bolt STŽ 698;

2) an intransitive and a causative verb, e.g.: combustion [burning] chamber STŽ 234;

3) a passive participle and a noun in the instrumental case, e.g.: cooling by evaporation, evaporative cooling RLSTŽ 247;

4) a noun in the genitive case and an active participle, e.g.: lifting [lifting] pulley RLSTŽ 28;

5) a pronominal adjective and a passive participle, e.g.: liquefied [liquid] bitumen ALSTŽ 19.

A considerable share (17.5%) of the synonymy among purely Lithuanian terms consists of mixed synonym series. Among mixed series, the most common (122 were found) are synonym series comprising one-word and two-word terms, e.g.: elbow pipe, elbow RLSTŽ 428, backward blow, recoil STŽ 555, skyscraper, high-rise building ALSTŽ 306, trench board, trap STŽ 307, longitudinal beam, main beam RLSTŽ 307, yield, outlet opening ALSTŽ 234, portable ladder, climbing ladder RLSTŽ 403, curve plotter, plotting device STŽ 81, shipway, ship lift STŽ 300, hatch door, hatch ALSTŽ 113, ash box, ashtray RLSTŽ 105, gate leaf, gate post RLSTŽ 402, waxed cloth, waxed paper RLSTŽ 47, dredger,

⁹ “The term grammatical form encompasses both inflectional and derivational forms” (see Kniūkšta 1976: 120).

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bottom deepener ALSTŽ 116. In the dictionaries under consideration, compound terms are most often preferred, e.g.: bypass road, ring road RLSTŽ 80, measuring device, meter STŽ 214, roof covering, roofing RLSTŽ 285, water-supply equipment, water supply ALSTŽ 184, tightening device, clamp STŽ 215, internal force, stress ALSTŽ 151.

Cases of synonymy between dependent constituents are relatively rare. Synonym series with two- and three-word synonymous terms make up 14.5% of all mixed synonym series, e.g.: partial safety [reliability] factor STŽ 263, two-rope [double-rope] aerial transport RLSTŽ 28, buried [recessed into the ground] reservoir RLSTŽ 344, rainwater [stormwater] drainage STŽ 367, probability [probability distribution] density ALSTŽ 100, three-quarter [three-quarter] stone RLSTŽ 121, fixed-price [fixed-price] contract ALSTŽ 80, water intake [pressure] basin ALSTŽ 26. In this group, longer terms are most often preferred; there are five times fewer basic two-word terms, e.g.: quick-slaking [quick-slaking] lime RLSTŽ 107, diffused-light [illumination] spotlight STŽ 461, air-entraining [pore-forming] additive STŽ 446, mixture stability [workability] period STŽ 662, luminous [reflective] concrete ALSTŽ 74.

Some Lithuanian synonyms are characterized by non-identical lexical meanings—the meaning of one synonym is broader (A>B) or narrower (A<B), e.g.: English blockage – clogging, formation of a blockage ALSTŽ 36, English cooler – cooling plant, cooling tower ALSTŽ 82. Partial synonyms may have arisen because terms in other languages cover broader concepts, which are encompassed by several Lithuanian synonyms. This is most typical of bilingual dictionaries, e.g.: English abrasion – wear, deterioration ALSTŽ 5, English failure – disintegration, collapse ALSTŽ 137, English fin – burr, flake ALSTŽ 142, English overdevelopment – depletion, exhaustion ALSTŽ 235, English trap, catcher – trap, collector ALSTŽ 347, Russian выемка – excavation, digging RLSTŽ 49. Non-identical synonyms may also have arisen because terms in other languages are themselves synonymous. This is most characteristic of the five-language Dictionary of Construction Terms, e.g.: upland, elevation – English hill, eminence STŽ 60, lowering, emptying – English drawdown, flush, release, Russian спуск, опорожнение STŽ 360, brittleness, fracture susceptibility – English brittleness, embrittlement, crisp, friability, Russian хрупкость, ломкость STŽ 658,

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stretching, lengthening – English stretch(ing), lengthening, Russian вытягивание, удлинение STŽ 659.

The synonymy of purely Lithuanian terms, like the previously discussed synonymy of Lithuanian and borrowed terms, changed considerably over the decade. Of the 660 synonym series in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ, only 3.4% are included in the new STŽ. The considerable change in same-origin synonymy is evident from the fact that a full quarter of the synonym series in the earlier dictionaries—and both members of those series—are entirely absent from the new STŽ.

Most often, only one member of a synonym series from the earlier dictionaries can be found in STŽ, e.g.: promontory, horn ALSTŽ 152 – promontory STŽ 207; lock, latch RLSTŽ 94 – lock STŽ 560; damper, bear RLSTŽ 17 – damper STŽ 669; closure, fastening RLSTŽ 95 – closure STŽ 673; rod, small bar RLSTŽ 320 – rod STŽ 713. In synonymy of one-word terms in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ, such cases make up 34%; in synonymy of compound terms, 35%; and in mixed synonymy, 44%. It has been observed that STŽ most often lists the shorter terms, e.g.: elbow pipe, elbow RLSTŽ 428 – elbow STŽ 18; mild-steel reinforcement, reinforcement of mild steel ALSTŽ 277 – mild-steel reinforcement STŽ 44; forest material, timber RLSTŽ 165 – timber STŽ 330; dump, unloading site ALSTŽ 33 – dump STŽ 502; luminous concrete, light-reflecting concrete ALSTŽ 74 – luminous concrete STŽ 76; dam water, backwater ALSTŽ 365 – backwater STŽ 395; boiling kettle, boiler RLSTŽ 150 – boiler STŽ 714.

Instances of splitting members of synonym series in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ are fairly common, e.g.: waste, refuse ALSTŽ 232 – waste STŽ 49, refuse STŽ 50; cooling RLSTŽ 246 – cooling STŽ 61, refrigeration STŽ 605; heater ALSTŽ 38 – heater STŽ 232, heating device STŽ 610; shell, casing RLSTŽ 217 – shell STŽ 252, casing STŽ 41; log, wall timber ALSTŽ 23 – log STŽ 468, wall timber STŽ 511; dryer, drier RLSTŽ 237 – dryer STŽ 502, drier STŽ 135; luminaire, lamp ALSTŽ 195 – luminaire STŽ 620, lamp STŽ 725. In synonymy of one-word terms in RLSTŽ and ALSTŽ, split cases account for 37%; in synonymy of compound terms, 17%; and in mixed synonymy, 36%.

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Conclusions

1. Construction terminology is characterized by a variety of synonymy: 1,858 synonym series were collected from three construction terminology dictionaries published between 1992 and 2002. The greatest number of synonym series appears in the earlier dictionaries, indicating that the terminology had not yet become established. Considerably fewer synonym series are included in the new dictionary.

2. With respect to the origin of synonymous terms or synonymous constituents, two large groups stand out: synonym series of terms of different origins and synonym series of purely Lithuanian terms. According to the structure of the synonym series and the origin of their synonymous members, these groups can be further subdivided into 18 smaller groups.

3. The group of synonym series of terms of different origins is dominated by three subgroups: synonym series of one-word Lithuanian and international terms; series of compound terms with Lithuanian and hybrid dependent constituents; and mixed synonym series combining compound terms of different origins with one-word borrowed terms.

3.1. The structure of the dictionaries analyzed and the preferences of their authors led to the precedence of borrowed terms: in synonym series in both the earlier dictionaries and the new dictionary, borrowed terms are most often preferred. Synonym series with basic Lithuanian terms make up less than one third. The dictionary authors followed the principle of terminological clarity: in the mixed-series subgroups, longer—compound—terms are preferred.

3.2. From a linguistic perspective, some terms of different origins are characterized by non-identical meanings. The emergence of non-identical synonyms may have been caused by the breadth of concepts covered by terms in other languages and by the various possibilities for designating them with Lithuanian terms.

3.3. Over the decade, the synonymy of Lithuanian and borrowed terms changed considerably. Most synonymous terms in the earlier construction terminology dictionaries are not synonyms in the new dictionary. The consolidation of synonymy is evidenced by the fact that the new dictionary contains only one member of some synonym series from the earlier dictionaries. Lithuanian terminology also became more firmly established—in many cases, Lithuanian terms rather than borrowed ones prevailed. The new dictionary now follows the principle of terminological economy, listing the shorter terms from mixed series.

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4. In the group of synonym series of purely Lithuanian terms, three subgroups predominate: series of one-word synonyms, series of synonymous compound terms with synonymous dependent components, and mixed series comprising one-word and two-word terms.

4.1. In the group of single-origin synonym series, cases of lexical synonymy are the most common. In the groups of synonymous one-word and compound terms, derivational and grammatical synonymy cases are four times fewer than lexical ones.

4.2. In the synonymy of purely Lithuanian terms, non-identity of lexical meanings may have arisen from the breadth of the concepts covered by terms from other languages and from the synonymy of terms from other languages.

4.3. Over the decade, single-origin synonymy changed more than double-origin synonymy. Many synonymous terms from earlier dictionaries are listed separately in the new dictionary, and an even larger proportion of synonymous terms are absent.

ŠALTINIAI

ALSTŽ 1993: Anglų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas. Spec. red. A. Kud zys, Vilnius.

RLSTŽ 1992: Rusų–lietuvių kalbų statybos terminų žodynas. Spec. red. A. Kud zys, Vilnius.

STŽ 2002: Statybos terminų žodynas. Moksl. red. A. Kud zys, Vilnius.

LITERATŪRA

DLKG 1997: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius.

DŽ₅ 2003: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. St. Keinys, Vilnius (e. leidimas).

Gaivenis K. 2002: Lietuvių terminologija: teorijos ir tvarkybos metmenys, Vilnius.

Kaulakienė A. 1978: Fizikos ir technikos terminų sinonimijos vertinimas. – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 19, 51–55.

Kaulakienė A. 1994: Statybos terminų žodynai. – Kalbotyra 43 (1), 96–100.

Kaulakienė A. 2000: Kompiuterijos terminijos sinonimija: yda ar būtinybė. – Terminologija 6, 23–28.

Keinys St. 1974: Terminų sinonimijos klausimu. – Leksikos ir sintaksės klausimai, Šiauliai, 44–51.

Keinys St. 1980: Terminologijos abėcėlė, Vilnius.

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Klimavičius J. 1975: Tarptautinių ir lietuviškų terminų sinonimija terminografijoje.

– Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 16. Lietuvių terminologija, 91–123.

Kniūkšta P. 1976: Priesagos -inis būdvardžiai. Daryba, reikšmės, gramatiniai sinonimai,

Vilnius.

KTŽ 1990: Gaivenis K., Keinys St. Kalbotyros terminų žodynas, Kaunas.

LKE 1999: Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija, Vilnius.

Mitkevičienė A. 2004: V. Dubo visuotinės literatūros vadovėlio terminų variantai.

– Terminologija 11, 119–144.

Pikčilingis J. 1969: Leksinė ir gramatinė sinonimika, Kaunas.

Pupkis A. 2005: Kalbos kultūros studijos, Vilnius.

TŽŽ 2001: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas. Ats. red. A. Kinderys, Vilnius.

Umbrasas A. 2004: Bendrasakniai dvižodžių teisės terminų sinonimai ir variantai

1918–1940 m. Lietuvos kodeksuose. – Terminologija 11, 100–118.

Urbutis V. 1978: Žodžių darybos teorija, Vilnius.

Vaskelienė J. 2000: Darybiniai sinonimai, Šiauliai.

Župerka K. 1983: Lietuvių kalbos stilistika, Vilnius.

Суперанская А. В. 2003: Суперанская А. В., Подольская Н. В., Васильева Н. В.

Общая терминология. Вопросы теории, Москва.

SYNONYMY OF BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING TERMINOLOGY

Summary

This paper analyzes in structure, derivation, meaning and development aspects 1653 different lines of synonyms presented in three term dictionaries of building and civil engineering: 1992 Russian-Lithuanian term dictionary of building and civil engineering, 1993 English-Lithuanian term dictionary of building and civil engineering, 2002 Term dictionary of construction. Considering facts building and civil engineering terminology is characterized by a variety of synonymy. A small number of lines of synonyms in new term dictionary shows steadied synonymy.

