LIETUVIŲ TERMINOLOGIJA

LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

J. KLIMAVIČIUS

SYNONYMY OF INTERNATIONAL AND LITHUANIAN TERMS IN TERMINOGRAPHY

The problem of the relationship between international and Lithuanian words is complex and multifaceted. Here, its most important aspect is almost entirely left unexamined: when and why only an international word is used, and when and why only a Lithuanian word (theoretically, in the abstract, and practically, in concrete terms). For now, we will confine ourselves to a partial, but no less complex, difficult, and pressing question: when both an international and a Lithuanian word are used.

The problem of the synonymy of international and Lithuanian words (terms) is likewise not examined here in greater theoretical detail (that is a matter for a separate article). We will briefly note only the causes and circumstances behind the emergence of the phenomenon itself.

In lexicology, words (and, in terminology, terms) are classified by origin and chronology as native—inheritances and neologisms—and borrowings (more narrowly, international words)—old and new. However, such a classification must encompass not only form but also content. Comparing the two classifications—the lexicological and the semasiological—and determining their relationship can show what semantics lies within the aforementioned sections and subsections of the lexicon (terminology). This is no place to set out in detail either the rationale for that semantic classification or the entire classification¹. For now, we are concerned only with those sections in which the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms is manifested. There are two.

1. Naturally, terminology semantics that is not borrowed (inherited or newly developed) is expressed by lexemes of Lithuanian (or, respectively, Baltic or Indo-European) origin. However, this terminology semantics is often not only Lithuanian (ethnographisms), but common—if not to all, then to many or at least several languages—and, of course, is named in each of them by its own words. In scholarship, however—precisely because of this commonality of semantics and the international character of science—international terms are often used. It goes without saying that these are of national origin and acquire international status only because of the priority or scientific achievements of some nation or scientist (that is, for non-linguistic reasons). Thus arise pairs of absolute synonyms of different origin (two-headed), e.g.: plukė — anemonė (Anemone), vilkdalgis — irisas (Iris). These plants have grown in Lithuania since time immemorial and have Lithuanian names, so it would be strange if those names were not also used in scientific botanical systematics². However, their international names are also fairly widespread.

¹ It may only be noted that this classification makes it possible to shed light quite simply on the most confusing section of the classification—the problem of semantic calques, or so-called “covert borrowings” (P. A. Byдaгoв, Введение в науку о языке, Москва, 1958, p. 120).

² Only in rare cases may native words fail to find their way into scientific terminology because of their limited geographical range and narrow sphere of use (perhaps sometimes also owing to the linguistic ignorance or indifference of non-specialist users). For example, skalė, dubė in geology, naugė (naugis) in technology, chemistry, and physics did not become synonyms for dolomite, karštas, metal. Although there are no linguistic obstacles to this.

91

synonyms (although their borrowing and use are determined by non-linguistic reasons: their meanings are not), and their differentiation is stylistic rather than semantic.

2. The naming of borrowed international term-semes, when Lithuanian lacks appropriate ready-made resources and its resources are functionally insufficient (or at least seem so), is realized through borrowings (more narrowly, international words); when such resources exist or are sufficient, it is realized through Lithuanian words, by terminologizing existing words or creating neologisms. Even in the latter case, however, especially in specialized scientific usage and especially alongside neologisms (thus, essentially, again for non-linguistic reasons), internationalisms also remain in use, e.g.: resistance — rezistencija, akmenligė — litiazė.

Thus, the synonymy of international and native terms is, in P. Ivić’s words, „неизбежное явление во всех фазах развития терминологии“³. This synonymy of different origins (bilingual synonymy) is fundamentally different from absolute synonymy that arises within the same language (most often from different strata of that language), which language—and terminology in particular—avoids and rejects. R. Budagov rightly observes: „〈…〉 лингвистика и языкознание — абсолютные синонимы в русском языке, однако уже то, что первое существительное является иноязычным по происхождению, а второе подобного характера не имеет, выступает как известный, хотя и „приглушённый“ дифференциальный признак между ними“⁴. It may be argued that, to a certain extent, terminology exists in two varieties—national and international.

Of course, the universal tendency to avoid absolute synonyms, although restricted and slower, is at work here as well. It manifests itself in two ways: 1) through the semantic differentiation of such pairs, e.g.: čiaupas “a device for releasing liquid or gas from a pipe and stopping its flow” — kranas “a mechanism for lifting heavy loads”; 2) through the complete expulsion of a borrowing from the language system: for example, instead of konusas, gradusas, fokusas, linzė, celė, ruporas, only kūgis, laipsnis, židinys, lęšis, ląstelė, garsintuvas⁵ are used.

One more distinctive phenomenon should be pointed out: it exists alongside the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms and arises as a side effect of the formation of that synonymy. This is the heterogeneity (lack of homogeneity) of lexical microsystems, or the coexistence of Lithuanian and borrowed elements within a single microsystem, e.g.: dujos, but gazotronas; laipsnis, but gradientas; židinys, but fokusuoti; kūgis, but konoidas; sankiba, but kohereris; karbonatas, but anglis; feritas, but geležis; optika, but šviesa; aksonometrija, but ašis (cf. aksiometras — ašimatis); hominidas, antropologija, but žmogus (cf. humanizacija — sužmoginimas, antropogeninis — žmogiškasis). There is nothing illogical or anomalous about this. Microsystem heterogeneity is an entirely normal phenomenon, characteristic of many languages. It can be neither a reason for Lithuanization nor for internationalization, and can neither initiate nor impede these processes⁶.

³ P. Ivić, On the Problem of Linguistic Terminology and Conventional Notation in the Slavic Languages, — “Voprosy jazykoznanija,” 1963, No. 1, p. 19.

⁴ R. A. Budagov, Comparative Semasiological Studies, Moscow State University Press, 1963, p. 185.

⁵ The fact that they still occur in texts merely indicates that the language culture of those texts is inadequate. The use of such borrowings is a violation of the norm, not evidence of it.

⁶ Of course, this does not mean that partial harmonization of microsystems is impossible. However, it is more feasible on a derivational (formant) basis.

92

The synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms is examined here on the basis not of scientific texts⁷ but of terminology dictionaries—terminography⁸. From the already fairly extensive and varied body of Lithuanian terminography, dictionaries of physics⁹, chemistry¹⁰, and polytechnics¹¹ were selected for analysis. This choice is determined by: 1) the need to limit the scope; 2) the proximity of these branches of science; 3) the synchronicity of these dictionaries (since the degree of synonym equivalence may change over time and be reflected somewhat differently in dictionaries from different periods); 4) the need to improve these dictionaries (already being addressed in part). Although these dictionaries do not encompass the entirety of the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, they adequately reflect its scale and the variety of lexicographic presentation methods. As they cover related fields, they illustrate well the differences in how particular synonymous pairs are presented and allow broader conclusions to be drawn about problems of international and Lithuanian synonymy in terminography, especially about the degree of equivalence in that synonymy.

First, we will examine the ways in which the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms is presented.

WAYS OF PRESENTING SYNONYMS

International and Lithuanian synonyms are presented in the aforementioned terminology dictionaries in three main ways.

1. The first way of presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms is to link them in both directions (A → B and B → A, or A, B and B, A). For example:

termistor (=thermal resistance) „термистор (=теплосопротивление)“ FTŽ₁ 95¹² and thermal resistance (=termistor) „теплосопротивление (=термистор)“ FTŽ₁

⁷ The use of such synonymy in scientific texts has its own specific characteristics. Texts contain more borrowings that have already been displaced from the language system, neologisms that are only beginning to take hold, and, in general, greater variety, fluctuation, and dynamic change. Only texts make it possible to determine the statistical and stylistic differentiation of international and Lithuanian terms.

⁸ Regarding the term terminography, which has hardly become established yet but is certainly good and convenient, see I. I. Ковалик, Основна проблематика сучасної української термінології, Перша науково-методична нарада з проблем упорядкування і нормалізації термінології, Тези доповідей і повідомлень, Київ, 1970, p. 14.

⁹ Dictionary of Physics Terms, editor P. Brazdžiūnas, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR; the dictionary was reviewed by the Terminology Commission of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR; publishing house editor Ch. Lemchenas, Vilnius, 1958, 124 p.; Lithuanian-Russian [abbreviated FTŽ₁]; Dictionary of Physics Terms, ed. P. Brazdžiūnas, editorial commission: T. Banis, J. Batariūnas, P. Brazdžiūnas (chairman), H. Horodničius, S. Jakutis, A. Juodviršis, E. Makariūnienė, A. Puodžiukynas, J. Stanaitis, K. Ušpalis (deputy chairman), S. Vėlinavičius, [vol. I], Vilnius, 1971, pp. 1–419 (rotoprint), [vol. II], Vilnius, 1973, pp. 418–965 (rotoprint), and Supplements, 37 p. (rotoprint); Lithuanian-Russian-English-German [abbreviated FTŽ₂ and FTŽ₂P].

¹⁰ K. Daukšas, Chemijos žodynas, žodyną peržiūrėjo Lietuvos TSR Mokslų akademijos Lietuvių kalbos ir literatūros instituto terminologijos komisija, leidyklos redaktorius Ch. Lemchenas, Vilnius, 1960, 450 p.; lietuvių-rusų k. [sutrumpintai ChŽ].

¹¹ Russian-Lithuanian Polytechnic Dictionary, editorial board: Associate Professor, Candidate of Technical Sciences A. Novodvorskis (chairman), Associate Professor, Candidate of Technical Sciences L. Kumpikas, Associate Professor, Candidate of Technical Sciences J. Mikuckas, senior lecturer J. Stanaitis, Associate Professor, Candidate of Technical Sciences S. Vasauskas, Professor, Candidate of Chemical Sciences J. Vidmantas, publishing house editor Ch. Lemchenas, Vilnius, 1959, 520 p. [abbreviated PolŽ].

¹² For abbreviations, see notes 9–11. Roman numerals accompanying abbreviations denote parts, and Arabic numerals denote pages.

93

91; inclination (= tilt) “инклинация, склонение” FTŽ₁ 36 and tilt (= inclination) “склонение, инклинация” FTŽ₁ 67¹³; approximation, approach FTŽ₂ I 23 and approach, approximation FTŽ₂ I 26; stimulate (= encourage) ChŽ 261 and encourage (= stimulate) ChŽ 254; helicopter, rotorcraft “геликоптер (= вертолёт)” PolŽ 65 and rotorcraft, helicopter “вертолёт” PolŽ 42; adapter, sound pickup “адаптер” PolŽ 12 and sound pickup, adapter “звукосниматель” PolŽ 114¹⁴.

This manner of presentation would seem to indicate complete identity of the lexical meanings of the synonyms¹⁵.

However, their inconsistent—indeed, threefold—presentation with specific determinants gives some reason to doubt this.

For example, structure and composition are presented in the new “Dictionary of Physics Terms” project as completely equivalent terms: structure, composition FTŽ₂ II 789 and composition,

¹³ The order in which foreign-language equivalents of international and native synonyms are given is quite inconsistent. For instance, in the second pair, the Russian synonyms are already given after the headword rather than in parentheses after the equals sign. Alongside such lexicographic-technical errors, there are also more serious shortcomings in dictionary structure. For example, in some cases a Russian pair (native + international) is supplied alongside the Lithuanian pair (native + international), while in others only one member of the pair is supplied: scintillation (= flash “сцинтилляция, вспышка” FTŽ₁ 79 and flash (= scintillation) “вспышка” FTŽ₁ 12. Sometimes in both cases only one Russian equivalent is given alongside the Lithuanian pair (although a pair actually exists), e.g.: macrocosm (= macro-world) “макрокосмос” FTŽ₂ 57 and macro-world (= macrocosm) “макромир” FTŽ₂ 57; microcosm (= micro-world) “микрокосмос” FTŽ₂ 60 and micro-world (= microcosm) “микромир” FTŽ₂ 60. However, examining the order in which foreign-language equivalents are presented and recording its inconsistencies (including those in the Lithuanian section) is not the aim of this article, so the matter is touched upon only implicitly.

¹⁴ As we can see, synonyms are presented in various ways technically in different dictionaries: in the “Dictionary of Physics Terms” and the “Dictionary of Chemistry,” in parentheses after the equals sign; in the Polytechnic Terms Dictionary and the new “Dictionary of Physics Terms” project, without parentheses, after the headword. Although technical presentation is not our concern here, it should nevertheless be noted that this method of presenting identical synonyms is better, since in lexicography the equals sign is customarily used to direct readers from a nonstandard word to a standard one. In the Russian section of the Polytechnic Terms Dictionary, cases of linking synonyms such as геликоптер (= вертолёт) are very rare and incidental—they are generally not linked. In the Lithuanian section of the Polytechnic Terms Dictionary, the order in which members of synonym pairs are presented is generally consistent with the terms in the Russian section: the Lithuanian synonym is given first, followed by the international term, when they correspond to the Russian-section Russian word; conversely, the international term is given first, followed by its Lithuanian synonym, when they correspond to the international word in the Russian section. However, there are also deviations. These are of two kinds: 1) terms in the Lithuanian section are given in reverse order, e.g.: струк-тура – composition, structure PolŽ 412, whereas строение – structure, composition PolŽ 411—these are apparently not mistakes; 2) members of synonym pairs in the Lithuanian section are given in the same order in both entries, e.g.: вертикальный – vertical, upright PolŽ 42 and отвесный – vertical, upright PolŽ 253, or дефект – deficiency, defect PolŽ 88 and порок – deficiency, flaw, defect PolŽ 308, which gives considerable reason to doubt that they are completely identical—in these cases the first term is more likely preferred (see subsection 2).

¹⁵ Some doubt may be raised only about the adequacy of pairs presented in this technically inconsistent manner: conjugated reaction—see coupled reaction ChŽ 155 and coupled reaction (= conjugated reaction) ChŽ 267; substituent—see substitute ChŽ 263 and substitute (= substituent) ChŽ 210, since in lexicography the cross-reference “see” is customarily used when a less-preferred word is redirected to a more-preferred one. But these are most likely merely technical errors, not adherence to a principle.

94

structure FTŽ₂ II 640¹⁶. Only five specific terms are given under composition, structure, and only with composition—atomic composition FTŽ₂ II 640, nuclear composition FTŽ₂ II 640, composition of matter FTŽ₂ II 640, molecular composition FTŽ₂ II 640, and internal composition FTŽ₂ II 640; whereas under structure, composition specific terms are given with the generic term structure—the same ones also listed with composition, namely, atomic structure FTŽ₂ II 789, nuclear structure FTŽ₂ II 789, structure of matter FTŽ₂ II 791, molecular structure FTŽ₂ II 791, and internal structure FTŽ₂ II 793, as well as numerous other structures: secondary FTŽ₂ II 789, multilayer FTŽ₂ II 789, cellular FTŽ₂ II 791, alloy FTŽ₂ II 791, mosaic FTŽ₂ II 792, fine-grained FTŽ₂ II 792, coarse-grained FTŽ₂ II 792, complex FTŽ₂ II 792, network FTŽ₂ II 793, of the Universe FTŽ₂ II 793, etc.¹⁷ Thus, both duplication and non-identity of synonyms are present here¹⁸. Of course, structure and composition differ in usage: the Lithuanian composition is more frequent and popular, while the international structure is less frequent and more scientific. Accordingly, more frequent, popular specific terms are also used more often with composition than with structure. However, less frequent specific terms can certainly also be used with composition, for example, cellular composition, network composition, and so on. But these are not listed. Even the term composition of the Universe, which can hardly be called rare, is not included. Thus, if structure and composition are absolute synonyms, their identity must also be preserved when they are presented with specific determinants. Therefore, it is best to list all specific terms in one place, avoiding repetition, with both generic terms, and leave only a cross-reference to them under the other generic term. The existing method of presenting specific terms—all terms with both generic terms, but some with only one generic constituent—contradicts the absolute identity of the generic terms and calls for changing the presentation order (bringing it closer to method III; see subsection 3).

In other cases, all specific terms are presented in one place and with only one synonym. For example, under radiation, emission “излучение, лучеиспускание, радиация — radiation — Strahlung” FTŽ₂ II 590 there are no specific terms at all—all are listed under emission, radiation “излучение, радиация — radiation — Strahlung.” FTŽ₂ II 744: atmospheric emission FTŽ₂ II 744, electromagnetic emission FTŽ₂ II 745, gravitational emission FTŽ₂ II 746, cosmic emission FTŽ₂ II 747, neutron emission FTŽ₂ II 748, radioactive emission FTŽ₂ II

¹⁶ Also structure, composition PolŽ 411 and composition, structure PolŽ 412. The “Dictionary of Chemistry,” however, uses a different presentation: composition—see structure ChŽ 244 and structure ChŽ 263 (on this method of presentation, see subsection 3; on such inconsistencies in presentation, see “Inconsistencies in the Presentation of Synonyms”). The “Dictionary of Physics Terms” contains only structure FTŽ₁ 88. For further discussion of similar differences in how the same synonyms are presented in different dictionaries, see “Inconsistencies in the Presentation of Synonyms.”

¹⁷ Equivalents in other languages are also presented quite inconsistently—generic terms: строение FTŽ₂ II 640 and структура, строение FTŽ₂ II 789, Aufbau, Struktur FTŽ₂ II 640 and Struktur FTŽ₂ II 789; and specific terms: internal composition—innerer Aufbau FTŽ₂ II 640, nuclear composition—Atomkernaufbau FTŽ₂ II 640 (=Kernaufbau, cf. Kernstruktur FTŽ₂ II 789), but atomic composition—Atomaufbau, Atomstruktur FTŽ₂ II 640, composition of matter—Struktur der Materie, Aufbau der Materie FTŽ₂ II 640, whereas molecular composition—Molekülstruktur FTŽ₂ II 640; molecular structure of matter, conversely, is molekulare Aufbau der Materie FTŽ₂ II 791, although molecular structure—molekulare Struktur FTŽ₂ II 791, and so on.

¹⁸ The Polytechnic Terms Dictionary is even more inconsistent: under structure, composition it lists layered structure PolŽ 411 and peatland structure, peatland composition PolŽ 411, while under composition, structure it gives fibrous, granular, coarse-grained, fine-grained, plate-like, spherical structures PolŽ 412.

95

749, penetrating radiation FTŽ₂ II 750, ultraviolet radiation FTŽ₂ II 751… ¹⁹ This is a clear contradiction: radiation and spinduliavimas are presented as completely equivalent synonyms, yet the presentation of specific terms only with spinduliavimas denies this. Thus, if the identity of the meanings of radiacija and spinduliavimas is affirmed, specific terms should also be given with both. But if these two terms are acknowledged not to be equivalent, their presentation should be changed as well: radiacija, see spinduliavimas. The matter is further complicated by the fact that spinduliavimas is also a synonym of emisija, although all specific terms are given only with emisija (see FTŽ₂ I 153–155). Perhaps for this very reason, in the additions to the draft of the new “Dictionary of Physics Terms,” emisija is given without a Lithuanian synonym (see FTŽ₂ P 9), while spinduliavimas FTŽ₂ P 35 is given without radiacija. The issue has been settled, but rather mechanically. First, it is questionable whether it is realistic to abandon radiacija altogether²⁰. Second, emisija would also benefit from a Lithuanian equivalent, but according to the etymological meaning of emisija it should be not spinduliavimas, but išspinduliavimas²¹. This would also make it possible to dispense with the tautological term emisinis spinduliavimas FTŽ₂ II 745 (= išspinduliavimas). Thus, spinduliavimas ‘radiation’ and išspinduliavimas ‘emission’ would differ in a way similar to German Strahlung and Ausstrahlung²². Accordingly, the synonym for emitter “Эмиттер — emitter” should likewise be not spinduliuotojas (see FTŽ₂ I 155), but išspinduliuotojas²³.

There is also švitinimas—Russian облучение, English irradiation, exposure, bombardement, German Bestrahlung, Bombardierung FTŽ₂ II 830; however, English irradiation is also iradiacija FTŽ₂ I 241, exposure is ekspozicija FTŽ₂ I 140, and bombardment is apšaudymas (bombardavimas) FTŽ₂ I 23. Yet the relationship among švytinimas, iradiacija, ekspozicija, and apšaudymas (bombardavimas) is unclear from the Dictionary. Apšaudymas (bombardavimas) is probably a technical term (rather, a professionalism), not a physics term. Judging from its etymology, iradiacija ought to mean something like “radiance, glowing.” But švytėjimas is свечение—glow, light—Leuchten, Leuchtung FTŽ₂ II 830, although liuminescencija FTŽ₂ I 416 would also mean “glowing” in Lithuanian; cf. gyvasis švytėjimas—bioluminescence [“Moksleivis,” 1973, No. 11, p. 36

¹⁹ Nor are equivalents in other languages always presented consistently. For instance, all Russian specific terms are given with the generic term излучение, but for some reason корпусулярная солнечная радиация FTŽ₂ II 750 is an exception, although корпусулярное излучение FTŽ₂ II 745 and солнечное излучение FTŽ₂ II 750 are given.

²⁰ It is also supported by the adjective radiacinis. Incidentally, the adjectival modifier radiacinis and the genitive modifier spinduliavimo should also be synonyms. Yet they are usually used separately. For example, a pyrometer and temperature are radiacinis, -ė (see FTŽ₂ II 539 and 854), whereas law, pressure, and density take spinduliavimo (see FTŽ₂ I 99, II 714, and II 839).

²¹ And in the same draft of the “Dictionary of Physics Terms,” emituoti has the synonym išspinduliuoti (see FTŽ₂ I 155).

²² Only laser spinduliavimas is incorrectly translated as Laseremission FTŽ₂ II 746, and naktinis spinduliavimas as nächtliche Ausstrahlung FTŽ₂ II 748.

²³ Whether spindolis, incidentally, explained differently in two places—“излучатель, радиатор — radiator — Strahler, Radiator” FTŽ₂ II 753 and “излучатель — emitter — Emitter” FTŽ₂ P 36—and radiatoriaus “radiator, излучатель — radiator — Radiator, Strahler” FTŽ₂ II 591, as well as the aforementioned emiteris, išspinduliuotojas, which are in no way linked, but are linked by similar equivalents in other languages, refer to three, two, or one thing is not at all clear from the Dictionary. Their specific names are almost all different, but in Russian they are all given with the generic излучатель (except only анодный радиатор FTŽ₂ II 591), and in German with Strahler; not to mention that both beta emiteris, beta spinduliuotojas FTŽ₂ I 155 (= beta išspinduliuotojas) and beta radiatorius FTŽ₂ II 591 are бета-излучатель, Betastrahler; and both gama spindulis FTŽ₂ P 36 and gama radiatorius FTŽ₂ II 591 are гамма-излучатель, Gammastrahler.

96

(2x)]. Ekspozicija would essentially mean something like “irradiation, illumination (cf. German Belichtung).” But apšvietimas is освещение—illumination, lighting—Beleuchtung FTŽ₂ I 24, although English illumination is iluminacija FTŽ₂ I 229. Moreover, although German Bestrahlung is švitinimas FTŽ₂ II 830, Bestrahlungsdosis is not a švitinimas dose, but a radiacija dose FTŽ₂ I 120 (whereas Strahlungsdosis is a spinduliavimas dose FTŽ₂ I 120). It can probably be concluded that the national terms—spinduliavimas — išspinduliavimas; švytėjimas — švitinimas (— apšvitinimas) — apšvietimas (likewise Russian излучение — облучение; свечение — освещение; German Strahlung — Ausstrahlung — Bestrahlung; Leuchtung — Beleuchtung — Belichtung, although these derivational subsystems are not semantically entirely equivalent to the Lithuanian ones, e.g. облучение, Bestrahlung—švitinimas, not apšpinduliavimas)—would, through their derivational regularity and the evident intelligibility of their derivational meanings, form a simpler, more coherent, and semantically more transparent microsystem than the international terms radiacija — iradiacija; emisija, iluminacija, ekspozicija, and also emanacija. However, only specialists themselves can perfect and differentiate it unambiguously; linguists can only assist them.

Specific terms are also presented in a third way: some in one place, others elsewhere. For example, under spindulys, radiusas FTŽ₂ II 751 is apskritimo spindulys, apskritimo radiusas FTŽ₂ II 752, while under radiusas, spindulys FTŽ₂ II 597 are atomo radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, branduolio radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, gravitacinis radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, inercijos radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, išorinis radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, jono radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, kreivumo radiusas FTŽ₂ II 597, sąveikos radiusas FTŽ₂ II 598, veikimo radiusas FTŽ₂ II 598, Žemės radiusas FTŽ₂ II 598, and so on. Thus, here spindulys is reserved for geometry (although radiusas is also attached to it radiusas). For in physics spindulys has a different meaning—“луч — ray — Strahl” (see FTŽ₂ II 751). Similarly in the Dictionary of Polytechnic Terms: радиус — spindulys, radiusas PolŽ 341, but most specific modifiers here are given with spinduliu (veikimo PolŽ 341, sulenkimo PolŽ 341, inercijos PolŽ 341, kreivumo PolŽ 341, skriejiko PolŽ 341, posūkio PolŽ 342), with only two given with both generic synonyms: skaičiuojamasis spindulys, radiusas PolŽ 342, rekomenduojamasis spindulys, radiusas PolŽ 342. However, in mathematical terminology and literary language generally, spindulys is deeply established, having been used for more than 50 years²⁴, and causes no confusion in physics, since its spindulys (bangos FTŽ₂ P 35, elektroninis FTŽ₂ II 752, lazerio FTŽ₂ II 752, natūralus (is) FTŽ₂ II 752, šviesos FTŽ₂ II 752, etc.) and spinduliai (antriniai FTŽ₂ II 741, infraraudoni(eji) FTŽ₂ II 742, kosminiai FTŽ₂ II 742, monochromatiniai FTŽ₂ II 743, Rentgeno FTŽ₂ II 743, ultravioletiniai FTŽ₂ II 744, etc.) are entirely different. Finally, it would also be possible to distinguish Saulės spindulį from Saulės šviesos spindulio. Thus, the Dictionary should dispense with radiusas²⁵, and add the label mat. to spindulys ‘радиус’ (which would be a homonym of spindulys ‘луч’); incidentally, similar labels would be useful in other cases as well.

2. The second way of presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms is to link them in one direction (A → B, or A, B). For example:

²⁴ Žr. Z. Žemaitis, Geometrijos ir trigonometrijos terminų rinkinėlis, Kaunas, 1920, p. 32; Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius, 1954; II pap. ld., 1972; Rusų-lietuvių kalbų politechninis žodynas, p. 341.

²⁵ It goes without saying that this also applies to radialinis, for example: radialinis greitis FTŽ₂ I 214, radialinė jėga FTŽ₂ I 272, radialinis laukas FTŽ₂ I 381; radialinis pagreitis, spindulinis pagreitis FTŽ₂ II 515.

7. Lietuvių terminologija

97

cosmos (= universe) FTŽ₁ 49; component (=constituent²⁶) FTŽ₁ 47; continuum (= continuous medium) FTŽ₁ 48; peak (= pointedness) FTŽ₁ 68; reverse order: composition (= superposition) FTŽ₁ 88; disorder (= chaos) FTŽ₁ 63;

diffraction, bending FTŽ₂ I 110; constant FTŽ₂ I 329; contact FTŽ₂ I 334; contraction, (shortening) FTŽ₂ I 336; convection, mixing FTŽ₂ I 339; criterion, sign FTŽ₂ I 357; reverberation, echoing²⁷ FTŽ₂ II 615; reverse order: definition FTŽ₂ I 20; assembly, mounting FTŽ₂ II 802;

tone (= shade) ChŽ 285; wool (= cotton) ChŽ 299; dimension (= measure) ChŽ 78;

autostop, automatic stopper „автостоп“ PolŽ 11; fire hose „брандспоит“ PolŽ 31; bryology (the science of mosses²⁸) „бриология“ PolŽ 31; infiltration (seepage) „инфильтрация“ PolŽ 125; cuff, sleeve „манжет“ PolŽ 181; mobile, movable „мобильный“ PolŽ 199; ramp, incline „пандус“ PolŽ 262; permanent, continuous „перманентный“ PolŽ 277; positive „позитивный“ PolŽ 299; polychromy, colorfulness „полихромия“ PolŽ 303; priority, precedence „приоритет“ PolŽ 321; forecast, prediction „прогноз“ PolŽ 324; speedometer, speed gauge²⁹ „спидометр“ PolŽ 397; friction clutch „фрикцион“ PolŽ 471; economy, savings „экономия“ PolŽ 508; expert, specialist „эксперт“ PolŽ 509; reverse order: summerhouse, gazebo „беседка“ PolŽ 26; water separator, dehydrator „водоотделитель“ PolŽ 49; remove, eliminate „изъять“ PolŽ 122; observer „наблюдатель“ PolŽ 209; genuine, authentic „подлинный“ PolŽ 295; conversion, transformation, transmutation „превращение“ PolŽ 314; concentrated „сосредоточенный“ PolŽ 395³⁰.

²⁶ The derivative-friendly form would be the element dėmuo, or sandas, widely used in literary language and other terminologies (for example, linguistics).

²⁷ A better choice would be the abstract noun derived from the adjective—aidumas.

²⁸ The form samanotyra could be used.

²⁹ A better form would be greitomatis (see Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, 2nd supplement).

³⁰ Quite often in the Dictionary of Polytechnic Terms, the order of the members of international and Lithuanian synonym pairs does not depend on the Russian equivalents. For example:

defect, reject „брак“ PolŽ 31; recruitment „вербовка“ PolŽ 41; column, graph „графа“ PolŽ 74; crusher, disintegrator „дезинтегратор“ PolŽ 85; zigzag, broken line, zigzag „зигзаг“ PolŽ 115; heating head, calorizer „калоризатор“ PolŽ 130; ledge, cornice „карниз“ PolŽ 135; (dis)tribution, classification „классификация“ PolŽ 143; transcript, copy „копия“ PolŽ 156; wood engraver, xylographer „ксилограф“ PolŽ 170; opening, cell, hatch „люк“ PolŽ 180; aviator, pilot „пилот“ PolŽ 281; pleated „плиссированный“ PolŽ 285; pedal, treadle „педаль“ PolŽ 266; segment „сегмент“ PolŽ 375; sector „сектор“ PolŽ 376; threads, tex „текс (тэкс)“ PolŽ 421; acidimeter, acidometer „ацидометр“ PolŽ 19;

chauffeur, driver „водитель“ PolŽ 47; category, section (2.) „разряд“ PolŽ 347; term, time period „срок“ PolŽ 400.

Some of these examples, of course, are merely lexicographic inconsistency. For example: to force, to accelerate „форсировать“ PolŽ 468, but acceleration, forcing „форсировка“ PolŽ 468, injector, jet pump „инжектор“ PolŽ 124, but steam pump, ejector „эжектор“ PolŽ 508; export, removal „вывоз“ PolŽ 57, but import, bringing in „ввоз“ PolŽ 40.

98

It should be assumed that the term given first is considered the primary one³¹. This view would seem to be confirmed by the fact that most synonym pairs presented in this way consist of terms whose second member—the Lithuanian equivalent—is a neologism, usually very recent, sometimes not yet established or used only rarely (although the majority are impeccably formed and precise). For example:

echo sounder, echo meter FTŽ₂ I 127; maximum, peak FTŽ₂ II 422; separator, divider FTŽ₂ II 656; hinge, flexible joint FTŽ₂ II 821; typeface (=print type⟧) ChŽ 269; press (=compressor⟧) ChŽ 228; display window, shopfront „витрина“ PolŽ 46; corrugations, ridges, folds, grooves „гофры“ PolŽ 73; grip, handle „гриф“ PolŽ 76; mast, mainsail „грот“ PolŽ 76; catapult, launcher „катапульта“ PolŽ 136; ornithopter, flapping-wing aircraft „орнитоптер“ PolŽ 246; ceiling light, decorative ceiling „плафон“ PolŽ 284; fairway, navigable channel „фарватер“ PolŽ 463; cipher, secret writing „шифр“ PolŽ 497; helm, steering wheel „штурвал“ PolŽ 505³².

The order in which specific terms are presented also suggests this interpretation: they are usually given only with the first generic term. For example:

barge, flatboat, river boat PolŽ 23, but all specific terms only under barge PolŽ 23; dock, shipyard PolŽ 93, but specific terms only under dock PolŽ 93; journal, logbook PolŽ 103, specific terms under journal PolŽ 103; niche, recess PolŽ 227, specific terms under niche PolŽ 227, series, sequence PolŽ 377, specific terms under series PolŽ 377; signal, sign PolŽ 379, specific terms under signal PolŽ 379; flange, coupling PolŽ 466, specific terms under flange PolŽ 466–467; hull, bodywork PolŽ 170, specific terms under hull PolŽ 170; process, course PolŽ 332, specific terms under process: adiabatic process PolŽ 332, isothermal process PolŽ 333, chamber process PolŽ 333, cyclic process PolŽ 333, reversible process PolŽ 333, working process PolŽ 333, technological process PolŽ 333, and so on.

There is, to be sure, some inconsistency. For instance, specific terms are occasionally given under the second generic term, e.g.: aircraft, dirigible „дирижабль“ PolŽ 91, but the specific terms rigid dirigible PolŽ 91, non-rigid dirigible PolŽ 91. Here, apparently, the order in which the generic terms are presented should be corrected. Sometimes specific terms are given under both generic terms: 1) all under both, e.g.: regeneration, recovery FTŽ₂ II 609 and waste regeneration, waste recovery FTŽ₂ II 609, nuclear fuel regeneration, [nuclear] fuel recovery FTŽ₂ II 609; compressor, press FTŽ₂ II 714 and Brillouin compressor, Brillouin press FTŽ₂ II 714, hydraulic compressor, hydraulic press FTŽ₂ II 714; 2) some under one, others under the other, e.g.: dam, embankment PolŽ 80 and fill dam [!] PolŽ 80, enclosure dam PolŽ 80, fascine dam PolŽ 80, filtering dam PolŽ 80, but overflow embankment (summer) PolŽ 80, protective embankment PolŽ 80, non-overflow embankment (winter) PolŽ 80, longitudinal embankment PolŽ 80, flow-diverting embankment PolŽ 80³³; 3) some specific terms are given under both generic terms

³¹ This probably also refers to the presentation of synonyms in parentheses after the equals sign in the Dictionary of Physics Terms and the Dictionary of Chemistry. The preface to the Dictionary of Physics Terms notes: “Alternatives printed in parentheses after the equals sign are ones which, in the commission’s opinion, may also be used” (p. 3). Nevertheless, this technique, as already mentioned (see note 14), is very imperfect.

³² Although similar neologisms are occasionally given in reverse order, e.g.: water cannon, hydromonitor „гидромонитор“ PolŽ 67; quarry site, pit, peat pit, quarry „карьер“ PolŽ 135; measuring tape, tape measure „рулетка“ PolŽ 366.

³³ And also quay-side dam PolŽ 280, although dam is not listed among the generic terms.

7*

99

some with others, and some only with the first, e.g.: stage, state PolŽ 401 and final stage, final state PolŽ 401, initial stage, initial state PolŽ 401, but intermediate stage PolŽ 401, elastic-plastic stage PolŽ 401. How to eliminate this discrepancy in the presentation of specific and generic terms—whether by changing the presentation of generic or specific terms—may be considered, but it cannot be allowed to remain as it is.

3. The third way of presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms is to link them asymmetrically (A → B and B, or A, B and B). For example:

declination (=deviation) FTŽ₁ 16, but only deviation FTŽ₁ 63; transmutation (=transformation) FTŽ₁ 97, but only transformation FTŽ₁ 101; track (=path) FTŽ₁ 97, but only path FTŽ₁ 92; correspondence principle (=principle of equivalence) FTŽ₁ 49, but only principle of equivalence FTŽ₁ 9; rheostat (=resistance unit) FTŽ₁ 77, but only resistance unit FTŽ₁ 100; in the reverse order: heavy hydrogen (=deuterium) FTŽ₁ 88, but only deuterium FTŽ₁ 16; nonconductor (=insulator) FTŽ₁ 63, but only insulator FTŽ₁ 39; shielding (=screening) FTŽ₁ 16, but only to screen FTŽ₁ 21;

discrimination, differentiation FTŽ₂ I 116, but only differentiation FTŽ₂ I 19; inversion, reversal³⁴ FTŽ₂ I 241, but only reversal FTŽ₂ I 19; lens, magnifying glass FTŽ₂ I 418, but only magnifying glass FTŽ₂ II 778; detonator, explosive FTŽ₂ I 102, but only explosive FTŽ₂ II 754; correlation, relationship FTŽ₂ I 343, but only relationship FTŽ₂ II 644; in the reverse order: nonconductor, insulator FTŽ₂ II 486, but only insulator FTŽ₂ I 263;

thermocouple (=sudzhiai) ChŽ 277, but only sudzhiai ChŽ 266; in the reverse order: elementary substance (=element) ChŽ 300, but only element ChŽ 87; residue (=radical, group) ChŽ 168, but only radical (=group) ChŽ 233 and group ChŽ 113; also: antidote — see counterpoison ChŽ 28, but only counterpoison ChŽ 229; lignite — see brown coal ChŽ 168, but only brown coal ChŽ 242; polyhydric acid — see polybasic acid ChŽ 225, polyhydric acid — see polybasic acid ChŽ 226, but only polybasic acid ChŽ 69; in the reverse order: guncotton — see nitrocellulose ChŽ 257, but only nitrocellulose ChŽ 200; hornblende — see amphibole ChŽ 234, but only amphibole ChŽ 20; horn silver — see cerargyrite ChŽ 234, but only cerargyrite ChŽ 148; earth oil — see petroleum ChŽ 305, but only petroleum ChŽ 188; sea foam — see steatite ChŽ 133, but only steatite ChŽ 259; hellstone — see silver nitrate ChŽ 227, but only silver nitrate ChŽ 249; honey stone — see mellite ChŽ 175, but only mellite ChŽ 176; blue stone — see copper sulfate ChŽ 176, but only copper sulfate ChŽ 299; volatile spirit — see ammonium hydroxide ChŽ 165, but only ammonium hydroxide ChŽ 24; salting salt — see sodium chloride ChŽ 264; table salt — see sodium chloride ChŽ 295, but only sodium chloride ChŽ 190; Epsom salt — see magnesium sulfate ChŽ 27, bitter salt — see magnesium sulfate ChŽ 145, but only magnesium sulfate ChŽ 172³⁵;

³⁴ It would probably be better to replace it with a more abstract suffix derivative—reversal, since reversing denotes more of an action.

³⁵ Some of these examples from the “Chemistry Dictionary” are special: the different members of a synonym pair belong to different terminologies, e.g.: lignite — chemistry, brown coal — geology; or one member is a term and the other is not, e.g.: copper sulfate — blue stone, magnesium sulfate — bitter salt. Some researchers call such synonyms equivalents and do not regard them as objects of synchronic terminology (see В. М. Лейчик, Термины-синонимы, дублеты, эквиваленты, варианты, Актуальные проблемы лексикологии и словообразования, вып. II, Новосибирск, 1973, р. 105—106).

100

tire band (of a wheel), rim “бандаж” PolŽ 21, but only rim “обод” PolŽ 233; propeller, screw “пропеллер” PolŽ 329, but only screw (l.) “винт” PolŽ 45; reserve, stock “резерв” PolŽ 357, but only stock “запас” PolŽ 110; in the reverse order: pattern, ornament “узор” PolŽ 452, but only ornament “орнамент” PolŽ 246; counterweight, balancer “противовес” PolŽ 331, but only balancer “балансир” PolŽ 20; (road) overpass, viaduct “путепровод” PolŽ 336, but only viaduct “виадук” PolŽ 44; navigation, navigation “кораблевождение” PolŽ 156, but only navigation “навигация” PolŽ 210; water heater, economizer “водоподогреватель” PolŽ 49, but only economizer “экономайзер” PolŽ 508³⁶.

Logically, this way of presenting terms should imply that the term given twice is preferable (in some cases it is international, in others Lithuanian). This is beyond doubt when synonyms are linked by an equals sign or by the cross-reference “see.”³⁷ However, in the draft of the new “Dictionary of Physics Terms,” after the equals sign was abandoned and replaced with a comma (which is suitable for presenting mutually linked synonyms; cf. note 14), the presentation technique became misleading: a synonym listed after a comma would appear less preferable. But this is merely a flaw in the technique. That the synonym given twice (once after a comma, and again separately) is the preferred one is also confirmed by the way specific terms are presented. For example, under activation, excitation FTŽ₂ I 7 there are no specific terms at all—all are listed under excitation FTŽ₂ II 808–809; under force meter, dynamometer FTŽ₂ P 20 there are none—all are listed under dynamometer FTŽ₂ I 113. Therefore, the presentation of generic terms should also be changed to a cross-reference format, e.g.: activation, see excitation; force meter, see dynamometer; and so on.

It is true that specific terms are sometimes listed in two places: some in one, others in another. For example, under void, vacuum FTŽ₂ II 904, only

³⁶ Sometimes in the Dictionary of Polytechnic Terms, the order of the members of an international–Lithuanian synonym pair does not depend on the Russian equivalents. For example: impregnation, soaking “пропитывание” PolŽ 329, but only impregnation “импрегнирование” PolŽ 123; autocar, motorized trolley “автотележка” PolŽ 11, but only autocar “автокар” PolŽ 10; steam locomotive, locomotive “локомотив” PolŽ 179, but only steam locomotive “паровоз” PolŽ 264.

Incidentally, steam locomotive and locomotive are also presented as identical synonyms elsewhere—in the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (2nd supplementary edition, Vilnius, 1972), steam locomotive is defined as “a steam-powered railway engine; locomotive” (the 1st edition, Vilnius, 1954, was better: “<…>; steam locomotive”), while locomotive is defined as “steam locomotive”; in the large “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” steam locomotive is defined as “locomotive” (vol. III, Vilnius, 1956), and locomotive as “steam locomotive” (vol. VII, 1966)—they have not been synonyms for a long time. They were adequate terms as long as there were no locomotives other than steam locomotives. With the advent of motor locomotives, electric locomotives, turbine locomotives, etc., locomotive became a generic term (being semantically unspecified), while steam locomotive (being semantically specified) became a specific term (as did motor locomotive, electric locomotive, and turbine locomotive). See also J. Klimavičius, From steam locomotive and truck to electric locomotive and milk truck, “Kalbos kultūra,” 26, Vilnius, 1974, p. 21.

³⁷ In the “Chemistry Dictionary,” as the examples already cited show, the cross-reference “see” most often directs Lithuanian everyday names to international chemical nomenclature. The same cross-reference is used similarly to direct names of non-Lithuanian origin used in everyday, commercial, or technical contexts to chemical terms, e.g.: zuperis — see superphosphate ChŽ 305, but only superphosphate ChŽ 266. Sometimes this is done by means of a descriptive definition, e.g.: cukrelis — see saccharin ChŽ 68, saccharin — commercial name for crystallose ChŽ 243, but only crystallose (for some reason, it alone is defined idem per idem—as soluble saccharin) ChŽ 159; spirit — technical name for alcohol ChŽ 257, but only alcohols ChŽ 19 [although wood spirit — see methyl alcohol ChŽ 175; moreover, methyl alcohol (= methanol) ChŽ 180, while methanol (= methyl alcohol) ChŽ 178].

101

Torricelli’s vacuum FTŽ₂ II 904, while all the others are listed under vacuum FTŽ₂ II 912–913; under varžas, rezistorius FTŽ₂ II 928—printed resistor FTŽ₂ II 929, wire-wound resistor FTŽ₂ II 929, and carbon resistor, carbon resistor FTŽ₂ II 928—and under rezistorius, film resistor FŽT₂ II 616. In this latter case, fewer specific terms are given with the more acceptable term rezistorius than with the less acceptable varžas. The situation is similar with lūžimas, lūžis, refrakcija FTŽ₂ I 418 and refrakcija FTŽ₂ II 607, except that here some specific terms are additionally repeated in both entries: atmospheric refraction FTŽ₂ II 418, atomic refraction FTŽ₂ I 418, wave refraction FTŽ₂ I 418, nuclear refraction FTŽ₂ I 418, double refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, electronic refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, sound refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, ray refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, light refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, as well as molecular (molar) refraction, molecular refraction FTŽ₂ II 419, chromatic refraction, chromatic refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, conical refraction, conical refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, specific refraction, specific refraction FTŽ₂ I 419, and atmospheric refraction FTŽ₂ II 607, atomic refraction FTŽ₂ II 607, molecular refraction FTŽ₂ II 607. In the first case, arranging specific terms in two places might not conflict with listing their generic terms with a see-reference—tuštuma see vakuumas. However, lūžis and refrakcija should rather be treated (and listed) as identical synonyms. Varžas and rezistorius should switch places: rezistorius see varžas.

Thus, it must be stated that the differentiation among the ways of presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms is not yet perfect; it does not fully correspond to the actual typology of synonymy. International and Lithuanian synonyms may either have completely identical lexical meanings—absolute synonyms (I. A = B)—or one member may have a narrower meaning or usage—partial synonyms (II. A ≠ B: A > B or A < B). When one member of a pair of international and Lithuanian terms is entirely unacceptable, unused, unnecessary, or impermissible, they should no longer be considered synonyms (III. A→B or B→A). As we have seen, Lithuanian terminography also uses three ways of presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms, but these do not fully correspond to the above hierarchy of such pairs. In essence, only the presentation of synonym pairs in Group I by Method I is good. Our terminography appears to have no method of presentation corresponding to Group III [it should be marked ntk. (= unacceptable) and linked by an equals sign to the acceptable term]. Methods II and III of presentation, meanwhile, essentially cover only one group, Group II [for this purpose, only Method III should be retained (but only with a see-reference), and Method II abandoned altogether]. Finally, every serious work of terminography should also explain the procedure for presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms, so readers need not decipher or subjectively interpret it, or have doubts.

INCONSISTENCIES IN THE PRESENTATION OF SYNONYMS

Specific terms with synonymous (international and Lithuanian) determiners (usually adjectives, less often nouns in the genitive) are generally listed only once in the same generic-term entry (a→bX, or a, bX); only in the Dictionary of Physics Terms, and occasionally in the draft of its new edition, are they given in two places alphabetically (a→bX and b→aX, or a, bX and b, aX; or aX→bX and bX→aX, or aX, bX and bX, aX). E.g.: spherical (= ball-shaped) wave FTŽ₂ 11 and ball-shaped (= spherical

102

spherical) wave FTŽ₁ 11 or spherical wave, ball-shaped wave FTŽ₂ I 50 and ball-shaped wave, spherical wave FTŽ₁ 50. In the draft of the new edition, however, they are usually given only once, apparently taking practical needs (convenience and economy) into account more than theoretical assumptions about the adequacy or inadequacy of synonyms. Only occasionally are synonymous specific determiners listed in a different order with different related terms (a→bX, but b→aY, or a, bX, but b, aY; or aX→bX, but bY→aY, or aX, bX, but bY, aY). E.g.: relative velocity, relativistic velocity FTŽ₂ I 214, relative, relativistic deformation FTŽ₂ I 90, but relativistic motion, relative motion FTŽ₂ I 281. It is not very clear why in one case the first determiner is Lithuanian, and in another international.

When examining the synonymy of recurring specific determiners (pairs of international terms and their Lithuanian equivalents), we must note numerous inconsistencies in how the same pairs are presented. Most often, a synonymous pair of specific determiners is given with some related terms, while only one member of the pair appears with others (a→bX and b→aX, or a→bX, or a→bX and bX, but only aY, or bY; or aX→bX and bX→aX, or aX→bX, or aX→bX and bX, but only aY, or bY). E.g.:

gravitation (=universal attraction) FTŽ₁ 33 and universal attraction FTŽ₁ 97, — gravitational (=of universal attraction) energy FTŽ₁ 25 and attraction (=gravitational) energy FTŽ₁ 25, universal attraction (=gravitation) force FTŽ₁ 40, gravitational (=of universal attraction) constant FTŽ₁ 48, but only gravitational constant FTŽ₁ 33, law of gravitation FTŽ₁ 33, gravitational potential FTŽ₁ 33, 71, gravitational field FTŽ₁ 33, 53;

degeneration (=deformation) FTŽ₁ 16 and deformation (=degeneration) FTŽ₁ 38, — degenerated (=degenerate) system FTŽ₁ 80, but only degenerate FTŽ₁ 16;

degeneracija, išsigimimas FTŽ₂ I 91 ir išsigimimas FTŽ₂ I 254, — degeneruotas, išsigimęs FTŽ₂ I 91 ir išsigimęs FTŽ₂ I 254, — išsigimęs, degeneruotas būvis FTŽ₂ I 60, bet tik neišsigimęs būvis FTŽ₂ I 61; neišsigimusios, nedegeneruotos dujos FTŽ₂ I 124, bet tik išsigimusios dujos FTŽ₂ I 124, tik išsigimusi(oji) funkcija FTŽ₂ I 186;

perturbation (dis)turbance FTŽ₂ II 537 and disturbance, perturbation FTŽ₂ II 892, — perturbation method, disturbance method FTŽ₂ II 453, perturbation, disturbance vector FTŽ₂ II 935, but only perturbing effect FTŽ₂ II 563;

coincidence (=overlap) FTŽ₁ 47, coincidence, overlap FTŽ₂ P 24 and overlap FTŽ₂ II 807, as well as anticoincidence, anti-coincidence FTŽ₂ I 18, — coincidence method, overlap method FTŽ₂ II 451, overlap spectroscopy, coincidence spectroscopy FTŽ₂ II 740, but only overlap spectrometry FTŽ₂ II 738;

homogeneity, uniformity FTŽ₂ I 225 and uniformity, homogeneity FTŽ₂ II 944, — homogeneous, uniform FTŽ₂ I 225, — homogeneous, uniform space FTŽ₂ I 162, homogeneous, uniform body FTŽ₂ I 362, homogeneous field, uniform field FTŽ₂ I 379, uniform, homogeneous deformation FTŽ₂ I 91, uniform, homogeneous medium FTŽ₂ I 23, but only homogeneous coordinates FTŽ₂ I 341, uniform gas FTŽ₂ I 125;

elasticity (=resilience) FTŽ₂ 2I and resilience (=elasticity) FTŽ₁ 92, elasticity, resilience FTŽ₂ I 141 and resilience, elasticity FTŽ₂ II

103

835, — elasticity coefficient, coefficient of elasticity FTŽ₂ I 313, but only elasticity coefficient FTŽ₁ 46; elastic FTŽ₁ 21 and resilient (=elastic) FTŽ₁ 92, — elastic (=resilient) deformation FTŽ₁ 16, but only elastic vibrations FTŽ₁ 89;

selectivity, discriminating ability FTŽ₂ III 654, as well as selector, selector switch FTŽ₂ II 655, — selective absorption, selective absorption FTŽ₂ I 2, but only selective absorbent FTŽ₂ I 3, selective system FTŽ₂ II 675, selective amplifier FTŽ₂ II 785;

selective (=selective) ChŽ 246 and selective — see selective, selective ChŽ 35, but only selective absorption ChŽ 246, selective assimilation ChŽ 246, selective fermentation ChŽ 246, selective flotation ChŽ 246, selective catalysis, selective reaction, selective reagent, selective solvent, selective action, selective wetting ChŽ 246, finally, only selectivity ChŽ 246; only selectivity PolŽ 119, 376, only selective absorption PolŽ 291;

partial (=partial) FTŽ₁ 67 and partial (=partial) FTŽ₁ 15, but only partial compression FTŽ₁ 82;

local, localized FTŽ₂ I 418, — local (localized) maximum FTŽ₂ II 423, local acceleration, localized acceleration FTŽ₂ II 515, but only local parameter FTŽ₂ II 523;

spontaneous — see spontaneous ChŽ 257, — spontaneous crystallization — see spontaneous crystallization ChŽ 257 and spontaneous crystallization ChŽ 257;

spontaneous, spontaneous FTŽ₂ 645, — spontaneous magnetization, spontaneous magnetization FTŽ₂ I 243, spontaneous ionization, spontaneous ionization FTŽ₂ I 276, spontaneous crystallization, spontaneous crystallization FTŽ₂ I 356, spontaneous magnetostriction, spontaneous magnetostriction FTŽ₂ II 420, but only spontaneous fission FTŽ₂ 78, spontaneous emission FTŽ₂ I 154, spontaneous scattering FTŽ₂ I 247, spontaneous radiation FTŽ₂ II 751, spontaneous transition FTŽ₂ II 828;

relative, specific PolŽ 451, — relative weight, specific weight PolŽ 42, 451, but only specific heat PolŽ 425, relative volume PolŽ 237;

relative viscosity (=specific viscosity) ChŽ 168, relative efficiency (=specific efficiency) ChŽ 168, relative weight (=specific weight) ChŽ 168 and specific weight (=relative weight) ChŽ 256, relative volume (=specific volume) ChŽ 168, but only specific conductivity, specific surface area, specific heat ChŽ 256;

but only specific charge FTŽ₁ 50, specific conductivity FTŽ₁ 52, 83, specific mass FTŽ₁ 83, specific weight FTŽ₁ 83, 90, specific heat FTŽ₁ 90, specific volume FTŽ₁ 98, specific resistance FTŽ₁ 83, 100;

specific weight, relative weight FTŽ₂ II 816, specific heat, relative heat FTŽ₂ 825, but only specific absorption FTŽ₂ I 3, specific adsorption FTŽ₂ I 5, specific activity FTŽ₂ I 7, specific dispersion FTŽ₂ I 118, specific dose FTŽ₂ I 120, specific humidity FTŽ₂ I 122, specific emission FTŽ₂ I 154, specific energy FTŽ₂ I 160, specific power FTŽ₂ I 190, specific ionization FTŽ₂ I 276, specific charge FTŽ₂ I 360,

104

specific conductivity FTŽ₂ I 371, specific refraction, specific refractivity FTŽ₂ I 419, specific volume FTŽ₂ II 904³⁸;

natural, of nature FTŽ₂ II 484, but only natural radioactivity FTŽ₂ II 591;

but only natural resin ChŽ 193, natural fertilizer ChŽ 193, natural raw material ChŽ 193, only natural gas ChŽ 104, natural soda ChŽ 104;

rotational (=rotational) energy FTŽ₂ 25 and rotational (=rotational) energy FTŽ₂ 25, but only rotary pump FTŽ₂ 78, 80, rotary line FTŽ₂ 78, rotary term FTŽ₂ 95, rotational spectrum FTŽ₂ 78, 83;

virtual displacement, apparent displacement FTŽ₂ II 559, principle of virtual displacements FTŽ₂ II 574, but only virtual state FTŽ₂ P 6, virtual moment FTŽ₂ II 481, virtual pair FTŽ₂ II 558, principle of virtual work FTŽ₂ II 575, virtual process FTŽ₂ II 581, virtual reactor FTŽ₂ II 606, virtual source FTŽ₂ II 821, virtual jump FTŽ₂ II 828, virtual temperature FTŽ₂ II 856, virtual value FTŽ₂ II 941;

permanent polarization FTŽ₂ II 554, permanent magnetism FTŽ₂ II 419, but only permanent magnet FTŽ₂ I 418;

equivalent mass FTŽ₂ II 427, equivalent matrices FTŽ₂ II 435, but only equivalent substance FTŽ₂ II 441;

stable state FTŽ₂ I 63, but only unstable state FTŽ₂ I 61, stable particle FTŽ₂ I 77, stable isotope FTŽ₂ I 265, stable motion FTŽ₂ I 281.

In the “Dictionary of Physics Terms,” when specific terms are listed in two places—under the generic term and under a separately listed specific determinant—the specific terms are sometimes given with the same generic term in one instance with a synonymous pair of determinants, and in others with only one member of that pair (a → bX and b → aX, but only aX or bX; or aX → bX and bX → aX, but only aX or bX; or aX and bX, but only a → bX or b → aX). For example:

translational (=linear) motion FTŽ₂ I 42 and linear (=translational) motion FTŽ₂ I 42, also translational motion (=linear motion) FTŽ₂ I 97, but only linear motion FTŽ₂ 82;

acoustic (=sound) wave FTŽ₂ 10 and sound (=acoustic) wave FTŽ₂ 11, but only sound waves FTŽ₂ 31;

fluorescent (=daylight) lamp FTŽ₂ 53 and daylight (=fluorescent) lamp FTŽ₂ 53, but only fluorescent lamp FTŽ₂ 55;

thermal (=thermic) conductivity FTŽ₂ 52, but only thermal conductivity FTŽ₂ 91;

³⁸Such a shift, especially in the draft of the new edition of the “Dictionary of Physics Terms,” toward narrowing the scope of comparative usage or even eliminating it altogether is a matter of some concern. Without delving into the full history, it is worth recalling that in school physics the comparative term is much more common than the specific term. The same is true of our general dictionaries: for example, weight is only comparative, while specific applies only to taste and smell (“Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian,” 1972). Incidentally, Russian uses only удельный. Of course, one may question whether the semantic sense of comparative is appropriate, but that does not eliminate the meaning of the Lithuanian synonym. For example, one could consider whether relative might be suitable (cf. relative volume, “удельный объём,” PolŽ 2370), or else particular or special.

105

laminar (=layered) flow FTŽ₁ 93, but only laminar flow FTŽ₁ 52;

cohesion (=adhesion) FTŽ₁ 47 and alongside it cohesive force FTŽ₁ 47; coupling³⁹ FTŽ₁ 78 and alongside it coupling force FTŽ₁ 78, while under force FTŽ₁ 40 — coupling (=cohesive) force FTŽ₁ 40.

The most interesting group of inconsistencies in the presentation of international and Lithuanian synonyms is the presentation of the same synonym pairs in different dictionaries in different ways (in one, A → B and B → A, or A, B and B, A; in another, A → B, or A, B; in a third, A → B, or A, B and B). E.g.:

meridian, meridian FTŽ₂ II 446, but meridian, meridian “меридиан” PolŽ 192;

starter, starter FTŽ₂ II 775, but starter, starter “пускатель” PolŽ 336 and starter “стартер” PolŽ 405;

correction, emendation FTŽ₂ I 343 and emendation FTŽ₂ II 528, but correction, rectification⁴⁰ PolŽ 158;

fermentation (=fermentation) ChŽ 241 and fermentation ChŽ 94, but only fermentation, fermenting, fermentation PolŽ 32;

weighing bottle — see weighing vial ChŽ 49 and weighing vial ChŽ 267, but only weighing vial, container “бюкс” PolŽ 35;

marsh gas — see methane ChŽ 213 and methane ChŽ 178, but methane, marsh gas “метан” PolŽ 193 and methane, marsh gas “болотный газ” PolŽ 62;

milk sugar (=lactose) ChŽ 217 and lactose (=milk sugar) ChŽ 163, but milk sugar, lactose PolŽ 369; fruit sugar (=fructose) ChŽ 294 and fructose (=fruit sugar) ChŽ 101, but fruit sugar PolŽ 370 and fructose PolŽ 471; malt sugar (=maltose) ChŽ 243 and maltose (=malt sugar) ChŽ 173, but only malt sugar PolŽ 370;

homogeneous (=uniform) FTŽ₁ 34; homogeneous, uniform FTŽ₂ I 225 (also homogeneity, uniformity FTŽ₂ I 225 and uniformity, homogeneity FTŽ₂ II 944);

homogeneous “uniform” ChŽ 122 (and homogeneous catalysis ChŽ 122, homogeneous equilibrium ChŽ 122, homogeneous system ChŽ 122, homogeneous reactions ChŽ 122, also homogeneity “uniformity” ChŽ 122, although homogeneous complexes ChŽ 300;

uniform, homogeneous PolŽ 71 (also uniformity, homogeneity PolŽ 71) and uniform, homogeneous PolŽ 239 (also uniformity, uniformity, homogeneity PolŽ 239);

heterogeneous (=non-uniform) FTŽ₁ 34; heterogeneous FTŽ₂ I 221 (also heterogeneity, variability FTŽ₂ I 221; heterogeneous “uneven, non-uniform” ChŽ 118), as well as heterogeneous catalysis ChŽ 117, heterogeneous equilibrium ChŽ 117, heterogeneous system ChŽ 118, heterogeneous reactions ChŽ 118; non-uniform, heterogeneous “гетерогенный” PolŽ 66 and non-uniform, hete-

³⁹ The term adhesion is not very suitable because of its verbal meaning, but coupling is not entirely acceptable either. That which is inherently adhered would be better called adhesion, whereas coupling is that which has been coupled. Similarly, adhesion could be rendered in Lithuanian as priekiba. Such disregard for traditional vowel alternation in terminology, for the sake of differentiating concepts, is unavoidable. Thus, in physics we will have sankiba and priekiba, whereas in technology — sankaba and priekaba.

⁴⁰ Of course, emendation is preferable (as in FTŽ₂).

106

rogeniškas “неоднородный” PolŽ 224 (also nevienalytiškumas, heterogenišku- mas “неоднородность” PolŽ 224), as well as heterogeniškas, nevienalytis, skirtingas “разнородный” PolŽ 345 (also heterogeniškumas, nevienalytiškumas, įvairu- mas “разнородность” PolŽ 345)⁴¹.

There are considerably more examples of this kind than those given here, although it cannot be said that the same synonym pairs are never presented consistently in different dictionaries. For example:

motoras (= variklis) FTŽ₁ 62 and variklis FTŽ₂ 99 (here and in all cases, specific terms); motoras, variklis FTŽ₂ II 482 and variklis FTŽ₂ II 920 (here and in all cases, specific terms); variklis, motoras PolŽ 205 (here and in all cases, specific terms, but some are given with one generic term and others with another: generatorius — variklis, variklis su pripūtimu, bet sparninis motoras, pakabinamas motoras) and variklis PolŽ 81;

derivatai — see dariniai ChŽ 72 and dariniai ChŽ 68; darinys, derivatas PolŽ 87 and darinys PolŽ 326;

ekstraktas (= ištrauka) ChŽ 85 and ištrauka (= ekstraktas) ChŽ 128 [although vandeninė ištrauka (ekstraktas) ChŽ 297, but only sausasis ekstraktas ChŽ 245]; ekstraktas, ištrauka PolŽ 509 [although only salyklinis ekstraktas PolŽ 509] and ištrauka, ekstraktas (3) PolŽ 61.

Differences in how specific-term synonymy is presented may still be regarded as technical fluctuations or inconsistency of approach. However, when considered consistently, the differing presentation of the same synonym pairs in different dictionaries must be evaluated either as reflecting different interpretations of their degree of synonymy, or as an unsuccessful application of presentation methods, their confusion, and even an unjustified differentiation between those methods.

SEPARATE SYNONYMY AND NON-EQUIVALENT POLYSEMY

One of the greatest problems in presenting international and Lithuanian synonyms in terminography—one that in fact stems not from deficiencies in the presentation or its system, but from the imperfection of terminology itself—is the separate synonymy of the members of a synonym pair, or their non-equivalent polysemy. This is manifested in the following: (α) in one instance, a dictionary gives one Lithuanian equivalent for an international term, and in another instance a different one; or, conversely, (β) two (or more) international terms have one Lithuanian synonym [α) A, B, but A, C; β) A, B, but B, C; in more complex cases, A, B, but B, C and B, C, D]. For example:

α) elastingumas (= tamprumas) ChŽ 85 and tamprumas (= elastingumas) ChŽ 273, but stangrumas — see elastingumas ChŽ 258;

β) proteinas (= baltymas) ChŽ 230 and baltymas ChŽ 40, but protam inai (= proteinai) ChŽ 230;

ureja — see šlapalas ChŽ 293, but also karbamidas — see šlapalas ChŽ 144, and šlapalas (= karbamidas) ChŽ 269;

α) poliravimas, gludinimas “полировка” PolŽ 302 and poliravimas, šveitimas, blizginimas “лощение” PolŽ 179;

⁴¹ Sometimes terms in one microsystem are presented inconsistently even within the same dictionary. For example: dvinaris, binomas “двучлен” PolŽ 84 and dvinaris, binomas “бином” PolŽ 27, but daugianaris “многочлен” PolŽ 199 and polinomas, daugianaris “полином” PolŽ 302; sensibilizacija, jautrinimas FTŽ₂ II 655 and jautrinimas, sensibilizacija FTŽ₂ I 266 (also FTŽ₁ 79 and FTŽ₂ 39), but desensibilizacija, nujautrinimas FTŽ₂ I 93.

107

β) bracket, bracket support (mach.), “кронштейн” PolŽ 168 and “хобот” PolŽ 475, and console, bracket support (constr.) “консоль” PolŽ 153;

trench ditch, trench “траншея” PolŽ 438, ditch, groove “кювет” PolŽ 171 (also, ditch “канава” PolŽ 133, canal “канал” PolŽ 132);

ventilation, aeration “проветривание” PolŽ 323 and ventilation “вентиляция” PolŽ 41, and aeration PolŽ 19;

α) gravitational energy, energy of universal gravitation FTŽ₂ I 157, gravitational field, field of universal gravitation FTŽ₂ I 379, and gravitational mass, weight mass FTŽ₂ II 426;

cosmos, universe “космос, вселенная – cosmos – Universum, Weltall” FTŽ₂ I 344, universe “вселенная – universe, world – Universum, Weltall” FTŽ₂ II 958, and world “мир – universe – Universum, Welt” FTŽ₂ II 524;

pinch effect, pinch effect FTŽ₂ I 132, pinch effect, constriction effect FTŽ₂ II 539, and constriction, narrowing, pinch effect FTŽ₂ II 645;

β) agglomerate, cluster “агломерат, скопление – agglomerate, cluster – Agglomerat” FTŽ₂ I 5, and cluster, cluster “сгусток – cluster – Häufung” FTŽ₂ P 34;

chord, consonance FTŽ₂ I 6 and consonance, consonance FTŽ₂ I 329⁴²;

manipulation, action “манипуляция, действие – manipulation – Tasten” FTŽ₂ II 423, action “действие – action – Wirkung” FTŽ₂ II 932, but operation, action “операция, действие – operation – Operation” FTŽ₂ II 501;

fractional, partial FTŽ₂ I 185, but partial wave, fractional wave FTŽ₂ I 45;

gyrostat, spinning top “гиростат, волчок – gyrostat – Gyrostat, Kreisel” FTŽ₂ I 204, but spinning top, gyroscope “гироскоп – gyroscope – Kreisel” FTŽ₂ II 949, and gyroscope “гироскоп – gyroscope – Kreisel, Gyroskop” FTŽ₂ I 204.

Sometimes the ambiguity of a Lithuanian equivalent is revealed only by its definition (A, B, but A “C” or A, B and C “B”). For example:

sprayer, pulverizer “пульверизатор” PolŽ 335 and “разбрызгива-тель” PolŽ 342, but sprayer and “фopcyнка” PolŽ 468;

skeleton, half-timbering “фахверк” PolŽ 464, skeleton “скелет” PolŽ 383, and coil frame “каркас катушки” PolŽ 135;

refining, purification (= cleaning) ChŽ 234 and cleaning ChŽ 295, but rectification, rectifying “liquid purification by distillation in a column” ChŽ 237.

These are the simplest, most readily noticeable and disentangled cases. However, quite often the correspondence between international and Lithuanian synonyms is considerably more complex: two international terms correspond to two Lithuanian terms (A₁Bₜ – A₁, Cₜ, Dₜ “Cₜ” or A₁, Bₜ – C₁, Bₜ), two international terms to three Lithuanian ones (Aₜ, Bₜ – Cₜ, Aₜ “Dₜ” – Dₜ, Eₜ), two or three Lithuanian terms to five or six international ones (Aₜ, Bₜ – A₁ “Cₜ” – Dₜ, A₁ – Eₜ, A₁ “Fₜ” – Gₜ “A₁” – Iₜ [“A or A₁”] or Aₜ, B₁ – Bₜ, Cₜ – D₁ “Eₜ, Fₜ” – D₁₁ “Eₜ” – Eₜ – Gₜ “Bₜ, Cₜ” – Fₜ, Iₜ “Dₜ” – Hₜ “Dₜ”), and so on. For example:

earth-borer, dredger “драга” PolŽ 95 and earth-borer, excavator, peat cutter “багер” PolŽ 19;

⁴²It would perhaps be more precise to call consonance harmonious resonance.

108

monoxide — see monoksidas ChŽ 300 and hemioxide — see monoksidas, subok-sidas ChŽ 232 and monoksidas “oxide containing one oxygen atom — одноокись” ChŽ 186;

compression, compression “сжатие — compression — Kompression” FTŽ₂ I 324, but contraction, compression “сжатие — contraction — Kontraktion” FTŽ₂ II 805, although contraction has yet another synonym — (shortening) “сокращение, сжатие — contraction — Kontraktion” FTŽ₂ I 336;

hoist, elevator “подъёмник” PolŽ 299, also elevator, hoist “лифт” PolŽ 178 (and aerial hoist, airlift “воздушный подъёмник” PolŽ 299, as well as airlift PolŽ 516), hoist “фуникулёр” PolŽ 472, lifting crane, hoist “подъёмный кран” PolŽ 163 and hoist, jack “грузоподъёмник” PolŽ 77, block and tackle, suspended hoist “тали” PolŽ 419; fortunately, домкрат is translated as jack, domkratas PolŽ 94, while эскалатор — escalator PolŽ 516;

transmutation, transformation “превращение, трансмутация — transmutation — Transmutation” FTŽ₂ II 889, transformation “превращение, переход — transition, transmutation — Übergang, Umwandlung, Transmutation” FTŽ₂ II 956, but transformation, conversion “преобразование, переход — change, conversion — Umwandlung, Verwandlung” FTŽ₂ II 958, conversion “конверсия — conversion — Konversion” FTŽ₂ I 340; likewise change “изменение — change, variation, modification — Veränderung, Änderung” FTŽ₂ I 308, change “изменение — variation — „Änderung“ FTŽ₂ II 553 and variation “вариация — variation — Variation” FTŽ₂ II 919; perhaps transformation “трансформация, преобразование — transformation — Transformation” FTŽ₂ II 886 and modification, variant FTŽ₂ II 470 also belong here (cf. allotropic transformation FTŽ₂ II 956 and allotropic modification FTŽ₂ II 470)⁴³, along with modulation, modulating FTŽ₂ II 170 (cf. phase change FTŽ₂ I 308 and phase modulation FTŽ₂ II 471);

oscillation, fluctuation “осциляция, колебание — oscillation — Oscillation, Schwankung” FTŽ₂ II 510, but fluctuation, oscillation “колебание — oscillation — Schwingung” FTŽ₂ II 811, although everyday speech makes a clear distinction between fluctuation and oscillation, as well as vibration, which, unfortunately, is absent from the Dictionary—only vibration “вибрация — vibration — Vibration, Schwingung” FTŽ₂ II 942, although vibrations “колебания — oscillations, vibrations — Oszillationen, Schwingungen, Vibrationen” FTŽ₂ II 950–955 are plentiful; moreover, looking at the types of fluctuations and vibrations, we find a great many identical terms: anharmonic fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 811 and anharmonic vibrations FTŽ₂ II 950, random fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 811 and random vibrations FTŽ₂ II 951, elliptical fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 811 and elliptical vibrations FTŽ₂ II 951, harmonic fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 811 and harmonic vibrations FTŽ₂ II 952, coherent fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and coherent vibrations FTŽ₂ II 952, free fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and free vibrations FTŽ₂ II 952, unbound fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and unbound vibrations FTŽ₂ II 953, fundamental fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and fundamental vibrations FTŽ₂ II 954, parametric fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and parametric vibrations FTŽ₂ II 954, parasitic fluctuations

⁴³ Cf. also modification “a variant of an element with different properties” ChŽ 184 and variant “модификация, вариант” ChŽ 35, as well as modification, variant “модификация” PolŽ 200 and variant, modification PolŽ 345, although alteration, modification “видоизменение” PolŽ 45.

109

FTŽ₂ II 812 and parasitic oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, periodic fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and periodic oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, forced fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 812 and forced oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, relaxation fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and relaxation oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, resonant fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and resonant oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, spontaneous fluctuations, self-oscillations FTŽ₂ II 813 and spontaneous oscillations, self-oscillations FTŽ₂ II 954, own fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and own oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, sinusoidal fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and sinusoidal oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, transverse fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and transverse oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, damped fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and damped oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, rotational fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 813 and rotational oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, linear fluctuations FTŽ₂ II 814 and linear oscillations FTŽ₂ II 955, although they are in no way linked; and what is the difference between an oscillator “осциллятор — oscillator — Oszillator” FTŽ₂ II 510 and a vibrator “вибратор — vibrator — Vibrator, Schwinger, Oszillator” FTŽ₂ II 942—they are listed without a cross-reference, but their identity is indicated not only by the German equivalents, but also by some specific terms, e.g.: Hertz oscillator “осциллятор Герца, вибратор Герца” FTŽ₂ II 510 and Hertz vibrator “вибратор Герца” FTŽ₂ II 942; there is also another kind of fluctuation—variation, change “колебание, изменение, флюктуация — variation, fluctuation — Schwankung” FTŽ₂ II 818, see also флюктуация “флуктуация — fluctuation — Schwankung” FTŽ₂ I 173, change “изменение — change, variation, modification, — Veränderung, Änderung” FTŽ₂ I 308, cf. some specific terms: annual fluctuations “годичные вариации, годичные изменения” FTŽ₂ II 814 and annual change “годичное изменение” FTŽ₂ I 309, diurnal fluctuations “суточные колебания, суточные изменения — diurnal variations” FTŽ₂ II 814 and diurnal change “суточное изменение — diurnal variation” FTŽ₂ I 309; moreover, English variation also has the Lithuanian equivalent variacija FTŽ₂ II 919, while modification also has modifikacija, atmaina FTŽ₂ II 470, though this apparently already means something else (see the previous example—transmutation, …); drift, displacement “дрейф — drift — Drift” FTŽ₂ I 122 and displacement “смещение — displacement — Verschiebung, Erregung” FTŽ₂ II 715; their specific terms differ, and, moreover, displacement is explained similarly to slinktis: poslinkis “смещение, сдвиг — displacement, shift, bias — Verschiebung” FTŽ₂ II 558, but it has another international synonym: translation, displacement “трансляция, перемещение — translation — Translation” FTŽ₂ II 889, cf. zero drift FTŽ₂ I 122 and zero displacement FTŽ₂ II 559; there is also nuostumis “сдвиг — displacement — Verschiebung” FTŽ₂ II 494 and slytis—“сдвиг” (but “torsion — Torsion, Drilling”) FTŽ₂ II 826; band, zone “полоса, зона — band, zone — Band, Zone” FTŽ₂ I 285, band “пояс — zone — Zone” FTŽ₂ P 21, but zone, region “зона, пояс — zone, region, range — Zone, Bereich” FTŽ₂ II 960, region—“область, зона, диапазон — region, range, domain, area, zone — Bereich, Raum, Gebiet, Zone” FTŽ₂ II 760 and “зона, область — range, zone, area — Gebiet, Zone” FTŽ₂ P 36; as the equivalents in other languages show, diapazonas is also associated here—“диапазон, область — gamut, range — Bereich, Umfang (= Umfang)” FTŽ₂ I 106 and “диапазон — band — Band” FTŽ₂ P 8, as well as ruožas, diapazonas “участок, диапазон — range, region — Bereich, Band” FTŽ₂ II 636, and also interval, gap “интервал, промежуток — interval — Intervall, Zwischenraum” FTŽ₂ I 240, interval “интервал, проме-

⁴⁴ Cf. also perstūma—see poslinkis ChŽ 217.

110

жуток — range (and in specific terms: interval) — Bereich (and in specific terms: Intervall)” FTŽ₂ P 17 and gap “зазор, промежуток, интервал, пространство — gap, interval, space, bound — Luft, Streche, Intervall, Raum” FTŽ₂ II 840; the great majority of specific terms for bands FTŽ₂ I 285–288 and FTŽ₂ P 21, zones FTŽ₂ II 960–961, regions FTŽ₂ II 760–766 and FTŽ₂ P 36, ranges FTŽ₂ I 106 and FTŽ₂ P 8, intervals FTŽ₂ I 240 and FTŽ₂ P 17, and gaps FTŽ₂ II 841 are different, but there are also common (or similar) ones, e.g.: a) frequency band, frequency range “частотная полоса, диапазон частот — frequency band — Frequenzband” FTŽ₂ I 285 (although only pulse frequency band FTŽ₂ I 286, video-frequency band FTŽ₂ I 288), frequency region, frequency range “диапазон частот — frequency region — Frequenzbereich, Frequenzgebiet” FTŽ₂ II 761 and frequency range “диапазон частот — frequency range — Frequenzbereich” FTŽ₂ I 106; likewise audio-frequency band FTŽ₂ I 285 and audio-frequency range FTŽ₂ I 106; radio-frequency band FTŽ₂ I 286 and radio-frequency region FTŽ₂ II 761; shortwave region FTŽ₂ II 765 and shortwave range FTŽ₂ I 106; b) transition band “переходная зона — transition zone — Übergangszone” FTŽ₂ I 287, jump zone, transition zone “переходная зона — transition zone — Übergangsgebiet, Übergangszone, Übergangsschicht” FTŽ₂ II 960 and transitional area “переходная зона — transition(al) area — Übergangszone” FTŽ₂ II 764; c) spectral band, spectrum band FTŽ₂ I 288, spectrum region FTŽ₂ II 764 and spectrum interval FTŽ₂ I 240; d) high-pressure zone FTŽ₂ II 960 and high-pressure region FTŽ₂ P 36; e) Brillouin zone FTŽ₂ II 960 and Brillouin region (zone) FTŽ₂ II 761; f) “cold” zone, nonradioactive zone FTŽ₂ II 960 and “cold” (nonradioactive) region (zone) FTŽ₂ II 765; g) forbidden (energy) band FTŽ₂ I 286 and forbidden region FTŽ₂ II 761.

Quite often similar discrepancies occur across several dictionaries. For example:

α) identification—see finding ChŽ 123 and finding ChŽ 234, but identify, equate “отождествлять” PolŽ 256;

restoration—see reduction ChŽ 34 and revival—see reduction ChŽ 103 and reduction, reduction “addition of electrons, decrease in electrochemical valence — восстановление” ChŽ 236, but reduction, reduction, recalculation “приведение” PolŽ 318;

coagulation—see coagulation ChŽ 158 and coagulation, coagulating “coagulation of colloids — коагуляция, свёртывание” ChŽ 151, contraction—see coagulation ChŽ 267, coagulation “коагуляция” PolŽ 145, 1. coagulation, contraction (food), 2. coagulation, coagulation (chem.) PolŽ 371;

refr</text>},{

effect, consequence; phenomenon “эффект” PolŽ 516 and effect, phenomenon FTŽ₂ I 127 and phenomenon, effect FTŽ₂ II 611; dispersion, scattering “дисперсия — dispersion, variance — Dispersion, Zerlegung” FTŽ₂ I 117, scattering “разброс, рассеяние — scatter, straggling — Streuung, Dispersion” FTŽ₂ II 707 and scattering, dispersion “дисперсия — dispersion — Dispersion, Zerlegung” FTŽ₂ II 687, but scatter, scattering “рассеяние — scattering — Streuung” FTŽ₂ I 245 (although their specific terms are all different, only background scattering, background scattering, background scatter FTŽ₂ II 707 are given synonymously) and dispersing, dispersion “particle comminution” ChŽ 80; reflector (= reflector) FTŽ₁ 10, reflector, reflecting device FTŽ₂ I 38 and reflector, reflecting device FTŽ₂ II 607, reflector, reflecting device “рефлектор” PolŽ 362, but reflector (= reflecting telescope) FTŽ₁ 76, reflector, reflecting telescope FTŽ₂ II 607; impedance (= apparent resistance) “импеданс, кажущееся сопротивление” FTŽ₁ 35, also impedance, apparent resistance “импеданс — impedance, resistance apparent — Impedanz, Scheinwiderstand” FTŽ₂ I 229 and apparent resistance “кажущееся сопротивление — apparent resistance — scheinbarer Widerstand, Scheinwiderstand” FTŽ₂ I 928, but total resistance, impedance “полное сопротивление — impedance, generalized resistance — Impedanz, Scheinwiderstand” FTŽ₂ II 927, also total resistance, impedance “импеданс” PolŽ 123, total resistance (impedance) “кажущееся сопротивление” PolŽ 393, total resistance “полное сопротивление” PolŽ 394; activity ChŽ 12 and activity (= activity) ChŽ 299, also activation, activating “making a substance more active” ChŽ 12 [and inactivity (= inactivity) ChŽ 193]; active, activational, active PolŽ 12, but activation (excitation) FTŽ₂ I 7 and excitation FTŽ₂ II 808. β) orifice — cf. aperture ChŽ 227 and apertures ChŽ 13, aperture “пора” PolŽ 307, but spinneret, aperture “фильера” PolŽ 465; jelly (= gelatin dessert) “желе” ChŽ 305 and gelatin dessert “студень” ChŽ 82, but gelatin dessert, gel “студень (гель)” PolŽ 413, cf. also gelation — see setting of a gel ChŽ 106 and setting of a gel (= gelation) ChŽ 304; ersatz “an imitation leather substitute” ChŽ 90 and substitute “something that partly replaces a genuine product” ChŽ 210, but substitute, surrogate PolŽ 415; absorption, absorbing (= absorption) ChŽ 7, absorption (= absorbing) ChŽ 264, absorption, absorbing, uptake PolŽ 9 and 291 and imbibition “uptake — имбойбиция” ChŽ 123 (moreover, adsorption “surface absorption, retention, accumulation of a substance” ChŽ 10, sorption “adsorption and absorption” ChŽ 256, PolŽ 395, desorption PolŽ 88 and autoabsorption); consistency (= thickness) ChŽ 156 and thickness (= consistency) ChŽ 283, but condense “to turn gases or vapors into liquid; to thicken” ChŽ 155, non-condensable, non-thickenable “несгущаемый” PolŽ 225; sleeve “paper cartridge in an extraction apparatus — гильза” ChŽ 107, but nozzle, tube “дюза” PolŽ 99; dose, portion, dosage “доза” PolŽ 93, but portion, allotment “порция” PolŽ 308, cf. portion “порция — parcel, portion, bundle — Portion, Dosis” FTŽ₂ II 558;

112

slide, diapositive FTŽ₂ II 688 and diapositive FTŽ₂ I 105, but slide (2.) “калька” PolŽ 130;

approximation, approach FTŽ₂ I 23 and approach, approximation FTŽ₂ I 26, but convergence, approach “сходимость” PolŽ 417;

declination (=deviation) FTŽ₁ 16, declination, deviation FTŽ₂ I 91, declination, deviation PolŽ 85, but also deviation, offset FTŽ₂ I 102, deviation, deviation PolŽ 254 and offset, deviation, declination FTŽ₂ II 491 (if we translated aberration and anomaly, these too would probably be deviations…);

commutator (=converter) FTŽ₁ 47 and converter (=commutator) FTŽ₁ 45, but converter, converter FTŽ₂ I 302 and converter, converter FTŽ₂ I 340, single-core converter, Umformer “однокорный преобразователь” PolŽ₃ 15 (although умформер is a converter, umformer PolŽ 454), variator (=converter) FTŽ₁ 99 (and what if we also wanted Lithuanian equivalents for alternator PolŽ 13 and inverter, invertor PolŽ 123?);

component (=component) FTŽ₁ 47, component, component FTŽ₂ I 321 component, component PolŽ 395 and component PolŽ 152, constituent part (=component) ChŽ 263 and component “constituent part of a system” ChŽ 154, but ingredient PolŽ 123, ingredient “constituent of a mixture” ChŽ 125;

apparatus (=device) FTŽ₁ 7 and device (=apparatus) FTŽ₁ 72, device (=apparatus) ChŽ 229, device, apparatus (1.) “прибор” PolŽ 317 and apparatus “аппарат” PolŽ 15, but instrument, device FTŽ₂ I 236 (the synonym for instrument ought to be tool; stranger still: инструмент — tool, device PolŽ 124).

Several more complex cases:

dissociation, dissociating “splitting of molecules into constituent parts” ChŽ 80, splitting (=dissociation) “распад” ChŽ 254, decomposition (=splitting, dissociation) “разложение, расщепление” ChŽ 253 and breakdown “decomposition of a substance, disintegration — разложение, распад” ChŽ 126, as well as destruction “(dis)integration — деструкция” ChŽ 73, destruction, demolition; breakdown “разрушение” PolŽ 346;

attenuator, suppressor “аттенюатор – attenuator – Attenuator, Dämpfer” FTŽ₂ I 31 and suppressor “аттенюатор, ослабитель – attenuator – Abschwächer, Attenuator” FTŽ₂ II 716, also damper, suppressor “демпфер – damper – Dämpfer” FTŽ₂ I 92 and attenuator, suppressor “аттенюатор” PolŽ 18, suppressor “демпфер” PolŽ 87, silencer, suppressor “глушитель (1.)” PolŽ 70, energy absorber “гаситель энергии” PolŽ 65 and attenuator “ослабитель” PolŽ 248;

medium, medium “среда – medium – Medium” FTŽ₂ II 440 and medium — see medium ChŽ 175 and environment, medium “среда” PolŽ 400 (also dispersion medium, medium PolŽ 400 and medium “environment of small particles” ChŽ 278), also gap — see medium ChŽ 274, as well as substrate “nutrient medium” ChŽ 263⁴⁵.

⁴⁵ Sometimes the terms in synonym pairs differ considerably from those in other languages. For example: index, mark “индекс – index – Faktor, Zeichen” FTŽ₂ I 233 and mark “метка – tag – Zeichen, Merkzeichen, Kennzeichen” FTŽ₂ II 962; moreover, the specific terms are different; correlation, relation “корреляция – correlation – Korrelation” FTŽ₂ I 343 and relation “взаимосвязь, соотношение – relation, interrelation, interrelationship, interdependence – Verhältnis, Beziehung” FTŽ₂ II 644; the specific terms differ;

8. Lietuvių terminologija

113

In some cases, the terms thus linked are identical, in others they differ, but both situations are problematic: in either case they are synonymous or polysemous and therefore imperfect. In some cases, synonymy among Lithuanian equivalents / non-equivalence among equivalents, non-equivalent equivalents / and polysemy (poly-equivalence among equivalents, poly-equivalent equivalents) occur; in others, synonymy and polysemy among international terms occur. In both cases, this imperfection is difficult to eliminate. Such a situation often obstructs the formation and use of Lithuanian synonyms. For example, kontūr is defined as kontūras in PolŽ 155 (also очертание in PolŽ 260), so it is also difficult to translate abrisas in PolŽ 9 as apibrėžia. Or корпус is 1. kūnas, korpusas, liemuo in PolŽ 157, so translating fiuzeliažas in PolŽ 473 as liemuo is not entirely convenient (although it would fit very well alongside wings and tail). It is even more difficult to eliminate synonymy and polysemy among international terms, since this is a matter not of Lithuanian studies but of interlinguistics. Thus, many of the contradictions, discrepancies, and inconsistencies noted here are problems not of terminography, but of terminology itself.

UNLINKED SYNONYMS

A considerable shortcoming in the presentation of international and Lithuanian synonyms is that they are not linked. For example:

stabilus (is) FTŽ₁ 87 and pastovus FTŽ₁ 67;

reliatyvinis greitis FTŽ₁ 33 and santykinis greitis FTŽ₁ 33;

alternacija FTŽ₂ I 9 and kaita, kaitaliojimas (is) FTŽ₂ I 289;

diapozityvas FTŽ₂ I 105 and skaidrė FTŽ₂ II 688;

elektrodas FTŽ₂ I 142 and išvadas FTŽ₂ P 19;

ruporas FTŽ₂ II 636 and garsintuvas FTŽ₂ I 197;

akvareliniai dažai ChŽ 13 and vandeniniai dažai ChŽ 297;

mentolis ChŽ 176 and mėtų aliejus ChŽ 181;

portatyvus PolