BIRUTĖ KLAAS-LANG

University of Tartu

GUIDELINES FOR ESTONIAN LANGUAGE POLICY: A STRATEGIC PLAN AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION

KEYWORDS: Estonian language, language policy, language continuity.

INTRODUCTION

For Estonians today, the use of Estonian in all domains of standard-language use is so familiar and self-evident, perhaps even eternal, that they do not always think about preserving and cherishing it. Over the past hundred years, the status of the Estonian language has never been as good as it is today. Estonian, spoken as a mother tongue by just over one million people, ranks among the 300 languages with the most speakers out of the world’s 7,000 languages. Moreover, proficiency in Estonian as a second language is rapidly improving in Estonia. Every year, around a thousand students at thirty universities around the world study Estonian language and culture. There are about a hundred languages in the world in which a complete university education can be obtained, and Estonian is one of them. Undoubtedly, one of the greatest achievements during the first 100 years of the Republic of Estonia has been the possibility of obtaining higher education in one’s mother tongue. Estonian is one of the world’s fifty most technologically advanced languages. The Estonian language is protected by the Constitution and the Language Act; it is also an official language of the European Union, with all the rights and responsibilities this entails. In addition, not only is the standard language fostered, but all varieties of Estonian are of interest, especially regional ones.

The article surveys Estonia’s sociolinguistic environment and the legal framework for the Estonian language, and analyzes how Estonia, through strategic language planning, has contributed to research, development, and continuity of the Estonian language.

1. ESTONIA’S SOCIOLINGUISTIC ENVIRONMENT

According to Statistics Estonia, in 2016 Estonia had 1.313 million

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of the population¹. In terms of population, Estonia is one of the smallest countries in Europe, falling as much as 14 times below the so-called average for a European Union country. According to data from the 2011 Population and Housing Census², representatives of 192 nationalities live in Estonia: Estonians make up 68.7 per cent of permanent residents (889,770), Russians 24.8 per cent (321,198), and Ukrainians 1.7 per cent (22,302). Belarusians (12,419) and Finns (7,423) each account for less than 1 per cent. In total, Estonia has 37 nationalities with more than 100 representatives. Compared with the 2000 census data³, the number of Estonians increased by 1 per cent, while the number of Russians decreased by exactly the same amount. The population has been declining since 1989 due to emigration and a low birth rate, with the number of speakers of other languages declining especially sharply (Eesti inimarengu aruanne 2007: 48). However, over the past two years, the balance between emigration and immigration in Estonia has evened out, and in 2015 immigration exceeded emigration for the first time: 15,413 people arrived in Estonia and 13,003 people left Estonia in 2015⁴; that is, immigration offset the population decline caused by negative natural population growth.

In Estonia, 157 languages are spoken as mother tongues. Over ten years, Estonia has become even more multilingual: according to the previous census, 109 languages were spoken as mother tongues. The most common mother tongues are Estonian (886,859 – 68.5 per cent), Russian (383,062 – 29.6 per cent), and Ukrainian (8,012 – 0.6 per cent)⁵.

In recent years, the Estonian-language skills of Estonia’s residents who speak other languages have steadily improved.

The results of research conducted to date show that the proportion of speakers of other languages aged 15–74 who say they can speak Estonian actively or at least passively rose from 34 per cent (1997) and 40 per cent (2007) to 85 per cent (2016)⁶. In addition, monitoring of Estonia’s integration programme, “Implementation of the Vision Objectives of the Estonian Integration Programme 2008–2013 in 2008–2009,” conducted in 2010 by the research group of Raivo Vettik, professor at Tallinn University, shows that in recent years Russian-speaking people’s Estonian proficiency, according to their own assessments, has improved considerably (LK monitooring 2010). However, analysis of statistical data shows that there are still many people in Estonia,

¹ Eesti Statistikaamet [Statistics Estonia], available online: http://www.stat.ee/72428.

² Eesti Statistikaamet [Statistics Estonia], available online: http://www.stat.ee/64309?parent_id=32784.

³Eesti Statistikaamet [Statistics Estonia], available online: http://www.stat.ee/64628?parent_id=32784.

⁴ Eesti Statistikaamet [Statistics Estonia], available online: http://www.stat.ee/277525.

⁵ Eesti Statistikaamet [Statistics Estonia], available online: http://www.stat.ee/64309?parent_id=32784.

⁶ Eesti Kultuuriministeerium [Estonian Ministry of Culture], available online: http://www.kul.ee/sites/kulminn/files/6_faktileht_a4_keelteoskus.pdf.

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who do not know the official language at the level required in social and working life.