In respect of derivation of synonymous terms or synonymous components two big groups can be distinguished: heterogeneous synonymy, i. e. lines of synonyms of Lithuanian and borrowed terms and homogeneous synonymy, i. e. lines of synonyms of pure Lithuanian terms. According to structure, derivation and types of synonymy these two groups could be divided into 18 smaller groups.

In heterogeneous synonymy three smaller groups dominate: lines of synonyms of single-word Lithuanian and international terms [en aerator - aeratorius, vėdintuvas ALSTŽ 8], lines of synonyms of complex terms with Lithuanian and hybrid components [ekvivalentinis storis, lygiavertis storis - en reduced thickness STŽ 586], mixed lines of heterogeneous complex terms and borrowed single-word terms [hidrantas, vandens kolonėlė - en hydrant RLSTŽ 57]. In lines of synonyms of single-word terms and complex terms borrowed

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terms are preferred [monolitiškumas, vientisumas (en solidity) RLS TŽ 462; nominalusis skersmuo, vardinis skersmuo - en nominal diameter STŽ 532]. In mixed lines of synonyms complex terms are preferred [drožlių betonas, fibrolitas - en wood fiber concrete STŽ 74]. Linguistically some synonyms are not equivalent [vibruojamasis tankinimas, vibravimas (en compaction by vibration) RLS TŽ 437]. Non-equivalence of synonyms could come from the broadness of borrowed terms, which can be covered by a few Lithuanian terms, and various possibilities of “synonymous” nomination [en freight elevator - krovininis liftas, keltuvas ALSTŽ 125]. During ten years heterogeneous synonymy of building and civil engineering has changed: in many cases in the new term dictionary it is possible to find only one synonym of earlier lines of synonyms [farvateris, laivakelis (en clearway) ALSTŽ 61 - laivakelis STŽ 300]. Furthermore, Lithuanian synonymy strengthened considerably and in many cases in the new term dictionary Lithuanian terms are preferred [konsolė, gembė (en cantilever) RLS TŽ 144 - gembė STŽ 166]. Many synonymous terms in the new dictionary are presented as separate terms [diskas, skridinys (en disc) RLS TŽ 75 - diskas STŽ 122, skridinys STŽ 543].

In homogeneous synonymy three smaller groups dominate: lines of synonyms of single-word terms [aidas, atgarsis - en echo STŽ 14], lines of synonyms of complex terms with synonymous subordinate components [pakopos plotis, laiptelio plotis - en tread width STŽ 430], mixed lines of synonyms of single-word and complex terms [kreivių braižiklis, braižytuvas - en plotter STŽ 81]. In single-word and complex term synonymy lexical synonyms dominate [en blister - burbulas, pūslė ALSTŽ 34], whereas derivative [greitintuvas, greitiklis (en accelerator) RLS TŽ 441] and grammatical synonyms [pramoninė statyba, pramonės statyba (en industrialized construction) RLS TŽ 405] are rather rare. Some derivative synonyms must be eliminated because of categorial polysemy [sunkimasis, sunktis - en percolation STŽ 596]. Typical grammatical synonyms are derivates with the suffix -tinis and the participle [klijuotoji sija, klijuotinė sija (en glued girder) RLS TŽ 19]. Linguistically some homogeneous synonyms are not equivalent [en cooler - aušykla, aušinimo bokštas ALSTŽ 82]. Non equivalence of synonyms could come from the broadness of borrowed terms, which can be covered by several Lithuanian terms, and synonymy of other language equivalents [aukštuma, pakiluma - en hill, eminence STŽ 60]. During ten years homogeneous synonymy has changed: most synonyms of the earlier term dictionaries are absent in the new dictionary and in many cases the new term dictionary prefers only one term [en foreland - iškyšulys, ragas ALSTŽ 152 - iškyšulys STŽ 207].

Robertas STUNŽINAS

Gauta 2005-10-24

Lietuvių kalbos institutas P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 E. paštas [email protected]

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