Research interests: terminology, legal terminology, terminology standardization and management.
https://doi.org/10.35321/term32-10
ABSTRACT
When Lithuania declared independence in 1918, an immediate and pressing need arose for Lithuanian legal terminology, and work on the first dictionary of legal terms began soon afterwards. By 1920, a manuscript draft of the Russian–Lithuanian Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts had been prepared. This is an interesting source that makes it possible to explore the challenges of organizing legal terminology at the beginning of independence. The article examines the terms denoting persons included in this dictionary, which encompass both legal terms and other words. It seeks to establish which terms denoting persons were considered relevant to the language of law at the time and to discuss them systematically by showing which categories of persons are named in the dictionary. The study reveals not only the variety of terms denoting persons, but also their distinctive character.
KEYWORDS: history of terminology, legal terms, dictionary of terms, manuscript, terms denoting persons.
ABSTRACT
When Lithuania declared independence in 1918, there was an immediate need for Lithuanian legal terminology. Soon, work began on the first legal dictionary – in 1920, the manuscript Russian-Lithuanian dictionary, titled Teisės terminų ir kitų reikalingų teismams žodžių žodynėlio projektas (Eng. The Project of the Dictionary of Law Terms and other Words Necessary in Court), was prepared. This is an interesting source that provides insight into the challenges of legal terminology management at the beginning of independence. This article examines terms and other words denoting persons included in this dictionary. The aim is to find out which terms for persons were considered relevant to legal language at the time and to discuss them systematically – to show which categories of persons are named in the dictionary. The study reveals not only the diversity of terms for persons, but also their uniqueness.
KEYWORDS: history of terminology, legal terms, dictionary of terms, manuscript, terms denoting persons.
Bilingual terminology dictionaries are generally compiled for practical purposes—to serve as an aid in preparing texts in a particular field, and so on. The relevance of such dictionaries is not unlimited: over time, some terms change, new terms emerge in practice, and consequently dictionaries need to be updated. From a historical perspective, a terminology dictionary “freezes” the terminology of a particular period, and its material eventually becomes a potential source for historical research. Of course, a decade or two is generally too short a time for terminology to change significantly (although in new fields there may be many terminological changes even over such a period), but over a century the terminology of any field undergoes significant development and many changes. Given that Lithuanian-language printed terminography emerged only at the beginning of the 20th century, we can speak, in essence, of just over a hundred years of terminographical work overall, while the history of terminography in many fields is even shorter. Law could have been one of the fields whose terminology dictionary was published among the first, but it was not. Perhaps this was because compiling and publishing a well-prepared terminology dictionary for a field is a huge undertaking. Given that the need for official Lithuanian legal terminology arose only after independence was declared in 1918, the appearance of the first dictionary in the field seems a particularly difficult task to accomplish. Nevertheless, efforts were made to accomplish it, and much was achieved in a short time. As is known, as early as 1919 the Ministry of Justice began compiling a “dictionary of legal terms and words most needed by judges, investigators, notaries, etc.” (DJTŽ: 2), and by the autumn of 1920 a 120-page manuscript draft of the Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts had been prepared (for more, see Umbrasas 2010: 15–19; 2011: 109–110). No contemporary account is known to have described the preparation and discussion of this dictionary (given its size, it may be called a dictionary rather than a booklet), nor is it known why the work was not completed. The draft remained just a draft, but the survival of more than one copy from that time1 indicates that it was available to a certain group of people, who may have been able to use it, submit suggestions concerning it, and so on. The dictionary was compiled at a time when there was little terminographical practice or experience of this kind of work; therefore, from today’s perspective, its structure has shortcomings (for more, see Umbrasas 2011). Its greatest value, however, lies in its content, since it can show the state of legal terminology a century ago and reveal ideas about the creation of legal terminology at the time. The needs of the period meant that the dictionary was Russian–Lithuanian, since it was important to translate into Lithuanian Russian legal acts that remained
1 The dictionary and related drafts can be found in the Konstantinas Jablonskis collection in the Manuscripts Department of the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences (it is likely that he was the compiler, or one of the compilers, of this dictionary). Several copies, presumably belonging to Antanas Kriščiukaitis, are also held in the family archive of his grandson, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vytautas Vaidelis (I am grateful to his wife, Dr. Adelė Vaidelienė, and daughter, Jūratė Vaidelytė, for allowing me to examine the material). A copy formerly owned by Kazys Šalkauskis is in the library of Prof. Dr. Vytautas Andriulis (I am grateful to his daughter, Dr. Algė Andriulytė, for allowing me to use the dictionary). This article draws on V. Andriulis’s copy.
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that remained in force after independence was declared. The Provisional Law on Lithuanian Courts and the Organization of Their Work, promulgated as early as 1919, stipulated that court proceedings were to be conducted in Lithuanian, and that records were to be written and judgments announced in that language. This was, of course, not easy, since lawyers had received their legal education in languages other than Lithuanian, and not all of them could speak and write Lithuanian at all; consequently, lawyers sometimes demanded that court hearings be held in Russian (the Supreme Tribunal prohibited this in 1920). Thus, lawyers sometimes prepared texts first in Russian, after which they were translated into Lithuanian (see Deviatnikovaitė 2021: 158, 170 and the sources cited there). In this context, the need for and urgent compilation of the draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts are entirely understandable. The structure of the dictionary and its two-word terms have already been studied (Umbrasas 2012), but this interesting source undoubtedly merits further research from various perspectives.
Terms denoting persons were generally left aside in terminological research for a long time. Kazimieras Gaivenis (2002: 31) proposed that designations of specialists be studied separately from the terminology of the fields in which those specialists work. Thus, a lawyer would apparently not be classified as a legal term. Nevertheless, this word is needed in legal language. This is confirmed by the fact that it was included in the draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts as the equivalent of законовѣдъ (262) and юристъ (120). Research into the history of terminology shows that, at least in the past, terms denoting persons were widely used in the field of law (Umbrasas 2005), while there are essentially no comparable studies of contemporary legal terminology. Terms denoting persons therefore merit terminological research, and such research has occasionally been undertaken in recent years: for example, designations of persons in medicine have been examined (Zemlevičiūtė 2020), as have person designations included in computing dictionaries (Umbrasas 2018) and those used in administrative language (Pečkuvienė 2014). More often, however, person designations are discussed in non-terminological studies, for example, in research on dialectal vocabulary (see Gritėnienė 2016; 2018 and the literature cited in both publications) or in studies of word formation and semantics (Džežulskienė 2001; Gaudinskaitė 2021).
The subject of this article is the person designations included in the draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts. The aim is to establish which person designations were considered necessary for the courts and therefore included in the dictionary at the beginning of the period following the declaration of independence; to determine which groups of people these designations were intended to identify; to discuss them thematically; and to demonstrate their distinctive features. The descriptive-analytical method is applied. The material was collected by reading the dictionary. The dictionary is bilingual and contains no definitions, but most Lithuanian person designations are readily identifiable even from a contemporary perspective, on the basis of word semantics and the derivational formants characteristic of person designations. In analysing the material and identifying person designations, the semantics of Russian words and phrases was also taken into account; where necessary, it was checked against Russian dictionaries and other sources found using the Google search engine.
2 Here and below, the page number of the dictionary manuscript is given alongside examples.
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An examination of the terminology in the 1918–1940 codes found that designations of persons make up almost one seventh of all legal terms in them (Umbrasas 2005: 107). Of course, when material is collected manually from texts, some subjectivity in deciding whether to classify particular items as legal terms is inevitable, but the abundance of designations of persons is evident. Reading the Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts revealed that such designations are also plentiful in it: there are over 400 entries containing Russian words or phrases denoting persons. These account for about one tenth of all dictionary entries3 (approximately 4,200 in total). Since Russian items in the dictionary often have more than one Lithuanian equivalent, there are nearly 600 Lithuanian designations of persons altogether (counting those repeated in different entries). The proportion is comparable: these too account for about one tenth of all Lithuanian words and phrases in the dictionary (nearly 5,900 in total). It should be noted, however, that some Russian words can be used both adjectivally and as nouns, so it is not always clear whether a quality or a designation of a person is intended, e.g.: безвѣстно-отсутствующій – dingęs, nežinia kur dingęs, nudingėlis (3), неграмот-ный – beraštis, nemokąs rašyti (49), присяжный – prisiekęs, prisiekusis (84), уполномочен-ный – įgaliotas, įgaliotinis (113). In these cases, nudingėlis, beraštis, prisiekusis, įgaliotinis can already be treated as designations of persons, whereas the equivalents alongside them cannot. Let us also compare the entries пострадавший – nuskaustas, nukentėjęs, nukentėjėlis (76), потер-певший – nukentėjęs, nukentėjėlis, nuskaustas (77), in which only nukentėjėlis clearly denotes a person and was therefore included in the study, while the other Lithuanian equivalents listed alongside it were excluded (the example also shows that there are repetitions). Even for nouns, the dictionary sometimes gives an equivalent expressing a quality (either alone or alongside a noun), e.g.: недоимщикъ – neišmokėjęs mokesnių (49), старожилъ – senas vietos gyventojas; gyvenęs iš seno (105). The dictionary is grammatically diverse, containing nouns, adjectives, verbs and other parts of speech, as well as various phrases. Grammatically different equivalents are sometimes listed together without a clear lexicographic distinction. For the purposes of this study, the Lithuanian nouns in the material as a whole are of interest; an effort was made to set aside Lithuanian adjectives and participles describing persons, except where possible substantivization was discerned (usually signalled by the definite form, e.g., kaltas (9) was excluded, while kaltasis (9) was included), or by certain formatives such as be-, -tinis, which tend to make words substantivize, e.g., beprotis (4), kviestinis (75)). Nevertheless, treating one or another dictionary item as a designation of a person may be merely the researcher’s interpretation of possible substantivization. It should be added that repeated components in the dictionary are sometimes written out (e.g., единоличный судья – vieninis teisėjas, vienas pats teisėjas, vienaasmenis teisėjas, vienavienis teisėjas (23)), and sometimes omitted (e.g., акцизный надзиратель – akcīžės prievaizdas, prižiūrėtojas (45)). In the latter case, these are treated as two equivalents: akčyžės prievaizdas and akčyžės prižiūrėtojas. An example of a dictionary page containing designations of persons is shown in the figure.
3 Straipsnis čia suprantamas kaip nurodyta Umbrasas 2011: 111.
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Figure. Example of text containing designations of persons from the Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts (part of page 76)
Law is a system of principles and norms that establishes and guarantees a general social normative order (VLEe). Thus, law can be linked, in essence, to all fields, provided they fall within the sphere of legal regulation; it is therefore natural that legal language requires a variety of terms. Some are more legal in nature, while others are more subject-specific, originating in the fields being regulated. A person in law can be viewed both as an acting subject and as an object of regulation. When discussing social relations, people must be described, named and assigned to particular categories—designations of persons are unavoidable. The Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts includes both general designations of persons that may be relevant beyond the legal context and distinctive terms that were likely coined specifically for legal purposes. The dictionary’s title emphasizes the needs of the courts, so the terms were apparently needed primarily for examining and describing both civil and criminal cases, addressing other kinds of legal questions, recording legal facts, and so on. The article goes on to discuss the designations of persons collected from the dictionary and illustrate them with examples arranged in thematic groups.
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GENERAL DESIGNATIONS OF PERSONS
The practical purpose of the dictionary under study can justify including general designations of persons. These designations are not strictly legal terms and can also be used for non-specialized purposes to refer to people, for example:
by age – infant (младенец, 43), girl (дѣвица, 22), minor (несовершеннолетній, 51), adolescent (подростокъ, 72), old woman (бабка, 2);
by place of residence – in this respect, it may be important to distinguish length of residence in a particular place, e.g., permanent resident (обыватель, 56), longtime local resident (старожилъ, 105), indigenous resident (коренной житель, 38), or the nature of (non-)change of residence, partly expressing the opposition between belonging and foreignness: emigrant (эмигрантъ, 119), exile (ссыльно-поселенецъ, 105), foreigner, foreigner (иностранецъ, 33), local resident (мѣстный житель; туземецъ, 109), local person (туземецъ, 109);
by involvement in common activity – indicating a general connection with other people, society, or the like, e.g., like-minded person (единомышленникъ, 23), participant (участникъ, 115), friend, accomplice (товарищъ, 108), participant in a crowd (участникъ толпы, 115), member (членъ, 118), predecessor, forebear (предшественникъ, 80), person bound by an obligation (человѣкъ долга, 21), adherent (послѣдователь, 76), full member (непремѣнный членъ, 51), public worker (дѣятель (общественный), 23), public figure, community member (общественникъ, 55);
by health status – the designation deaf-mute (глухонѣмой, 17) may be noted; the word узувъртъ (32) is translated in the dictionary as a degenerate, a monster, a cripple, and may here refer to a person with pronounced signs of physical and/or mental deformity (cf. the adjacent entry узувъртъ – suluošinti4), although the Russian word could also refer to an especially cruel person. Many designations of people with intellectual disabilities are given: слабоумный (98) is translated as silpnaprotis, mažaprotis, безумный (4) as beprotis, pamišėlis, padūkęlis; the word бепротис is also given as an equivalent of сумасшедший (107) and умалишенный (112). In Russia, the first laws defining the status and liability of people with mental illness appeared quite early, as far back as 1722. The Russian tsar Peter I prohibited “fools from marrying,” and after independence was declared, Russian law was adopted. The Russian Criminal Code draft enacted in Lithuania specified when “the feeble-minded and the insane” were legally responsible or not (Radavičius 2004: 24, 28). Explanations distinguishing the terms can also be found in legal sources of the period: “the insane are those who have lacked sound reason since childhood,” while “the mentally deranged are those who, having lost their reason because of some incident and become ill, sometimes reach a state of frenzy” (Šalkauskis 1933: 68). Terms denoting intellectual disabilities have changed repeatedly over time (see Gedzevičienė 2021 for more), and in recent years they have been viewed as especially sensitive; pejorative designations are avoided, with greater emphasis placed on the disability rather than the person.
4 The dictionary also contains the adjective disabled, describing a person (увѣчный, 111).
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Both from the legal perspective and in other respects, designations of persons by status are important. The dictionary includes designations according to estate status, e.g.: nobleman (дворянник, 19), landed nobleman (помѣстный дворянинъ, 74), rent-paying peasant (обро́чникъ, 55; чиншевикъ, 118), landowner (помѣщикъ, 74), non-noble (разночинецъ, 90), szlachta member (дворянникъ, 19), peasant (крестьянинъ, 39). The equivalents given for шляхта (119) are szlachta members, petty nobles, landless nobles. Economic status is also important, e.g.: person receiving a privilege (состоящий на льготѣ, 42), pensioner (пенсіонеръ, 65), insolvent debtor (несостоятельный должникъ, 51), impoverished person, bankrupt (банкротъ, 3), insolvent merchant (несостоятельный торговецъ, 52), insolvent debtor (несостоятельный должникъ, 51), pauper, destitute person (бѣдный, 7), vagabond (бродяга, 6). As can be seen, these designations often express a negative aspect, but there are also examples of status based on positive characteristics, e.g.: honorary citizen (почетный гражданинъ, 77), patron (патронъ, 65), benefactor (благотворитель, 5). Designations indicating status in relation to religion or the state include schismatic (раскольникъ, 91; сектантъ, 97), citizen (гражданинъ, 17), autocrat (самодержецъ, 95), subject (подданный, 70). A missing or deceased person is designated, respectively, as a missing person (безвѣстно-отсутствующий, 3), a person lost without trace (пропавший безъ вѣсти, 87), a corpse (мертвое тѣло, 43), a deceased person (умершій, 113).
DESIGNATIONS OF PERSONS ACCORDING TO KINSHIP AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
Designations of persons according to kinship and family relationships are important in determining maintenance obligations, marital ties, and inheritance rights. These designations constitute a substantial group in the dictionary. It includes categorical designations of persons ascendant relative (восходящій родственникъ, 12), collateral relative (боковой родственникъ, 6), descendant relatives (нисходящіе родственники, 52), as well as numerous designations indicating specific kinship relations, e.g.: mother-in-law (свекровь5, 96), nephew, cousin (двоюродный братъ, 19), uncle (дядя, 23), brother-in-law (деверъ, 19), niece (племянница, 68), daughter-in-law (невѣстка, 48; сноха, 100), niece, female cousin (двоюродная сестра, 19), nephew (племянникъ, 68), sister-in-law (своячина, 96), relative by marriage (свойственникъ, 96), brother-in-law (своякъ, 96; шуринъ, 119), mother-in-law (тёща, 108), father-in-law (тесть, 108). Relations between spouses are not considered kinship, but are semantically adjacent to it. Several designations related to marriage are provided, e.g.: newlyweds (брачу́ющиеся, 6), bride, fiancée (невѣста, 48), married couple (супруги, 107), groom, bridegroom (женихъ, 24), husband and wife (супруги, 107).
From a legal perspective, relationships arising not only in the original family but also through remarriage or adoption are important; therefore, the following designations of persons are included in the dictionary: foster child (приемышъ, 85), adopted daughter (приемная дочь, 85), adoptive mother (приемная мать, 85), adopter (усыновитель, 115), adopted son (приемный сынъ, 85), adoptive father (приемный отецъ, 85; усыновитель, 115), stepmother (мачиха, 42), stepfather (отчимъ, 12), stepdaughter (падчерица, 64), stepson (пасынокъ, 65). Children born in wedlock were considered legitimate at the time; there are designations for parents and
5 In addition to свекоръ (96), which is given without an equivalent.
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especially with regard to the legitimacy of children (“children legitimized by the marriage of their parents are considered legitimate from the date of their parents’ marriage” (Šalkauskis 1933: 43)), e.g.: substituted child, illegitimate child (подложное дитя, 71), child born out of wedlock (внебрачный ребенокъ, 10; дитя, рожденное внѣ брака, 6), abandoned child (подкинутый ребенокъ, 70), foundling (найденышъ, 46), foundling infant (внебрачный ребенокъ, 10; дитя, рожденное внѣ брака, 6), legal father (законный отецъ, 26), legitimate children (законныя дѣти, 26), legitimate child (законнорожденный, 26). In the dictionary, pavainikis is given only as an adjective, but at the time it was used in law as a noun: “children born out of wedlock are legitimized by the marriage of their parents” (Šalkauskis 1933: 43). The dictionary also has child born out of wedlock (незаконный ребенокъ, 49), but this is probably an error. When a family member dies, designations of persons become relevant such as orphan (сирота, 97), widow (вдова, 7), widower (вдовецъ, 7), descendant, heir (потомокъ, 77), whereas переживший супругъ (66) is left untranslated. Related to this are designations of persons in guardianship and custodial relationships, e.g.: guardian (опекунъ, 58; попечитель, 75), guardian-adviser (попечитель, 75), guardian-supervisor (опекунъ-блюститель, 5), ward (опекаемый, 58), guardian (опекунъ, 58), custodian (попечитель, 75), (ap)rupintojas6 (опекунъ, 58). There are designations arising from kinship and family relationships that also identify persons from various other perspectives, e.g.: disinherited sister (выдѣленная сестра, 14), progenitor (родоначальникъ, 93), household member (домочадецъ, 21), ancestor (предокъ, 79), household member (домочадецъ, 21). The word childless (безѣтный, 3; безпотомственный, 4) may also be mentioned here, although it may have been used adjectivally.
DESIGNATIONS OF PERSONS ACCORDING TO SPECIALIZATION
For regulatory and classification purposes, occupational classifications are compiled at international and national levels today (see LPK 2023), and dictionaries of occupational titles are sometimes published as well (e.g.: Andriuškevičienė et al. 2005; 2006). After independence was declared in 1918, the use of Lithuanian for official state purposes created a need to provide official names for certain positions, specializations, and the like. The need to agree on such terms may have been the reason why a wide range of designations of persons by specialization were included in the Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts. Various fields are covered, including those with no direct connection to law. There are numerous designations for craftspeople and workers performing technical and similar tasks. There are a few more general designations, e.g.: craft worker, artisan (мастеровой, 42), workshop foreman (цеховой мастеръ, 117), day laborer (поденщикъ, 70), artel member (артельщикъ, 2), journeyman (подмастерье, 71), as well as quite a number of designations oriented toward specific forms of physical labor, e.g.: drover (гуртовщикъ, 18), carpenter (зодчій, 31; плотникъ, 68), firefighter (пожарный, 72), blacksmith (кузнецъ, 40), stove fitter (печникъ, 67), courier, messenger (курьеръ, 40), cobbler
6 A spelling error; it should be (ap)rūpintojas.
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(саночникъ, 95), letter carrier (почтальонъ, 77), boatman (корабельщикъ, 38), field laborer (сельскій рабочій, 97), hunter (охотникъ, 63), forest guard (лѣсникъ, 42), guide (проводникъ, 86), midwife, accoucheuse (повивальная бабка, 68), potter (гончарь, 17), locksmith (слесарь, 98), engraver (граверъ, 17; рѣзчикъ (печатей), 94), eunuch (скопецъ, 98), guard (сторожъ, 105), raftman (водоходецъ, 10), tailor⁷ (портной, 75), nurse (сидѣлка (при больномъ), 97), carpenter (столяръ, 105), builder (зодчій, 31), glazier (стекольщикъ, 105), locksmith (слесарь, 98), turner (токарь, 109), dockworker (портовый рабочій, 75), carrier, driver (возчикъ, 11), wet nurse, nursing woman (кормилица, 39). An analogous group comprises names for persons engaged in intellectual work, that is, people whose activity is primarily based on mental work and decision-making, although it may also involve aspects of physical labor, for example: archivist (архивариусъ, 2), artist (художникъ, 117), practicing physician (практикующий врачъ, 78), forester (лѣсничій, 42), quality inspector (браковщикъ, 6), appraiser (оцѣнщикъ, 64), pilot (лоцманъ, 42), auctioneer⁸ (аукціоннстъ, 2), hospital superintendent (смотритель больницы, 99), broker (маклеръ, 42), surveyor (землемѣръ, 30), forester (лѣсничій, 42), building superintendent (смотритель здания, 99), income and expenditure clerk (приходо-расходчикъ, 85), market superintendent (базарный староста, 105), writer (сочинитель, 103), palace⁹ superintendent (смотритель здания, 99), accountant (счетоводъ, 107), counter, reader (счетчикъ, 107), census taker (счетчикъ, 107), estate manager (управляющій (имѣніемъ), 113), pharmacist (фармацевтъ, 116), pharmacist’s assistant (аптекарскій помощникъ, 2), translator (переводчикъ, 65). Incidentally, it is interesting that журналистъ (24) is translated in the dictionary as laikraštininkas, dienoraštininkas. The latter word is not recorded in LKŽₑ, either in this sense or at all. There are also more general names for people engaged in intellectual work that are not oriented toward a particular object or action, for example: deputy (замѣститель, 27; товарищъ, 108), representative (замѣститель, 27), worker (прикащикъ, 83), works supervisor (производитель работъ, 86), commissioned agent (прикащикъ, 83), office clerk (конторщикъ, 38), assistant (товарищъ, 108), adviser (совѣтникъ, 101), agent (прикащикъ, 83), assistant to the chairman, deputy chairman (товарищъ председателя, 108), supervisor (надзиратель, 45; надсмотрщикъ, 45), overseer, manager (завѣдывающій, 24), secretary (секретарь, 97), adviser (совѣтникъ, 101), servant¹⁰ (служитель, 99), employee (служащій, 99), deputy (замѣститель, 27). Names for entrepreneurs and business organizers may also be assigned to the intellectual-work group, for example: mining industrialist (горнопромыш-ленникъ, 17), shopkeeper (лавочникъ, 40), shipping entrepreneur (судопромышленникъ, 107), money changer¹¹ (мѣняло, 44), timber merchant (лѣсопромышленникъ, 42), post office keeper (почто-
7 A spelling error; it should be siuvėjas.
8 LKŽₑ records only licitatorius.
9 It should be rūmų.
10 Here, servant seems to be equivalent to employee; cf. office servant (канцелярскій служитель, 35).
11 Judging from the Russian equivalent, this refers to a person engaged in currency exchange. LKŽₑ does not record this word, but it does include mainininkas, mainikautojas, maineiva, mainelninkas, and so on.
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содержатель, 77), industrialist (промышленникъ, 87), trader (торговецъ, 109), businessman (дѣлецъ, 23; предприниматель, 79). Businessman is presumably offered here as a word without connotations, roughly equivalent to the current term entrepreneur. In the translation of the Criminal Code, which appeared as early as 1919, it was also used as an equivalent of промышленникъ (Umbrasas 2005: 118). In the dictionary, предприниматель is also rendered as įmoninkas, įsimanytojas.