2. LANGUAGE VITALITY CRITERIA AND THE ESTONIAN LANGUAGE

The Estonian language has entered a completely new sociolinguistic environment characterized by globalization and multilingualism in society, at school and in the family, as well as by technological development. This means that we must come to terms with a situation in which two, three or more languages can be heard alongside each of us. A multilingual Estonian is the rule, not the exception. Individual and state multilingualism is a great asset that must be safeguarded and supported. But how can the survival and development of the Estonian language be ensured in this new situation?

When considering the concept of language vitality and its criteria, scholars had mainly small and endangered languages in mind. For example, in 2002–2003 UNESCO asked an international group of linguists to prepare a document that could be used to assess language vitality and help formulate language policy, identify language needs and determine appropriate protective measures. To this end, the Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages prepared a conceptual framework. The document, entitled “Language Vitality and Endangerment,” presents nine criteria (Brenzinger et al. 2003): 1) intergenerational language transmission, 2) absolute number of speakers, 3) proportion of speakers within the total population, 4) shifts in domains of language use, 5) response to new domains and media, 6) availability of materials for language education and literacy, 7) governmental and institutional attitudes and policies, 8) community members’ attitudes toward their own language, and 9) type and quality of documentation.

According to sociolinguistic definitions, Estonian, spoken as a mother tongue by slightly more than one million people, does not belong to the group of languages threatened with extinction, because it has official-language status; it is used in all areas of public life, from everyday and business communication to the language of science; it is the main language of instruction at all levels of education, from primary school to doctoral studies; it is used both at home and online; and the number of its speakers is increasing. Nevertheless, in today’s global world, language vitality must be safeguarded particularly carefully even when a language has more than one million speakers (cf. Crystal 2000).

In recent years, there has been particular interest in research and forecasts concerning how globalization, an open and mobile labour market, and an open and dynamic educational space may affect languages that, according to the criteria mentioned above, are considered sociolinguistically sustainable languages. The official-language

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status and language-supporting infrastructure do not necessarily ensure a language’s sustainability, since English is increasingly used in education, trade and the economy, while migration flows have led to the emergence of increased diversity (super-diversity) in society (Vertovec 2007, 2010). The potential impact of global English on the sustainability of minority languages is widely recognized (Skutnabb-Kangas 2000; Phillipson 2003, 2009; Hagege 2006; Canagarajah 2007, Klaas-Lang, Metslang 2015, Klaas-Lang 2016), and a number of research-based state programmes have been launched (for example, in Sweden, Estonia and Finland) to ensure the functioning of the official language in all areas of life (Mäl i mun 2002; EKAS 2004; Hakulinen et al. 2009; EKA 2011). As a result, the scope of minority-language maintenance had to be expanded to encompass an approach to language sustainability that considers the interaction of global, state and minority languages in today’s information society (Ehala 2010, Soler-Carbonell 2012, Ehala et al. 2014).

3. DOCUMENTS ESTABLISHING THE STATUS OF ESTONIAN AS THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

For a language to function successfully, its legal domain must be secured and regulated. In Estonia, Estonian is the official language under the 1989 Language Act and its subsequent versions. It should be noted that the first Language Act was adopted before Estonia restored its independence and was then called the Language Act of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. Article 60 of the Act stipulated: “The official language of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic is Estonian. In Estonia, the native land of the Estonians, the state pays special attention to and protects the Estonian language. Granting Estonian the status of the official language provides a firm foundation for the survival and development of the Estonian people and their culture” (Keeleseadus 1989). On 23 February 2011, the Estonian Parliament adopted a revised Language Act, the purpose of which—like that of the previous Language Act and its amendments—is “to develop, preserve and protect the Estonian language, and also to ensure that Estonian is the main language of communication in all areas of public life” (EV Keeleseadus 2011: 1.pt, §1). The new Language Act also stipulates that “the official language of Estonia is Estonian” (EV Keeleseadus 2011: 2.pt, §3, lõige (1)).

The legal protection of the Estonian language is also enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia (EV Põhiseadus 2011), which states that the state must ensure the preservation of the Estonian people, language and culture through the ages: Article 6 of the Constitution stipulates that the official language is Estonian. It is the state’s duty to ensure everyone’s right to receive an education in Estonian (37

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(art.), every person’s right to conduct affairs and communicate with state institutions in Estonian (art. 51), and to conduct affairs in state institutions and local governments in Estonian (art. 52). Unfortunately, it cannot yet be said that Estonian, as the state language, functions smoothly in all regions of Estonia and in every sphere of life, whether in conducting affairs and providing consumer information, or in the language of election campaigns and the Estonian-language skills of elected representatives of the people or senior local-government officials. To ensure the rights established in legislation, the state, through the Language Inspectorate⁷, first and foremost safeguards the language.

4.

STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ESTONIAN LANGUAGE AND OVERSIGHT OF ITS IMPLEMENTATION

In drawing up a strategic language development plan, attention is focused primarily on the three most important aspects of language: language status, language structure (the language system and usage), and language teaching (Stewart 1968; Wiley 2003; Mansoor 2005; Ferguson 2006, etc.). National legislation and the deliberate cultivation of an image help ensure the necessary status for the language; the deliberate and scholarly development of language structure guarantees that the language can be used as a flexible, modern tool in every sphere of life, ensures a uniform standard language, and provides technical language support in the electronic environment. It is also very important to care for language as a resource, since a well-organized standard language underpins administrative language, the language of instruction, the language of science, the language of public information, and other forms of language use that are essential conditions for society and the state. The third area of strategic language planning—language teaching—ensures the transmission of the language (specifically, the standard language, that is, a unified, standardized language variety) from one generation to the next. The status of Estonian as an official language of the European Union places much higher demands on the development and teaching of Estonian.

The Estonian state has been engaged in strategic language planning for 18 years. By a resolution dated 21 April 1998, the Government instructed the Ministry of Education (now the Ministry of Education and Research) to draw up a strategy for the development of Estonian. In 2000, by order of the Minister of Education, the Committee for the Organization of the European Year of Languages in Estonia was established (later becoming the Estonian Language Council⁸), one of whose tasks

⁷ Eesti Keeleinspektsioon [Estonian Language Inspectorate], available online: http://www.keeleinsp.ee/?lang=1.

⁸ The article’s author has chaired the Estonian Language Council since 2005.

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was to prepare the aforementioned strategy. “The Estonian Language Council advises the Government of the Republic of Estonia on matters concerning the development and implementation of language policy” (EV Keelesedus 2011: 2.pt, § 7). On 5 August 2004, the Government of the Republic of Estonia approved the Strategy for the Development of the Estonian Language for 2004–2010 (Est. EKAS), and on 11 November 2010 it approved the continuation of the previous strategic plan—the Strategic Plan for the Development of the Estonian Language for 2011–2017 (Est. EKA)—and its implementation plan, prepared by the Ministry of Education and Research in cooperation with the Estonian Language Council.

The first language development plan was translated into English, Russian, Finnish, and Hungarian. The printed and electronic versions of the current development plan are available in Estonian and English⁹.

Before the strategic document was adopted, studies were conducted on language structure, status, legal situation, education, research, regional languages, and language technology development; the functioning of a multilingual society was also examined, among other topics. Undoubtedly, such a comprehensive study of Estonian was the first in the history of our language. It can also be said that the strategic development plan drawn up in 2004, despite its objective and subjective shortcomings, provided particularly important guidelines for the development of Estonian. In this Estonian language development strategy, the Estonian state formulated clear objectives and a plan of specific measures for language development.

The 2004 and 2011 development plans address all the most important areas of the Estonian language: language cultivation; Estonian-language research and resources; technical language support; general education in Estonian; Estonian in the general education system for speakers of other languages; Estonian-language skills among vocational students; the language of science and higher education; regional varieties of Estonian; Estonian abroad; language use by people with special language needs; Estonian in the context of other languages and its representation internationally; oversight of compliance with the Language Act; and information on language matters.

In 2011, the Government approved the membership of the Estonian Language Council. The Council comprises linguists, representatives of ministries, departments, and creative associations, politicians, and others. It is therefore a very broad group concerned with the well-being of Estonian, and each member’s contribution matters—not only their professional knowledge (which need not be linguistic), but also their social sensitivity to language issues. Unlike the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language, the Estonian Language Council does not engage in language regulation. Language

⁹ Eesti Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium [Estonian Ministry of Education and Research], available online: https://www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/eestikeelearengukavainglise.indd_.pdf.

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Language standardization in Estonia is overseen by the Society of Native Language¹⁰. The work of the Estonian Language Council is solely language policy.

In cooperation with the Ministry of Education and Research, the Language Council presents the Government every two years with reviews of the state of the Estonian language and the implementation of the Estonian Language Development Plan and other strategic language plans. Today’s strategic documents, and especially the action plans arising from them, are expected to achieve results within a relatively short time that can be assessed and that should raise a particular field or organization to a higher level. It is difficult to provide such assessable indicators when planning a language development strategy, and on a global scale, preserving the Estonian language’s former position can be considered a step forward (especially given the influence of English). Both the development plan and interim reports specify an indicator for each measure, which should show progress in a particular area of language use. However, these indicators should be viewed critically. Not everything that matters can be measured. And what can be measured is not necessarily important.

Of course, certain resources are needed to implement the actions set out and agreed upon in strategic development plans. It is therefore essential to coordinate development plans with state budget planning. The link between funding for the language sector and development plans is quite clear: both the previous and the current development plan serve as the basis for the Ministry of Education and Research’s budget planning for the language sector. Activities intended to develop the Estonian language are funded through the budgets of the state and local governments, universities and research institutions, state programmes, various funds, grants, special appropriations, and various agencies. The specific budget for the 2011–2017 development plan amounts to 61 million euros; the budget also includes separately funded state programmes (see the Ministry of Education and Research website¹¹:

preparation and publication of Estonian-language higher education textbooks (2008–2012; the current programme runs from 2013–2017); more than 50 textbooks in various fields have been prepared or translated;

support for Estonian terminology (2008–2012, 2013–2017);

language technology (2006–2010, 2011–2017);

¹⁰ Emakeele Selts [Society of Native Language], available online:

http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/yritused/ES_english.pdf.

¹¹ Eesti Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium [Estonian Ministry of Education and Research], available online:

https://htm.ee/et.

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estų kalbos ir kultūros atmintis (2009–2013, 2014–2018); remiami estų kalbos moksliniai tyrimai. Naujosios programos prioritetas – remti monografijų leidimą;

The Estonian Language and Culture Academic Studies Abroad Programme (2005–2010, 2011–2017).

Implementation of the 2011–2017 Estonian Language Development Plan will be reviewed at the end of 2017, but interim reports have shown that, overall, the objectives for the language sector are being successfully achieved. The tasks set for all measures have been completed, and several specific objectives have been met: several important dictionaries have been published; applied language technology programs have come into use; over the past two years, 20 new PhDs have joined the ranks of scholars in general linguistics and related languages at the universities of Tartu and Tallinn; pupils are actively involved in large-scale events in the language sector; language immersion (English language immersion, Estonian keelekümblus) and content and language integrated learning are becoming increasingly popular forms of teaching in Estonian schools where instruction is in another language; the number of high-level scholarly publications carrying articles in Estonian has grown considerably; Estonian language examinations at various levels have begun to be administered in other countries; the most important Estonian dictionaries are available online; an online Estonian Sign Language–Estonian dictionary has been compiled; a state foreign-language examination has become compulsory for upper-secondary school graduates; and so on.

Nevertheless, alongside these achievements, there are still areas and objectives that have not been addressed over the years, namely: insufficient interest in the profession of Estonian-language teacher; low motivation to learn Estonian among pupils in some predominantly Russian-speaking regions, particularly Ida-Viru County; limited opportunities to use Estonian in everyday life; rather weak Estonian-language skills among pupils studying vocational subjects in Russian; and, often, young specialists who have qualified in their professions are unable to carry out their work tasks in an Estonian-language working environment. In higher education, the number of programs taught in English is increasing, and as a result Estonian is losing its role as the language of instruction and research in some fields. Despite efforts at both state and local levels, dialects continue to recede from everyday use; there are too few sign-language specialists (including sign-language interpreters) to initiate and carry out all necessary activities; the number of places at foreign universities offering Estonian language and culture courses has decreased; financial constraints are hindering the development of access to applied language technology programs; and political will is needed to resolve several linguistic aspects of legislation.

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5. SUMMARY

To preserve a language, a legal environment is needed to safeguard its preservation and establish that a small patch of land on the edge of Europe is indeed the one and only place where Estonian should enjoy privileged status. To preserve a language, it must be passed on from generation to generation at home and at school. But most important is the desire and willingness of language users to use Estonian. Attitudes and motivation are important factors in successful foreign-language teaching. The attitudes and motivation of language users are undoubtedly significant to the survival of their mother tongue. A language can develop and thrive without loss if it is used on every possible occasion. We certainly cannot speak of economic efficiency when it comes to continuing to use Estonian. In the narrow economic sense, a language with so small a group of speakers cannot compete on equal terms with “world languages.” Effort is required if Estonian is to be used.

Drawing on experience in strategic planning for the Estonian language, advice for those preparing language development plans can be summarized as follows:

1. To set objectives and plan activities for achieving them, it is necessary to establish an accurate picture of the language situation in all areas of use.

2. Visions and objectives must be supported by specific action plans approved at the state level. State financial support must be ensured for implementing those action plans.

3. A specific person responsible must be designated for the entire development plan and for each activity.

4. Ongoing monitoring is needed to determine whether the objectives remain relevant over time and as society changes, whether the activities adequately ensure that the objectives set are achieved, and so on.

5. The need to inform: maintain discussion of language issues and inform taxpayers, thereby ensuring public satisfaction with the planned activities.

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Įteikta 2016 09 09

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BIRUTĖ KLAAS-LANG

Tartu universitetas, Estų kalbos taryba

Ülikooli 18, 50090 TARTU, Estija

[email protected]

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