LIETUVIŲ KALBOS GRAMATINĖ SANDARA LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

MEANINGS AND USE OF PREPOSITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN NORTHWESTERN HIGHLANDER DIALECT¹

E. GRINAVECKIENĖ

I. Genitive prepositions

1. Abygaliai ‘at both ends’ is a rare preposition of adverbial origin. Constructions with it, besides indicating the location of an action, often also carry a nuance of manner, e.g.: mės jau gyvėnam abygaliai nāmo²; abygaliai klojimo kurtiniai gužūčių nuspārdyti.

2. On both sides, on either side, ‘on both sides,’ is used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: where the hares won’t jump out: on both sides of the fence, the snowdrifts are level with the fence; the largest channels have been dug on both sides of the road; birches have been planted on both sides of the highway; it doesn’t drip onto the foundation: in the water pipes we installed them on both sides of the roof. The preposition on both sides is rare; on either side is more frequent.

3. Abyšaliai ‘from both sides’ is fairly rare in the dialect and is used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: abyšaliai grābo (of the coffin) two men stood on each side.

4. Anāpus. Its constructions are used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: they live beyond the forest; beyond the Nemunas, ice mountains have been piled up; I have also been beyond Šiauliai.

5. Anksčiau is a rare preposition of adverbial origin with a temporal meaning, e.g.: he left before me, and I am still (still) not yet there.

6. Anōts. Its constructions are quite frequent; they are usually used when repeating someone’s words and function as parenthetical expressions in a sentence, e.g.: according to what people say, he has also contributed greatly to their separation; according to those tales, as it is, so (so), but one must live; according to the late father (deceased), knock the child’s horns about until the father’s boots are not too big (too big).

¹ The article draws mainly on material collected by the author in 1949—1965 from the dialect area between Smalininkai, Vadžgiris, Girkalnis, and Skirsnemunė.

² The dialect examples given have been transposed into the standard language without changing their morphological forms. For a description of the phonetics of the dialect under discussion, see E. Grinaveckienė, Mituvos upyno tarmės fonetika, “Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai”, vol. 1, Vilnius, 1957, pp. 119—180.

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7. Ant. The preposition ant occurs in constructions in the dialect somewhat more often and with more varied meanings than in the literary language. These constructions can express:

1) The precise location of an action, e.g.: how much timber floats down the Nemunas on the ice in spring; an old man, having climbed onto the roof, smokes a pipe (a pipe) (chimney).

2) The approximate location of an action, e.g.: he climbed so high into those mountains: the clouds were on the ridge.

With this meaning, ant is also common in dialect idioms, e.g.: whatever one woman tells another, don’t hang everything on your husband’s nose (don’t tell your husband).

Sometimes, with this meaning, constructions with the preposition ant are used instead of the locative or the accusative with the preposition į in the literary language, e.g.: such ruts (frozen mud) have been churned on the farm by the animals; the cow went out to the pasture and calved. The latter constructions most likely arose under the influence of Slavic languages, although some hold that they may also be the result of prepositional constructions becoming established in Lithuanian dialects³.

3) The direction of an action, e.g.: he got angry and turned to face the wall; they sat down and drove off to the city; the dog runs toward the forest; swelling (edema, dropsy) rises to the heart, and the person dies.

4) The time of an action (usually with nouns that have a lexical meaning of time):

a) The direction of an action in time, e.g.: by autumn (toward autumn) the clock will begin to run faster (the day will grow shorter); by spring (toward spring) the days will begin to grow longer.

b) Provision for a certain period, e.g.: I dried linden blossoms for the winter; I won’t leave the cows outside overnight; I’ll put them in the barn: hay needs to be put out for the mare for the night. This construction with the preposition ant in this sense is not acceptable in the literary language⁴, but it is used in many Lithuanian dialects. In the southern dialect of the Northwestern Aukštaitians, alongside the aforementioned construction with ant, a temporal dative construction is also used, e.g.: I fermented those little cucumbers for winter; I don’t keep much bacon for summer—it goes rancid.

c) Duration of an action, e.g.: they all sent him home for three months; I’m going away to the forest for the whole day; he packed food for a month. Alongside these constructions, the accusative of duration is sometimes also used, as in the literary language, but the construction with ant is much more usual in the dialect. It is also widely used in many other Lithuanian dialects⁵.

³ Cf. J. Senkus, Prielinksnių vartojimas ir svarbesniosios jų reikšmės kapsų ir zanavykų tarmėse, „Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos Darbai“, Serija A, t. 1(8), 1960, p. 126.

⁴ Žr. J. Jablonskis, Rinktiniai raštai, t. I, Vilnius, 1957, p. 595.

⁵ This is shown by the responses to question 123 in the “Program for Collecting Materials for the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language” (Vilnius, 1956), held at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR.

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d) The precise time when an action is performed, e.g.: come during the holidays; he called me over when they were making blood sausages; he arrived when the apples were in season. This construction with the preposition ant is common in other Lithuanian dialects as well. It sometimes also carries a nuance of purpose.

5) The limit of a thing’s property, indicating in what respect that property is limited, e.g.: red clay is hard to work; the chairman is harsh in punishment; beer is tasty to drink, hard to recover from; apples are tasty to eat; he was miserly with money; he is very particular about food; she is a light sleeper.

6) Manner of action, e.g.: that cow doesn’t moo, nothing at all, just lies on its side, and that’s it; we keep arriving suddenly, again and again, so there’s never time to stop by your place; he slipped into the granary on tiptoe and lay down at once.

Some constructions with the preposition ant expressing these meanings have become fixed or form part of idiomatic expressions, e.g.: she lives independently; that child depends entirely on its mother (does not accept other caregivers).

7) Quantity or abundance of an action, when the prepositional construction forms a pair with the nominative of the same declined word, e.g.: there had been tank after tank brought in; it’s an orchard: apple tree after apple tree planted; there’s so much bacon there: slab after slab hung up. This construction with the preposition ant is common. It usually occurs in impersonal sentences.

8) Approximate number. Constructions with the preposition ant in this sense are used instead of literary-language constructions with the preposition apie, e.g.: there must be about a hundred children in those houses; we got about enough money for a couple of cows for the apples.

9) Purpose of an action. Constructions with this meaning occur in place of the dative of purpose, e.g.: willow is good wood for clogs.

10) Object of an action. The construction with the preposition ant in this sense is used:

a) After the verbs say, scold, shout, send, etc., e.g.: father is shouting at the boy, while I stand up for him; mother scolds me.

b) Instead of the dative after the verb say, e.g.: I say to Jōnas (to Jonui) to sell that filly; I say to father (to father) to leave the wooden shoes in the entryway; I say to the children (to the children) not to throw stones. When such sentences are transformed into subordinate constructions, the independent word in the prepositional construction, in the nominative form, becomes the subject of the complement clause; cf.: I say that Jōnas should sell that filly. The prepositional construction highlighted in these sentences is common in the dialect.

c) After the verb say, instead of the literary-language construction with the preposition about, e.g.: what did he say about my hat? he said about

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my husband, that he is ugly; what do you say about my potatoes?

The latter construction with the preposition ant is very common in the dialect.

d) With the conjunction if in subordinate conditional clauses.

In these cases, a possible (intended) direction of an action toward some object is expressed, e.g.: if [they are] on the journey, then they will sort them while [they are] threshing; if [they are] on the dyeing, then the yarn should have been dyed, not knitted; if [it is] on rain, then the hens do not go to roost early. Prepositional constructions with this meaning are possible with certain predicates. In standard language, the subjunctive form of the verb is generally used in this case; cf.: if they were to travel (if they were preparing to travel), then they would sort them while [they were] threshing.

11) Quality of an object, e.g.: now I have the lady on my own head (self-sufficient, independent).

8. Arti is a comparatively rare preposition in the dialect. Netoli is used more often instead (see pp. 156, 157). Constructions with this preposition express:

1) the location of an action, e.g.: we live near the city.

2) the time of an action, e.g.: it gets dark near the house.

3) the quality of an object, e.g.: the sun is already near sunset.

With the prepositions prie, nuo, the preposition arti forms compound prepositions of place: arti prie, arti nuo, e.g.: here there is no bottom near the shore, but farther out it is shallow; they live near the city.

4) An approximate number (measure, quantity), e.g.: I planted about a hundredweight of turnips (potatoes); I brought back about a wagonload of hay; he drank about a liter of milk (a liter).

9. Arčiau is a preposition of adverbial origin. Its constructions express the location of an action, e.g.: he stood closer to the fence; there was not a single tree closer than the oak. With the preposition prie, it forms the compound preposition arčiau prie with the same meaning, e.g.: move closer to me.

10. Aukščiau. Constructions with this preposition most often express an object's quality, e.g.: rye above head height; clover above the belt; or an object's quantity, e.g.: water above the knees.

In rare cases, with the preposition už it forms the compound preposition aukščiau už, which expresses an amount; e.g.: he raised the antenna higher than everyone else's.

11. Bė. Its constructions in the dialect express:

1) The possibility of an action after a certain time limit, e.g.: they will not get back without darkness; without a year he will not get out of bed.

2) Manner of action, e.g.: she was told to eat everything without salt.

3) Quantity of action (measure, number), e.g.: I won’t give you a hen for less than five roubles; there were flowers beyond counting, but not a single apple.

4) Object of the action, e.g.: if (if) I go without meat even just once, I’m hungry all day; without liquid it’s as though I hadn’t eaten; without a cow, one has to fast.

5) Quality of an object, e.g.: the whole road is without snow, though the ruts are drifted over; that child is without parents and without a home; the man is completely shameless.

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The preposition be with anàpus, põ, šiàpus rarely forms compound prepositions: be anàpus, be põ, be šiàpus, which express the location of an action (be anàpus, be šiàpus) or time (be põ), e.g.: beyond the Nemunas there will be nothing; you’ll get there (there) on foot; this side of Girdžiai you won’t find anything; before the new moon she won’t put in her teeth.

12. Dėl is used in the dialect with the meaning of the standard-language preposition dėl. It usually denotes the cause of an action or phenomenon, e.g.: or greying because of old age: one person grows old and does not turn grey, while another has a white head even when young. It also occurs in dialect idioms, e.g.: dėl mėno ragų (because of me) do as you wish. In the dialect, constructions with the preposition vėług may rarely be used in its place (cf. p. 159).

13. Gretà. Constructions with the preposition gretà are used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: I put this bed next to that one; they fenced off a pen for the calf next to the hay.

Sometimes constructions with this preposition can also carry a shade of manner, in addition to location of action, e.g.: those trees were planted next to one another.

Rarely, with the preposition su it forms a compound preposition with the same meaning, gretà su, e.g.: she slept in that same pen with the piglets for a whole month.

14. Iš. The preposition iš is common in the dialect. Its constructions have more meanings than in the standard language. They can express:

1) Direction of action, e.g.: the hens come clucking back from the barn; the girls come home (come limping) from the forest with mushrooms. In this meaning, iš is also common in dialect idioms, e.g.: nothing comes from her (she is ungenerous), don’t be afraid; I’d gladly keep that child, but (but), once you take him in, you won’t set foot outside the house.

2) Time of action, e.g.: during the day (that same day) having driven there, she had to go to work; she experienced much hardship from childhood.

3) Manner of action, e.g.: they keep bees; the cake rises, it’s going mad: she mixed it in anger; don’t give way when they push from the side; I gathered wool from one person and another, a little at a time, and knitted myself mittens.

4) Cause of action, e.g.: the intestines burst from turning over; he fell ill from fright. In this meaning it is also used in dialect idioms, e.g.: he went too far in his excessive learning.

5) Object of action, e.g.: they are taking that house from the parents; you won’t learn the truth from women’s gossip; those jobs end in jokes; a tree from which they make a cart, sleigh runners.

6) Quality of an object, e.g.: this sheep is one of triplets (a triplet); I am already advanced in years (aged).

The preposition iš combines with the prepositions anàpus, põ, šiàpus, už in the dialect to form compound genitive prepositions of place: iš anàpus, iš põ, iš šiàpus, iš už, for example: they are from beyond Girdžiai; I stuck my hand out from under the bed; move out from underfoot!; a clod of earth from this side of the hill; he got up from behind the table and dashed through the door. These prepositions

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are fairly firmly established in the dialect. In rare cases, they form “triple” prepositions of the same meaning, for example: iš už anàpus, iš po anàpus, iš po šiapus; he poked his head out from behind the bushes; the Vidauja begins to flow from beyond Šimkaičiai; a polecat emerged from under the shed; from under the collar you can see the largest holes.

15. Išilgai. Constructions with this preposition express the location of an action, for example: a stripe like this runs along the weaving.

With the preposition par it forms the compound preposition išilgai par, with the same meaning, for example: he made a wagonload along the rye.

16. Kraštý. A rare preposition of place, probably arising through the fossilization and alteration of a case form, for example: they live at the edge of the forest; the houses would be beautiful, if only they were at the edge of the fields.

17. Ligi (lig, iki, igi, ig). All forms of this preposition are used interchangeably in the dialect without any difference in meaning, but the most common is ligi. Its constructions express:

1) Direction of an action up to a certain place, for example: he chased her as far as the town; the plane rose up to the clouds.

2) Direction of an action up to a certain time, for example: until the new year the sheep graze in the fields; I knitted until eleven; we danced until morning. In set expressions, this preposition sometimes takes the dative, for example: he is still healthy to this day.

3) Manner of action:

a) quality of the action, for example: your sweater fastens up to the collar.

b) quantity of the action, for example: eat your fill; it sank in up to the axles.

4) Approximate quantity (measure, number). With this meaning, the preposition ligi is used instead of the literary-language preposition apie, e.g.: the girl is already quite grown, about ten years old; the foal was left for about three days (three days old), and the mare gave birth.

The preposition ligi combines with anapus, po, šiapus to form compound prepositions expressing place (ligi anapus, ligi šiapus) and time (ligi po), for example: the plant has already grown as far as beyond the forest; there was water up to this side of the shed; until after the new year my (me) teeth won’t come in.

18. Linkui (link). The postposition linkui is still in use in the dialect and expresses direction, for example: (in the spatial sense) he went toward home; the heron flies toward the forest; (in the temporal sense) I’ll take up weaving toward spring; toward autumn I’ll give away one (of them) rather than let it die, I’ll let some person take it. Sometimes the shorter form of this postposition (link) is also used as a preposition in the dialect, for example: he went toward the house.

19. Netoli. The preposition netoli is used somewhat more broadly in the dialect than in the literary language. Here it often replaces the preposition arti (cf. p. 154). It can express:

1) Location of an action, for example: near the tip of the knife (the sharp end) there is a small furrow; we live near the cemetery.

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A similar meaning is also conveyed by the compound preposition netoli nuo, e.g.: we swam not far from the shore; I met him not far from home.

2) Movement toward a particular place, e.g.: when I gave myself a push, I kicked off not far from the barn.

3) Movement toward a particular point in time, e.g.: we went to bed close to twelve; we got back close to lunchtime.

4) An approximate quantity, measure, or number, e.g.: we would keep about a small jarful of milk for ourselves; a loaf of bread—about a rouble; I poured in nearly three litres (of litres); he is already close to my age; she is close to my years, and so on. In the literary language, the construction with the preposition apie is usually used in this case, cf.: we would keep about a small jarful of milk.

20. N u õ. The preposition nuo is pronounced in the dialect as nõ. This latter form of it probably arose from nuo because of its proclitic position⁶. Its constructions express the following in the dialect:

1) The direction of an action away from a particular place, e.g.: the cow rose from that pile and plodded off toward another; father is coming back from the hill. With the prepositions anapus, šiapus, this preposition forms the compound prepositions of place nuo anapus, nuo šiapus, e.g.: singing can be heard from beyond the Nemunas; she is from beyond Šiauliai; they are from this side of Šimkaičiai.

2) The temporal direction of an action, extending forward from a particular point, e.g.: he has been like that since childhood; everything was very good from the beginning.

3) Manner of action (used instead of the literary-language construction with the preposition iš), e.g.: look how darkly you speak from the heart; everyone needs to be fed from the end (in turn). A construction with this meaning also occurs in dialectal idioms, e.g.: visai nuo koto (badly) nušnerėjo.

4) Cause of an action, e.g.: their nails became rough from digging potatoes; everything began with a tooth.

5) Object of an action. The construction with the preposition nuo with this meaning is used:

a) As in the literary language, e.g.: a cow cannot be weaned for a long time from its calf (become lean); I never stray far from my beloved.

b) Instead of the construction with the literary-language preposition apie, e.g.: she doesn’t speak about money: as if nothing had happened (as if she owed nothing); the two of us are talking about pigs. The latter construction with the preposition nuo is not characteristic of most other Lithuanian dialects. It may be a Germanism (cf. German von ihm sprechen⁷).

c) Instead of the construction with the literary-language preposition iš (cf. p. 155), e.g.: is she made of iron, or what, that she is afraid of nothing?

⁶ Plg. E. G r i n a v e c k i e n ė, min. veik., p. 133.

⁷ Plg. dar J. S e n k u s, min. veik., p. 138.

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6) Quantity, measure, or extent of an object, e.g.: he shot a boar weighing three centners; I chased a foxhound for five fathoms.

7) The purpose of an object, e.g.: she brought herbs for toothache.

21. Paskiau— a rare preposition of adverbial origin, used in the dialect to express the time of an action, e.g.: I think (it seems to me) that you came back after me; the sheep return after the cows.

22. Pirmà— a rare preposition of adverbial origin, used to express the place and time of an action, e.g.: go ahead of me, show the way! I got up before you.

23. Pirmiaũ— a rare preposition of adverbial origin, used to indicate the time of an action, e.g.: I fell asleep before everyone else; what a silly hen: she eats before her chicks do.

24. Priè. The preposition prie is pronounced prė in the dialect. The latter form, like the preposition nuo (see p. 157), most likely arose because of its proclitic position. Its constructions can express:

1) The place of an action, e.g.: I put my things for the market (the things brought to market) beside you; we live by the forest; in winter they would sit by the spinning wheel.

2) The direction of an action, e.g.: her eye is drawn to knitting, as mine is to weaving; the time has come for the exiles to head for the open country. A construction with this meaning also occurs in dialectal idioms, e.g.: as one grows old, one draws closer to hardship.

3) The time when an action takes place, e.g.: she died during the German occupation; in the tsar’s time none of us went to school; parents, why are you banging on that door at a stranger’s house?

4) The manner of an action, when a prepositional construction forms a repeated expression with the nominative of the same declinable word, e.g.: the trees here are planted tree by tree; the posts here are driven in post by post. With this meaning it also occurs in dialectal idioms, e.g.: we talked face to face.

5) A quality of an object, when a prepositional construction forms a repeated expression with the nominative of the same declinable word, e.g.: strong (good) rye: sheaf beside sheaf; this meadow: haystack beside haystack.

6) The object of an action. The construction with the preposition prie in this meaning is used:

a) As in the standard language, e.g.: I can’t look at her: she is dressed up, while I am shabby.

b) Instead of the dative normally used in the standard language, e.g.: the rake belongs with the harrows; all the boards belong with the runners, cf. the standard-language construction: all the boards belong to the runners.

c) Instead of the preposition į with the accusative, e.g.: if things don’t go well for you there, call on us.

d) Instead of the preposition pas with the accusative, e.g.: she stays with her parents.

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7) The quality of an object, or a tendency toward it, e.g.: jis yra prie tinginio (he tends to be lazy); jis yra prie plaučių (he is prone to lung disease); mūsų laukai prie šaltžemio.

8) The purpose of an object, e.g.: padarė viedrą (a bucket) prie šulinio.

25. Pusiáu — a rare preposition expressing manner of action or degree of a quality, e.g.: kūrėsi Nemunė susibardžiusios pusiáu blaudžių; veršiai tam žarudy(je) pusiáu šónų mešlini.

26. Skersai is used in the dialect to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: užvirtęs skersai tóvos ir gulia. As the example shows, alongside the locative meaning there is also a nuance of manner. With the preposition par it forms the compound preposition skersai par, expressing a locative adjunct, e.g.: padaryta didžiausia šliužė skersai par dóbilus.

27. Salìà. As in the standard language, the preposition šalia is used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: ji visą laiką stovia šalìà jó.

28. Šalỹ — a rare preposition of location, arising from the fossilization of a case form, e.g.: jį paláidžiojo šalỹ kapinių; jiẽ gyvẽna šalỹ miẽsto; jų namai šalỹ Kaũno. In the standard language, this preposition corresponds not to the preposition šalia, but to the adverb pakraštyje, pašalyje.

29. Šiàpus — a rare preposition of adverbial origin indicating the location of an action, e.g.: pírkom šiẽno šiàpus Viešvilės.

30. Šitapus. Like šiapus, it indicates the location of an action. This preposition is rare in the dialect, e.g.: šitapus girios labai prastas kelias.

31. Tẽrp. This preposition is used in the dialect instead of the standard-language tarp. It can express:

1) The location of an action, e.g.: jūs gyvenat terp kálnų, nė vėjas neužpučia.

2) The manner of an action, e.g.: žarnas pirmiausiai reikia terp rankų išgniaužyt.

3) Comparison of the qualities of objects, e.g.: katras terp júodvieju drūtesnis (stronger)?

32. Toliaũ — a rare preposition of adverbial origin used to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: toliaũ Resėinių (Raseinių) dá (dar) aš savo ámžių nešù búvus; čia galiat lakstyt apie namùs, toliaũ žaĩdžio nenubėkit!

33. Vėliaũ — a rare preposition of adverbial origin expressing the time of an action, e.g.: aš acikėliau vėliaũ tàvęs, o jau nusipriausiai ir pavalgiau.

34. Velug — a relatively rare preposition of Slavic origin, used in the dialect to express the cause of an action, e.g.: vėlug metų dá (still) galėtų gyvent, tik sveikatà neleidžia; vėlug gražùmo sienos teip (so) išinkiuotos. Instead, the preposition del is more commonly used (see p. 155).

35. Vidurỹ — a rare preposition of adverbial origin indicating the location or time of an action, e.g.: jiẽ gyvẽna vidurỹ girios; susirgo vidurỹ žiẽmòs.

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36. Above — a rare preposition expressing the location of an action, with a nuance of manner, e.g.: the water was above his head. It is more often replaced by the preposition higher (see p. 154).

37. Above — a rare preposition expressing an amount of something, arising through the freezing of a case form, e.g.: there are (still) well over ten liters (liters) of milk. In standard language, this meaning is expressed by the phrase more than.

38. Below — a rare preposition of location, e.g.: she is below his nose; the knife stuck in below the elbow.

II. Prepositions governing the accusative

1. About. The preposition about occurs less frequently in the dialect than in standard language. Here it most often expresses the location of an action, e.g.: a strong drink: it burns around the ears; the wool felted around the legs. It is also used to express the time and manner of an action, e.g.: I woke up around midnight; I wrapped those broad-lapelled coats around my head and dashed into the bushes. In both these cases, as well as with the locative meaning, it is more often replaced by the preposition around, which is more customary in the dialect (see below). In addition, when indicating an approximate number, it is often replaced in the dialect by the prepositions on (see p. 153), near (p. 154), up to (p. 156), and close to (p. 157).

2. Around. The preposition around is common in the dialect. It has exactly the same meanings here as the preposition about in standard language. It can express:

1) The location of an action:

a) The exact location of an action, situated around a particular object, e.g.: a fence is built around the house; a road has been made around the hill.

b) An approximate location of an action (usually instead of the preposition about), e.g.: wolves are still found around Mantvilius; why do you have to go so far, around Stakiai?

2) An approximate time of an action (instead of the preposition about), e.g.: around March the young hens will start laying; around midwinter there was still quite a lot of snow.

3) An approximate quantity, measurement, or measure (instead of the preposition about), e.g.: you’ll pay around a hundred for that hay; that will be around three cartloads of hay.

4) The object of an action (instead of the preposition about), e.g.: he talks about his life, about the children; I don’t understand anything about those things; there’s talk about the ram’s wool.

5) The quality of an object (instead of the preposition about), e.g.: there used to be plenty of mixed cloth for weaving.