It is useful to distinguish separately names for employees and officials of state offices and institutions. In the newly established state, the entire administrative apparatus was being created, so the formation of names for such people was a pressing matter. A comprehensive system of these names is not evident in the dictionary, since it served a different purpose, but it contains quite a number of names for persons needed in various state-administration contexts, for example: excise supervisor, excise inspector (акцизный надзиратель, 45), authorized representative (уполномоченный, 113), legal representative (повѣренный въ дѣлахъ, 69), treasurer (казначей, 34), chancery clerk (канцеляристъ, 35), city council member, city councillor (городской гласный, 17), tax inspector (податной инспекторъ, 70), notary (нотариусъ, 52), notary’s clerk (нотариальный писецъ, 67), envoy (посолъ, 76; посланникъ, 76), office employee (канцелярский служитель, 99), clerk (канцеляристъ, 35; писецъ, 67), raštvaizdis12 (дѣлопроизводитель, 23; письмоводитель, 67), affairs administrator (правитель дѣлъ, 77), tax collector (сборщикъ, 95), council member, councillor (гласный, 17), statesman (государственный мужъ, 17). The general term official (должностное лицо, 21) is provided, along with its subtypes: civil servant (чиновникъ гражданскаго вѣдомства, 16), senior official (сановникъ, 95), retired official (заштатный чиновникъ, 29), chancery official (канцелярский чиновникъ, 35), elected official (выборная должность, 13). There are also a couple of candidates for office: candidate for judicial office (кандидатъ на судебныя должности, 35), candidate for membership on a board (кандидатъ въ члены правленія, 35).
Names for law-enforcement and military officials, and related persons are also worth noting, for example: stable supervisor (шталъмейстеръ, 119), reservist (запасный солдатъ, 27), quartermaster (квартирмейстеръ, 36), prison superintendent, prison overseer, prison governor (смотритель тюрьмы, 99), soldiers (нижние воинские чины, 11; воинские чины, 118), military personnel (воинские чины, 11, 118), recruit (новобранецъ, 52), policemen, police13 officials (чины полиции, 118), cavalryman (шталъмейстеръ, 119), guard (стражъ, 106), conscript (призывной, 82), rifleman (ратникъ, 92), detective (сыщикъ, 108; шпионъ, 119) (постовой 76) left untranslated). The dictionary has policeman (полицейский, 73), but city militiaman (городовой, 17). It should be noted here that from 1918 and throughout the period when the dictionary was being compiled, militia operated in Lithuania; the Militia Law was adopted in 1920, and it was renamed the police only at the beginning of 1924 (Kiškis 2017: 7). At the beginning of independence
12 A semantically rather opaque word, not recorded in LKŽe.
13 Although the manuscript might perhaps be misread, the spelling seems to have varied. palicija is written more often, but policija also occurs; cf. police squad (полицейская команда, 37).
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Militia personnel lacked both professional and legal training, and the entire system of activity had not yet become established (Mančinskas 1998: 10–11), so one cannot yet expect a system of names for officials in this field in the dictionary under examination. The dictionary likewise contains only a few names for persons associated with the military (mentioned among the examples), presumably those more relevant in the law-enforcement context.
There is a small group of names for senior officials and officeholders in state institutions, for example: бурмистр (голова городской, 17), dešimtininkas (десятникъ, 19), laivo vadas (командиръ судна, 37), pirmininkas (предсѣдатель, 80), raštinės valdytojas (правитель канцелярии, 77), skyriaus viršininkas (столоначальникъ, 105), vadas (командиръ, 37), vadovas (вожакъ, 10; завѣдывающій, 24; проводникъ, 86), valdytojas (правитель, 77), valdovas (правитель, 77), vyresnysis (старшина, 105), vyriausiasis vadas (главнокомандующий, 16), vyriausiasis valdytojas (главноуправляющий, 16), viršila (старшина, 105), viršininkas (командиръ, 37; начальникъ, 48). Admittedly, some of these names are more general in nature and can also be used outside the context of officials, but in the absence of definitions it is difficult to assess the limits of their use. In general, the domains of use of such words sometimes change over time; for example, the term viršila now denotes only a rank among military and law-enforcement officers, whereas the dictionary gives valsčiaus viršila (волостной старшина, 105), although the designation valsčiaus viršaitis took hold at the time. The dictionary does not include seniūnas, while староста (сельский) (105) is given without a Lithuanian equivalent. Incidentally, the dictionary includes vyriausioji valstybės galva (глава государства, 16), but not prezidentas, ministras (the form ministeris was used at the time), although it does include ministerio padėjėjas, ministerio antrininkas (товарищъ министра, 108).
When discussing occupational specialization, the names of legal specialists and lawmaking subjects merit separate mention. Lawmaking subjects are included here only provisionally, since they are usually collective entities, although in certain cases legislative authority may also belong to a single-person entity (e.g., a president or emperor). The dictionary under examination includes essentially synonymous terms: įstatymų davėjas (законодатель, 26; праводатель, 78), teisiadavy s (праводатель, 78) and įstatymų leidėjas (законодатель, 26). It was the last term that became established, while the first two were calques of Russian terms. Several names for legal specialists are also included—teisininkas (законовѣдъ, 26; юристъ, 120), procesininkas (процессуалистъ, 88)—while юрисконсультъ (120) has as many as three equivalents: teisininkas patarėjas, teisės patarėjas, juriskonsultas, all of which still occur in usage today.
Both before and after independence was declared, the laws in force in most of Lithuania recognized only religious marriages; records of births, marriages, and deaths were drawn up by the clergy of each person’s religion, in accordance with the procedures established by law. The Provisional Constitution of 1918 affirmed the continued application of the laws of the Russian Empire: people were still permitted to marry one another within their own religion without seeking authorization from civil institutions. Marriage between adherents of different religions was either prohibited altogether (e.g., Catholics with non-Christians) or permitted under certain conditions depending on the religions involved (Šalkauskis 1933: 17–25). Religious marriage created considerable difficulties for those wishing to divorce, and thus at the time there were both
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illegal marriages and cases in which one spouse changed religion in order to obtain a divorce and enter into another marriage (Juozapaitienė 2011: 107–109). Thus, in this respect, the links between civil law and religion are evident, and reflections of these can be expected in the dictionary project under examination, Teisės terminų ir kitų reikalingų teismams žodžių žodynėlio projekte. It contains few terms related to religion, but some do occur, for example: (bažnytinė) procesija (крестный ход, 39), kunigų seminarija (духовная семинария, 22), dvasinis teismas (духовный суд, 22). There are also names for religious figures, mostly clergy, for example: dvasininkas (духовное лицо, 22), klebonas (настоятель (церкви), 48), kunigas (священник, 97), parapijos kunigai ir bažnyčios tarnautojai (причть, 85), vyskupas vikaras (викарный епископ, 9), while церковный староста (105) is left untranslated. Among other religious figures, podis14 (восприемникъ, 12) is worth noting; the word кmtоръ15 (40) is left without a Lithuanian equivalent.
NAMES FOR PARTICIPANTS IN LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
The dictionary’s title specifies that its terms are needed by courts, so one can reasonably expect it to contain terms directly related to the courts. On November 28, 1918, the Council of State of Lithuania adopted the Provisional Law on the Organization of Lithuanian Courts and Their Work, which established a three-tier court system: justices of the peace, district courts, and the court of highest instance, the Supreme Tribunal of Lithuania (VLEe). The dictionary includes names for courts, but it appears to have been oriented less toward the realities of the existing legal system than toward simply finding equivalents for various Russian terms; hence the considerable variety, for example: valstybinis teismas (коронный суд, 39), apygardos teismas (окружной суд, 57), vyriausiasis teismas (верховный суд, 8), liaudies teismas (народный суд, 47), pačių teismas, žmonių teismas (самосуд, 95), trečiųjų teismas, garbės teismas (судъ чести, 118), trečiųjų teismas, savitarpio teismas (третейский судъ, 109), prekybinis teismas (коммерческий судъ, 37). There is also considerable variety among the names for persons identified as participants in legal proceedings. There are quite a number of terms for parties to a dispute or case, accused and accusers, and injured persons, for example: apeliuotojas (апелляторъ, 2), areštantas (арестантъ, 2), atsakytojai, atsakomoji šalis (ответная сторона, 61), atsakytojas (ответчикъ, 61), atstovas (представитель, 80), bylininkai, dalyviai, šalys (стороны (въ дѣлѣ), 105), bylininkas, bylos dalyvis (тяжущійся, 110), dalyvis (сообщникъ, 102), ieškotojas, bylos kėlėjas16 (истецъ, 34), ieškotojų šalis (истцовая сторона, 34), įrašydintojas (заявитель, 30), išreikalautojas (взыскатель, 8), išteisintoji šalis (оправданная сторона, 58), kalinys (арестантъ, 2; заключенный, 26), kaltinamasis (обвиняемый, 53), kaltintojas (обвинитель, 53), nukaltintoji šalis (обвиненная сторона, 53), nukentėjėlis (пострадавший,
14 This loanword referred to a godfather (LKŽ).
15 Ktitorius is not recorded in general lexicography; this was the name for a person at whose expense an Orthodox church was built or equipped (RŽ 1991).
16 The feminine form ieškotoja, bylos kėlėja (истица, 34) is also listed separately, although, in general, the dictionary gives names for persons in the unmarked masculine gender.
Alongside these were names for officials conducting pre-trial investigations and representing the state in court, judges, and court judgment enforcement officers, for example: bailiff (приставъ (полицейский), 84), justice of the peace (мировой судья, 43), investigator (слѣдователь, 99), court enforcement officer, court bailiff (судебный приставъ, 84), court investigator (судебный слѣдователь, 99), state prosecutor (прокуроръ, 86), assistant state prosecutor, deputy state prosecutor (товарищъ прокурора, 108). It should be noted that the term judge (судья, 107) had not yet become established at the time; the same entry also offered tiesdarys, while единоличный судья (23) has no fewer than four equivalents: sole judge, judge acting alone, one-person judge, single judge.
A significant group in the dictionary consists of names for lawyers, experts, witnesses, third parties, and other persons taking part in a case or court proceedings, for example: lawyer (стряпчій, 106; ходатай (по дѣламъ), 116), адвокатъ повѣренный (повѣренный по дѣламъ, 69), people from the surrounding area (окольные люди, 57), alternate juror (запасный засѣдатель, 27), litigant (стряпчій, 106; ходатай (по дѣламъ), 116), representative in another’s affairs (ходатай по чужимъ дѣламъ, 116), expert, knowledgeable person (экспертъ, 119), defense counsel (защитникъ, 30), attesting witness (понятой, 75), eyewitness (очевидецъ, 64; свидѣтель, 96), false witness (лжесвидѣтель, 41), experts, knowledgeable persons (свѣдущіе люди, 96), appointed mediator (назначенный посредникъ, 46), outsider, nonparticipant (третье лицо, 109), juror (засѣдатель, 29), reporter (докладчикъ, 20), sworn juror (присяжный, 84), barrister (присяжный повѣренный, 85), sworn juror (присяжный засѣдатель, 29, 85), private lawyer (частный повѣренный, 118), witness (свидѣтель, 96), appointed defense counsel (защитникъ по назначенію, 46).
Interestingly, the dictionary includes a relatively large number of words naming various criminals, offenders, and other violators of legal norms. One can distinguish general names for persons who committed an offence and those who assisted them, for example: offender, guilty party (виновникъ, 9), criminal (виновникъ, 9; преступникъ, 81), misdemeanant (совершившій проступокъ, 87), accomplice (сообщникъ, 102; соумышленникъ, 103; соучастникъ, 103), assistant, aider, accomplice (пособникъ, 76), instigator (зачинщикъ, 29), inciter (подстрекатель, 72) (terms of this type, рецидивистъ (93), подставное лицо (72), were left untranslated), and specific names pointing to particular negatively assessed conduct or acts, for example: арклиавогіѕ (конокрадъ, 38), idler, loafer (праздношатающійся, 78), murderer (убійца, 110), traitor (измѣнникъ, 32), smuggler17 (контрабандистъ, 38), prostitute (проститутка, 87), squanderer, waster
17 As can be seen, грам атинта is rendered according to Russian pronunciation, as is kantrabanda (контрабанда, 38), now conventionally kontrabanda.
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(расчотитель, 92), usurer (ростовщикъ, 94), rebel (бунтовщикъ, 6), libertine, debauchee (порочный, 75), sycophant (понустьитель, 75), wrongdoer (злоумышленникъ, 30), robber (грабитель, 17), perjurer, oath-breaker (клятвопреступникъ, 36), wrongdoer (обидчикъ, 53), poacher (браконьеръ, 6), assailant (насильникъ, 47). Many of these names, from today’s perspective, would be suitable at most in a journalistic context, but at the time they were regarded as part of the vocabulary of legal language, as their inclusion among “words needed by the courts” at least indicates.
NAMES FOR SUBJECTS OF LEGAL RELATIONSHIPS
Law regulates various legal relationships. Wherever there are relationships, there are also subjects of those relationships. In general, legal theory tends to distinguish the terms subject of law and subject of legal relations (see Vitkevičius 2004: 103), but this distinction is not very important when discussing names for persons. The subject of legal relations is not only a human being, but also a collective entity or the state. In law, a tradition developed of also calling enterprises and institutions persons—legal persons, but by the time the dictionary under study was compiled, the term legal person had apparently not yet emerged; instead, the term teisinis asmuo (юридическое лицо, 119) was given. Although the term legal person had already appeared during the first period of independence18, toward the end of independence the Terminology Commission operating at the State Council still proposed teisinis asmuo and tikrinis asmuo (Stravinskas 1940: 185). The latter term corresponded to the present-day term natural person, which was also already in use (see Šalkauskis 1933: 87).
The manuscript dictionary under study contains a cluster of names denoting subjects of legal relations. Apparently, legal language had not yet clearly differentiated these concepts at the time, so both лицо (41) and asmuo and žmogus. Asmuo were offered as equivalents; личность (41) was also matched with asmuo. Частное лицо (118) was translated not only as privatinis žmogus, but also, non-terminologically, as šiaipjau žmogus, while the term физическое лицо is absent. The dictionary also contains other terms that can, at least provisionally, be assigned to the broader category of names for subjects of legal relations, for example: authorized representative, agent (доверенное лицо, 20; поверенный, 69), principal (доверитель, 20; препоручитель, 81), client (доверитель, 20), successor in title (правопреемник19, 78), predecessor in title (правопредшественник, 78). Contracting parties may also be mentioned here; apparently, the following names were used synonymously: contracting party, party to an agreement, party to an act (контрагентъ, 38), contracting parties (договаривающияся стороны, 20). The naming of relationships often gives rise to paired terms; for example, the subjects of insurance relations are named in the dictionary as insurer (страховщикъ, 106) and insured (страхователь, 106), but terminological microsystems are not necessarily complete. For instance, the terms given for political relations in the context of elections include representative (депутатъ, 19), voter
¹⁸ “Private property comprises all that belongs to private individuals and legal persons, such as companies, corporations, and konkursai” (Šalkauskis 1933: 85).
¹⁹ And правоуступатель (78) is left without an equivalent in the dictionary.
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(избиратель, 31), rinkikas (выборщик, 13), but perhaps the possible term renkamasis20 is absent; this word appears only as the equivalent of the adjective избирательный (31).
Most of the names for subjects of legal relations given in the dictionary denote subjects of property law and the law of obligations associated with it. Property law is the right to exercise rights of possession, use, and disposal; here, aspects such as ownership, pledges, leases, usufruct, and the like are relevant (VLE.). The object of a property-law relationship is usually a particular material good, whereas the object of the law of obligations is an action involving the transfer, sale, or lending of such things and objects treated as equivalent to them (Baranauskas et al. 2010: 17–19).
The dictionary contains various names for persons involved in relationships concerning ownership, gifts, pledges, safekeeping, and the like, for example: autorius (сочинитель, 103), dovanotojas (даритель, 18), įkaitinis turėtojas (заставный владелец, 29), įkaito davėjas (закладчик, 26; залогодатель, 27), įkaito laikytojas (закладодержатель, 26; залогодержатель, 27), įkaitėjas (закладчик, 26; залогодатель, 27), laikytojas (хранитель, 117), laivo savininkas (судопромышленник, 107), miško savininkas (льсовладелец, 42), namininkas (домовладелец, 21; домохозяин, 21), namų šeimininkas (домохозяин, 21), nesąžiningas turėtojas (недобросовестный владелец, 49), padėlio priėmėjas, padėlio laikytojas (поклажеприниматель, поклажехранитель, 73), padėtojas (поклажедатель, 73), savininkas (собственник, 100), sąžiningas turėtojas (добросовестный владелец, 19), turėtojas (владелец, 9), turėtojas bendrininkas (совладелец, 101), vaisių naudotojas21 (пользователь, 74). A group of terms denotes parties to lease relationships, for example: įnamys (наниматель квартиры, 46), kampininkas (угловой жилец, 111), nuomininkas (арендатор, 2; наниматель, 46), nuomotojas (сдающий в аренду, 2), (iš)nuomotojas (наймодавец, 46), pusininkas, pusinis (половник, 73), but перенимаемщик (66) is left untranslated. There is also a group of terms denoting parties to borrowing relationships, for example: laid(u)otojas (поручитель, 75), pasiskolintojas (ссудоприниматель, 105), paskolintojas (заимодавец, 25), (pa)skolintojas (ссудодатель, 105), skolininkas (должник, 21), skolintojas (кредитор, 39), skolintojas, įtikėtojas (вверитель, 16), vekselio davėjas (векселедатель, 7), vekselio laikytojas (векселедержатель, 7), while заемщик (25) is left without a Lithuanian equivalent.
Among the names for subjects of legal relations, we should also mention the names for parties to inheritance relations recorded in the dictionary under study, for example: inventoriaus turto įpėdinis (инвентарный наследник, 33), įpėdinis (наследник, 48), įstatyminis įpėdinis, teisės įpėdinis (законный наследник, 26), legataras (легатарий22, 41), palikėjas (наследодатель, 48), testatorius, testamento davėjas (завещатель, 25), velionės skirto testamento vykdytojas, testamento įsakytinis (душеприказчик, 22).
In summary, the dictionary under study contains about 20 Russian names for persons that were not translated into Lithuanian (many are mentioned in the article under the relevant thematic groups). It is clear that translation difficulties arose, among other things, with specific historical names. For example, бобыль (5) was left untranslated; this was the name for impoverished peasants who lived and worked on a feudal lord’s estate and were exempt from natural obligations to the state (Dinaev 2016: 82). Also left untranslated was вотчинникъ (12), the Russian term for holders of feudal land estates (patrimonies). Later, when the civil laws of the Russian Empire were translated, the term tėvonis was used (Umbrasas 2005: 122). It should be borne in mind that the first dictionary of legal terms was compiled at a time when neither the first Civil Code (then referred to simply as civil laws) nor the codes of civil and criminal procedure had yet been translated into Lithuanian. Only the Criminal Code was translated in haste (at the time it was referred to both as the Criminal Statute and as criminal laws), since its first unofficial translation appeared as early as 1919, that is, before the manuscript dictionary discussed here was compiled (Umbrasas 2010: 32–40). It may also be added that the Terminology Commission under the Ministry of Education was established and considered only a few dozen legal terms in 1921. Thus, the first dictionary of legal terms was indeed compiled in the absence of the necessary Lithuanian sources, and its aim was presumably first and foremost to select legal terms of the Russian Empire—that is, Russian terms—which had long been used in the law being adopted, without necessarily being oriented solely toward the realities of 1919–1920 (for instance, the Russian Empire term предводитель дворянства (79) should no longer have been relevant; it was translated as bajorų vadas, bajorvedis). In general, the article did not aim to analyze terms or terminological units in great technical detail or to construct a rigorous system of them, especially since the dictionary is not explanatory; nevertheless, comparing Lithuanian and Russian terms essentially made it possible to understand the main categories of names for persons that were of interest at the time under study.
CONCLUSIONS
The manuscript Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts, prepared at the Ministry of Justice in 1919–1920, was the first attempt at legal lexicography in the history of Lithuania, the results of which the public never saw. The dictionary was compiled at the very beginning of independence, when the official Lithuanian language of law had only just begun to be
22 Частный легатарий (118) is untranslated.
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standardized, and the principles of Lithuanian lexicography were also only taking shape. Historical and political circumstances meant that the main legal sources at the time were Russian, and therefore there was a need for a Russian–Lithuanian legal terminology translation dictionary. The shortage of Lithuanian legal terms was likely first felt not by the legislature, which emerged gradually, but by those working in fields where law was applied. Since court proceedings had to be conducted in Lithuanian from as early as 1919, a considerable number of linguistic challenges must undoubtedly have arisen. This was most likely why the Ministry of Justice urgently set about compiling a dictionary needed by the courts, both for carrying out pre-trial actions and for implementing court decisions. From today’s perspective, the prepared dictionary project is interesting not only as a source for learning about the development of the language of law, but also as a reflection of the legal realities and concerns of the time. No documents clarifying how the material needed for this dictionary was selected have been found, but its text shows that efforts were made to cover various aspects. Considerable attention was devoted to designations of persons, which make up one tenth of the dictionary. The title itself shows that this is a dictionary not only of legal terms but also of other words needed by the courts. Thus, these designations of persons are not necessarily terms, nor are they necessarily directly attributable to the field of law; however, drawing a boundary between terms and non-terms would be difficult. At the time, this vocabulary was considered in one way or another relevant to the work of the courts, and thus was assigned to the language of law.
The study showed that designations of persons incorporated into the language of law at the beginning of independence were characterized by considerable thematic diversity. Alongside legal terms, the dictionary included words that, from today’s perspective, seem generally not very term-like; they may simply be part of general vocabulary, even with connotations, as well as terms that are not strictly legal terms. There are general designations of persons by age, place of residence, state of health, and so on. There are many designations of persons based on kinship and family relationships, and at least some of them are simply general-vocabulary words whose relevance in a legal context is secondary, and which may not even have undergone terminologization. It is somewhat surprising that the dictionary contains many designations of persons by specialization, including numerous names for those engaged in both physical and intellectual work. Their connection with law seems rather tenuous in many cases, but the need for such designations may have been driven by the practical concerns of court work. The designations of personnel in state offices and institutions, law enforcement and military officials, and similar persons are another matter: such designations are usually standardized officially, and, where this was not the case, their inclusion in the dictionary may indicate at least an effort to catalogue them.
The designations of participants in legal proceedings and subjects of legal relations may, with some qualification, be considered the legal terminology most certainly needed by the courts. The dictionary sought to name actors with legal personality, focusing primarily on subjects of property and obligations law. It also sought, as its judicial purpose suggests, to identify matters of direct relevance to the courts: it included designations for parties to a case, accused persons, accusers, victims, officials conducting pre-trial investigations and representing the state in court, judges, court decision enforcers, lawyers, experts, witnesses, and other persons connected with proceedings. It also provided a considerable number of words denoting criminals, offenders, and other violators of legal norms.
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The legal situation of the time and the adoption of legislative acts from the Russian Empire meant that the dictionary was compiled to translate Russian terms and other lexical units into Lithuanian. The selection of Russian terms was likely based on court practice established before independence was declared and on sources used by the courts, including fairly old sources from the Russian Empire. Thus, in essence, the task was to find Lithuanian equivalents for terms or other words that functioned in the Russian language of law in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. When the dictionary was being compiled, these could denote concepts that were not necessarily relevant to Lithuania after it had declared independence, but were connected with the law it had adopted. For example, it was precisely the adopted law that led to the inclusion in the dictionary of designations for religious persons.
Although the designations of persons included in the Draft Dictionary of Legal Terms and Other Words Needed by the Courts cannot be considered a comprehensive collection, their quantity alone nevertheless supports the conclusion that the dictionary presented a core set of designations of persons relevant to legal practice and even history at the time. Moreover, the dictionary’s translational nature and efforts to select possible Lithuanian equivalents meant that the number of Lithuanian designations of persons considerably exceeded the number of Russian lexical items.
LITERATŪRA
Andriuškevičienė Danguolė, Tamulevičius Algirdas, Valiukėnas Vytautas 2005: Inžinieriai, technikai ir technologai: trikalbis aiškinamasis žodynėlis [Engineers, Technicians, and Technologists: Trilingual Vocabulary], Vilnius: Lietuvos darbo rinkos mokymo tarnyba.
Andriuškevičienė Danguolė, Tamulevičius Algirdas, Valiukėnas Vytautas 2006: Vadovai ir vadybininkai: trikalbis aiškinamasis žodynėlis [Heads and Managers: Trilingual Vocabulary], Vilnius: Lietuvos darbo rinkos mokymo tarnyba.
Baranauskas Egidijus, Laurinavičius Kęstutis, Pakalniškis Vytautas, Vasarienė Dalia 2010: Daiktinė teisė [Property Law], Vilnius: Mykolo Romerio universiteto Leidybos centras.
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