3. Into. The preposition into is used more broadly and with more varied meanings in the dialect than in standard language. It usually expresses:

1) An approximate location of an action, e.g.: they live to the north of us.

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With the prepositions anapus, šiàpus, this preposition forms the compound prepositions of place į anàpus, į šiàpus, used relatively rarely in the dialect, e.g.: he moved across the Nemunas; he waded back across the Mituva.

2) Direction of an action toward a place, e.g.: today is a feast day, so we go now to the market, now to church; take that pie straight to the oven; the net (a fish trap) brings the fish up; he slipped into an opening in the ice and drowned; all sorts of young men gather at the May gathering.

The dialect is also characterized by the use of this preposition with a locative meaning in place of the literary language’s locative case, e.g.: holes for the rungs are cut into the corners; I planted potatoes in that little hollow and watered them; I washed it in running water, and it was fine. Thus, the preposition į is used not only in the dialect described here, but also in the Western Aukštaitian dialects found among Smalininkai, Lauksargiai, Katyčiai, Pagėgiai, the Samogitian donininkai, and in some other dialects.⁸ This construction with the preposition į may have arisen by analogy with its directional meaning (cf. I threw it into running water and washed it in running water).

3) Time of the action:

a) Exact time of the action (instead of the literary language’s temporal instrumental or the construction with the preposition per), e.g.: it rained when the beans were in bloom; sparrows ate up the wheat; apparently, I sowed it at about that time; the rye was cut at the right time; I would not have recognized her in old age.

This meaning of the construction with the preposition į is also characteristic of other southern Northwestern Aukštaitian dialects and the Samogitian donininkai; it has also been recorded in the dialect of Lithuanian fishermen from East Prussia.

b) Approximate time approaching a certain temporal boundary, e.g.: the sun appeared toward evening; by evening there were patches of clear sky (gaps between the clouds) in the sky: last year it was cloudy at about that time too.

c) Approximate time beginning at a certain temporal boundary, e.g.: she died in the sixth week (at the beginning of the sixth week of her illness); on the second day we sent another letter; on the third day they themselves had to run; at the beginning she was terribly beautiful.

4) Manner of action, e.g.: the hair is curled backward; the intestines burst into several pieces; he comes back with money clenched in his hand; the calf’s legs splayed out to the sides; I met that Marutė, who speaks through her nose (nasally). Constructions with this meaning are also found in the dialect’s idioms, e.g.: he got him in his clutches; with her talk she ground everything to dust; everything went to pieces, into parts.

8. See the responses to questions 287 and 290 in the “Program for Collecting Material for the Atlas of the Lithuanian Language” from localities nos. 424, 425, 426, 427, 430, 461, 462, 463, 486, 487, 488, 489; 183, 184, 215, 247, 248, 249, 282, 283, 284, 317, 318, 352, 353, 354; A. Laigonaitė, The Meaning and Use of the Locative Cases in Contemporary Lithuanian, Vilnius, 1957, pp. 32–33; K. Morkūnas and A. Sabaliauskas, The Lithuanian Dialect of the Curonian Spit Fishermen and the Influence of Lithuanian on the Latvian Spoken by These Fishermen, “Questions of Lithuanian Linguistics,” vol. 2, Vilnius, 1959, p. 139; The Lithuanian Fishermen’s Dialect in Prussia, Kaunas, 1933, p. 64. The cited sources contain similar constructions with the preposition į that also express the time of an action.

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5) An approximate number, e.g.: it will soon be ten years since Mother died; about a hundred old men live in those houses; he worked four hundred workdays a year.

6) The aim of an action or the purpose of an object, e.g.: this wool will be for mittens; I heated the wax for cheese; this meat will be for soap.

7) The replacement of one object by another. With this meaning, the preposition į is used with the noun vieta ‘place’ in the accusative and seems to form a fixed prepositional phrase with it, e.g.: he poured barley in place of oats; give me some straw, I’ll put up walls in its place; they brought logs in place of firewood; Such į constructions correspond to the genitive construction with the literary-language preposition vietoj ‘instead of’, cf. he poured barley instead of oats.

8) Inclination, tendency toward a particular characteristic, e.g.: they have four daughters, and all of them are inclined toward scholarship; he has already quite given in to old age; let one pig be raised for bacon and the other for lard.

9) A change in an object's characteristic, e.g.: ropūtės (potatoes) turned into stalks; the child grew up to his senses.

10) Similarity of an object's characteristics, e.g.: our heifer is like a cow: with a star on its forehead; that coat of yours doesn’t look like a garment.

11) Comparison of characteristics, when the prepositional construction forms a phrase with the nominative of the same declined word, e.g.: I paid dearly, but they were big: egg for egg; I picked good ones: potato for potato; they’re handsome and beautiful: cucumber for cucumber (all alike).

4. Pāgal. In the dialect, its constructions express:

1) The location of an action, e.g.: go along the rye; the road runs along the hill.

With the preposition anāpus, in rare cases it forms the compound preposition pāgal anāpus, with the same meaning, e.g.: that bridge got caught on a stump along the far side of the Nēmūnas.

2) The manner of an action, e.g.: the skirts are chosen according to the weaving; the clock runs according to the radio; cut along the edge.

3) Comparison of an object, e.g.: for such work you should get good money.

4) The quality of an object, e.g.: you got a husband according to your own nature; according to the person, so the speech; I am the eldest, and they are all like me.

5. Pālei. Its constructions express:

1) The location of an action, e.g.: grab a little heather along the way and you’ll find some; go along the fence.

2) The manner of an action, e.g., you do everything according to your own head.

3) Comparison of an object's properties, e.g.: for such food one ought to be stout;

4) Quality of an object, e.g.: for a man, they choose wives not for goodness, but for beauty.

The prepositions pāgal and pālei, having the same meanings in the dialect, are used interchangeably. The same sentence can be said with either preposition without any difference in meaning, cf.: for such work you should get good money, and for such food one ought to be stout.

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6. Pãr. The preposition pãr is used instead of literary-language pẽr.

Its constructions can express:

1) The location and direction of an action:

a) Across an extended area, along a wide (long) strip, e.g.: a wider strip runs across this woven cloth (the space between the patterns); if that bone has grown together across the back, the cow will not limp; what is the matter with you, are you cold, or is it pulling across your legs? the potatoes grow down the middle of the bedswell.

In speech, the meaning of manner of action is sometimes also close to the construction with this meaning, e.g.: the cow trampled the chicken's leg with its toes.

b) Through the middle of something, right through, e.g.: the bullet pierced the back of the head; he was shot through the lungs; he looks through the window.

c) Over the surface of something, e.g.: he got angry, slapped [someone] across the cheek; he patted me on the shoulder and left; he hit [him] over the head with a stick; father comes clumping across the meadow.

2) The time of an action:

a) Extension, length of the duration of an action, e.g.: they would sing through the nights, dance—the young lived happily; in the evenings they would tell frightening stories to the children; when the animals are loose, you won't get anything done all day.

b) The quantity of an action's duration, e.g.: I milk a cow in five minutes.

3) Manner of action, e.g.: that little one narrowed their eyes and looks sideways; they fed that child through the nose.

4) Quantity of an object, e.g.: there remained in that bottle a good palm's worth of drink; there was a handspan of water in the ditch; he paid two hundred for that hay; that cloth is terribly wide: it would cover a whole table.

5) Cause of an action, e.g.: he went to town for money; he lost his health through drunkenness; because of anger, he damaged his nerves (nerves).

6) Object of an action. The construction with the preposition pãr in this meaning is used in place of the dative in the literary language, e.g.: people consider Urbùtis from Kalnėnai (village) to be pãr me; she regarded him as pãr Šuopį (cf. standard Lithuanian: she considers him Šuopiu).

7. Pãskui. The construction with the preposition pãskui in the dialect most often expresses the direction of an action, e.g.: the dog followed behind him; the young man runs after his father. Sometimes it can also express the manner of an action, e.g.: go one after another!

8. Prieš. Constructions with the preposition prieš express the following in the dialect:

1) The location of an action, e.g.: the horses began to shy before the bridge.

2) The direction of an action, e.g.: the sheep ran down the hill.

3) The time of an action (this is the most frequent meaning in the dialect), e.g.: before the milking they would get that cow up; I wanted to sleep before the rain; my legs give out before the hill.

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4) The manner of an action, e.g.: the children would crawl through the snow, clinging to that hill; it is hard to swim against the water (current); one had to walk against the wind.

5) The object of an action, e.g.: he is very eager to show himself before others; you’re just a little runt compared with such a man.

9. Priešais — a rare preposition of adverbial origin, used most often to indicate the location of an action, e.g.: there was a mill in front of the bridge; I look—and he is coming straight toward me.

Sometimes it also expresses the manner of an action, e.g.: the children talk in front of their father and do not listen at all.

10. Prō. Constructions with the preposition prō express the following in the dialect:

1) A place beside or near which a particular action takes place, e.g.: he waves a little stick right under your nose, teasing you—what can you do to him? Don’t go past the end of the barn: the dog escapes (gets out) here. In this meaning it also occurs in dialectal idioms, e.g.: a fly just whizzes past his nose, and he starts puffing.

2) The time of an action, e.g.: he came rattling back at dawn, and now he is asleep.

3) The manner of an action, e.g.: one after another they run, side by side; they go racing past one another.

4) A property of an object, e.g.: good potatoes: the tops are greenish-black; the leaves are grayish-green; a pretty girl: her face is whitish-pink; her nose is reddish-blue.

5) The purpose of an action, e.g.: these herbs are for the heart (to treat heart conditions); horsetails are good for the kidneys (to treat kidney conditions).

6) The object of an action, e.g.: I haven’t done anything about the passport yet; we’re talking about that book; he tells about his whole family.

The prepositions par and pro are generally not confused in the dialect. For example, the sentence what are you shivering for, or the wind is pulling at your legs shows that the pulling (of the wind) affects the legs and passes over them, whereas the sentence he waves a switch right past your nose, teasing—what can you do to him? indicates that he is waving the switch without touching the nose, passing well clear of it.

III. Instrumental prepositions

1. Sū. The preposition su expresses the following meanings in the dialect:

1) The object of an action, e.g.: we eat potato mash with sweet milk; I can’t keep up with her digging potatoes; he is angry with the police.

2) The means of an action, e.g.: we’ll be able to scoop up the bread with a spoon if it keeps raining much longer; he chopped and chopped with one hand—soon a pile of firewood had fallen; with a broom he swept up those clover plants with a few strokes.

Alongside this meaning, in rare cases the dialect also uses the instrumental without a preposition instead of a construction with the preposition su, e.g.: the child recovered, as if it had been taken away by hand.

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3) The quality of an object, e.g.: knit me a sweater with a little edging at the bottom; a tree with a split; it is awful that the man has a long nose. The instrumental without a preposition has not been attested as an alternative to this prepositional construction.

4) Time of an action:

a) The time of an action determined by certain objects, e.g.: we got back while it was still light (before dark); I left home with the lantern (with a light, before dawn); I went to bed with the hens (very early).

b) The duration of an action, e.g.: lunch will be ready in an hour; I knit a sweater in a day;

5) The manner of an action, e.g.: it rains with the sun shining; I weave with two shuttles. Examples of this meaning also occur in dialect idioms, e.g.: we live with our necks and no heads (without thinking).

6) The object of an action, e.g.: all summer long we had to chase birds.

2. Tiēs. Constructions with the preposition ties express an approximate location of an action in the dialect, e.g.: the Vidāuja flows into the Mituva near Mantvìliai (a village name); they led him to that little linden tree and let him go.

IV. Prepositions used with several cases

1. Pàs. In the dialect, the preposition pas is used interchangeably with the genitive and accusative, without any difference in meaning. Genitive constructions are sometimes more frequent, especially in the northwestern part of the dialect area. This is a dialect feature shared with the neighboring Samogitians. It expresses:

1) The location of an action, e.g.: a bee stung [him] near the eyes; what can you find out here by the stove? It’s slippery: here by the door I fell once more and sprawled out by the barn; I served for a long time at Blazius’s (surname).

2) The direction of an action, e.g.: one must go to the cow; go to that old woman.

2. Põ. In the dialect, the preposition po is used with the genitive, dative (rare cases), accusative, and instrumental. It expresses:

1) The location of an action:

a) A specific, precisely localized place. For this purpose, genitive (less frequent) and instrumental constructions with the preposition po are generally used, e.g.: she put the cake under the oven; what did you put there under your head? it presses under the heart; slipped on the ice; I would have put the gum under my heel; I would have been crushed under the court; the front stood near Raudonė for a long time; a whole load of wool got stuck at Jurbarkas.

b) A location that is not precisely defined. In this case, only accusative constructions with the preposition po are used, e.g.: what’s going on around the collective farm? those children are scurrying around the house; I can’t keep up with the cleaning,

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today I walked after those, around the town; the ferret runs around the barn, cf.: the ferret crawled under the barn.

2) Direction of an action. In this case, genitive and dative constructions with the preposition po are used (in fixed expressions), e.g.: the ducks went off to hell; whoever will find them now; go straight ahead and you will find the house with red roofs.

3) Time of an action. In this case, genitive constructions are generally used, and dative constructions also occur in fixed expressions, e.g.: he came back after twelve; come after lunch; he left and has not been heard from since that day; I came back after everything was over (after everything had ended).

4) Manner of an action. In this case, instrumental constructions with the preposition po are generally used, e.g.: father gets angry, grumbles (mumbles) under his breath; when the clover has lain down, they mow it right in front (of them). Dative constructions are also sometimes found in fixed expressions, e.g.: we live according to the old ways.

With numerals, the preposition po indicates the stages or quantities in which an action is performed. In this case, only accusative constructions were observed, e.g.: the hawk caught the hens one by one; they set them out three at a time, and we demonstrated it.

5) Quantity of objects. In this case, only accusative constructions are used, e.g.: they sewed everyone a shirt each; in spring they paid two rubles each for the apples.

6) Result of an action, change in an object. In this case, only genitive constructions are used, e.g.: there was Jonas, Jonas—and now he’s become a Jonas (the good Jonas turned bad); there you have it: a child, a child—and now he’s become a child (the good son turned into a rascal). In this meaning, constructions with the preposition po are common in the dialect.

7) Distinguishing attribute of an object. Constructions with the preposition po in this meaning are used instead of literary-language constructions with the preposition pagal. Po here is followed by the instrumental case, e.g.: what is your surname on your father’s side?

3. Sàlig. The preposition sàlig is used instead of the literary-language form sulig. Its constructions occur here with the genitive, dative, and instrumental, with no difference in meaning. It is not very characteristic of the dialect and is rather rare. Its constructions express:

1) The limit of an action, e.g.: sàlig Aïsai our fields end; mow sàlig the burned area; he cut off the arm sàlig the elbow. As the examples show, some constructions with this meaning also express manner of action.

2) Quality of an object, e.g.: these trees are sàlig human height.

4. Už is used with the genitive and accusative. Its constructions express:

1) Location of an action. In this case, genitive constructions are used, e.g.: they live beyond that little forest; beyond Mantvilius (the village) is the Mituva, and beyond the Mituva is Mantvilinė (the forest).

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2) Time of the action. The preposition už with this meaning is also used with the genitive, e.g.: in three days the chicks will have hatched; the child was born in a month; in a year or two, it will grow up.

In the dialect, sentences occur that indicate both the location of an action and its extent, e.g.: the water is already a fathom deep (after digging a fathom and at a depth of one fathom).

3) Manner of action. Genitive constructions are used with this meaning; they form a fixed phrase with the nominative of the same inflected word, e.g.: the man is old, can barely walk: one foot after the other; those piglets eat, squeezing one after another.

4) Quantity of the action. The preposition už expresses this meaning when used with the accusative, e.g.: I got three packets of seeds for a rouble; you wouldn’t get a garment like that for a hundred.

5) Purpose or intended use. Accusative constructions are used with this meaning, e.g.: they had hired me as a herdsman (me) ; it is better to pay small change for the road (money) .

6) Cause of the action. Accusative constructions are used with this meaning, e.g.: he had his licence taken away for drunkenness; he ended up in court for beating someone.

7) Veiksmo objektas. Šiuo atveju vartojamos kilmininkinės konstrukcijos, pvz.: kimbi už dūonos, o drąsiai (tikrai) jōs nevalgyši; kãpt mã (man) už rankos; ji už seno krēpelio išėjo (ištekėjo); tēvas užsistoja už vaikina.

8) Comparison of the properties of things. Accusative constructions are used in this case, e.g.: the father is older (senior) than the mother; he is smaller (you) than you, give it to him; he writes better (me) than I do.

9) Substitution of one thing for another. Accusative constructions are used with this meaning, e.g.: go in my place (me) to the communal work.

Having set out the characteristic meanings of prepositions and their use in the southern Northwestern Highland dialect, we can make the following general observations and conclusions:

1. The dialect has prepositions that govern the genitive, accusative, and instrumental, as well as prepositions used with several cases (genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental). In addition, it has a comparatively large number of compound prepositions formed from two independent prepositions: near to, near from, above beyond, without this side, without beyond, without after, from beyond, from this side, from after, from behind, along across, as far as beyond, as far as this side, as far as after, not far from, from beyond, from this side, crosswise across, into beyond, into this side, along beyond. Alongside these, one or another “three-part” preposition made up of three prepositions also occurs: from behind beyond, from underneath beyond, from underneath this side. In addition to these, the dialect also has the postposition toward, whose shorter form (toward) has recently been used as a preposition.

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2. Most prepositions in the dialect take the genitive (38). Some of them (abygaliai, abypusiai, apyšaliai, anksčiau, arčiau, paskiau, šiàpus, šìtapus, toliau, vėliau) are dialect adverbs that have acquired the meanings and functions of prepositions, while the prepositions kraštù, šalì, viršùs have most likely arisen through the simple fossilization of particular case forms. These examples show how the process of expanding the inventory of prepositions takes place in the dialect.

3. The prepositions taking the accusative are almost the same as in the standard language; however, the prepositions pagal ir palei are used interchangeably without any difference in meaning, whereas constructions with the prepositions par ir pro do not appear to be confused: constructions with par generally indicate that the action takes place on the object itself, through its middle, while pro means past it, alongside it.

4. Of the prepositions taking the instrumental, only su ir ties are used in the dialect. Among other meanings, constructions with the preposition su always express the means of an action (su šluota dobiliukus šūšlavė) and the quality of an object (:vyras su ilga nosia).

5. The section on prepositions used with several cases discusses the prepositions pas, po, salig ir už. Unlike in the standard language, the preposition pas is used interchangeably with the genitive and accusative, without a difference in meaning. Genitive constructions with the preposition pas are also characteristic of the Samogitian dialects bordering the dialect under study to the northwest. The preposition salig, corresponding to standard-language sulig, is used with the genitive, dative, and instrumental without a difference in meaning.

6. Most complex prepositions are genitive-governing prepositions. The “three-part” prepositions are also formed exclusively from genitive-governing ones. Complex prepositional constructions most often express place and time. Their individual components are not all equally closely bound together. The most firmly established among them are iš už, iš po, be po, iš anàpus, iš šiàpus, ligi anàpus, netoli nuo, nuo anàpus. The components of all other complex prepositions have a considerably weaker connection with one another. The second component of complex prepositions (the third in “three-part” ones) generally makes the meaning of the first more specific or precise; cf.: jis lenda iš krūmo; jis lenda iš po krūmo; jis lenda iš po šiàpus krūmo.

7. A considerable number of prepositions in the dialect have more meanings than their counterparts in the standard language. This applies to the prepositions aũt, aplink, aukščiau, į, iš, netoli, nuo, prieš, prò.

8. The meaning of some dialect prepositions has expanded at the expense of other prepositions. For instance, the preposition apie is used much less often in the dialect. To express an approximate number, constructions with the prepositions ant, arti, ligi, netoli, į, par are also frequently used. In addition to its own meanings, the preposition aplink also has all the meanings of apie. The prepositions arti ir virš are used relatively rarely, since the preposition netoli replaces arti in all cases, while the preposition aukščiau — virš.

9. Prepositional constructions are also used quite frequently in the dialect in cases where the standard language uses case forms without prepositions or other constructions.

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MEANING AND USE OF PREPOSITIONS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SOUTHERN DIALECT OF THE NORTHWESTERN AUKŠTAITIAN DIALECT

Э. ГРИНАВЯЩЕНЕ

Summary

The article examines the meaning and use of prepositions characteristic of the southern dialect of the Northwestern Aukštaitian dialect, spoken in the Lithuanian-speaking area between the settlements of Smalininkai, Vadžgirys, Girkalnis, and Skirsnemunė (Jurbarkas and Raseiniai districts). The dialect material used in the article was collected mainly by the author from 1949 to 1965.

All the dialect’s prepositions are divided into four main groups according to the case they govern: 1) prepositions with the genitive, 2) with the accusative, 3) with the instrumental, and 4) with several cases (the genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental).

The dialect has as many as 38 prepositions governing the genitive—more than in the literary language. These include some adverbs of the dialect under study, for example: abugaliai “at both ends,” abusiai “on both sides,” abysaliai “on both sides,” ankščiau “earlier,” arčiau “closer,” paskiau “later,” pirmiau “earlier,” šitapus “on this side,” toliau “farther,” vėliau “later”; and also certain fossilized forms of some cases, for example: kraštų “at the edge,” šaly “at the edge,” viršaus “above.” These examples reflect the process by which the category of prepositions is expanded in the dialect under study through adverbs and nouns: these adverbs and certain case forms have acquired prepositional meanings.

The dialect has as many prepositions governing the accusative as the literary language; only the preposition pàs “at” is absent. There are only two prepositions governing the instrumental: su “with,” and ties “at”; and four that govern several cases: pàs “at,” põ “under,” šalia “beside,” and už “behind.” Unlike in the literary language, the preposition pàs is used in the dialect with both the genitive and the accusative, with the same meaning. The construction of pàs with the genitive is also characteristic of neighboring Samogitian dialects. The preposition põ is used with the genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental, while už is used with the genitive and accusative, as in the literary language. Unlike in the literary language, the preposition šalia is used in parallel with the genitive, dative, and instrumental, without any difference in meaning.

In addition to those listed above, the dialect also has a certain number of compound prepositions consisting of two independent elements, for example: arti prie “close to,” arti nuo “close to/from,” be šiapus “without this side,” be anapus “without the other side,” iš šiapus “from this side,” iš anapus “from the other side,” be põ “without after,” iš põ “from under,” iš už “from behind,” išilgai par “along across,” į anapus “to the other side,” į šiapus “to this side,” ligi anapus “as far as the other side,” ligi šiapus “as far as this side,” ligi põ “as far as after,” netoli nuo “not far from,” nuo anapus “from the other side,” nuo šiapus “from this side,” skersai par “across,” pagal anapus “along the other side.” Alongside these, occasional “triple” compound prepositions consisting of three parts are also found, for example: iš už anapus “from beyond the other side,” iš po šiapus “from beyond this side.” Not all components of compound prepositions are equally closely fused together. A closer connection is found between the components of compound prepositions such as iš už, iš põ, be põ, iš anapus, iš šiapus, ligi anapus, netoli nuo, nuo anapus. The prepositions listed are used more frequently in the dialect than the others. “Triple” prepositions are usually formed from them by means of a third preposition. All the other compound prepositions are less stable. Constructions with all compound prepositions most often express place and time. The second component of such prepositions always clarifies the meaning of the first.

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Some of the prepositions discussed in the article have more meanings in the dialect than their counterparts in the literary language. This applies to the prepositions añt “on,” aplink “around,” aukščiau “above, beyond,” į “into,” iš “from, out of,” netoli “near,” nuo “from,” prie “at, to,” pro “through.” In addition, the meaning of some prepositions has broadened through the influence of other prepositions. To indicate an approximate quantity, constructions with the prepositions añt, arti, ligi, netoli, į, par are increasingly used in the dialect alongside the preposition apie. The prepositions netoli and aplink are used in the dialect both in their own meanings and in the meaning of the preposition apie, while the preposition aukščiau is used in the meaning of the preposition virš.

Constructions with prepositions are used relatively frequently in the dialect, including in cases where the literary language uses case forms or other constructions.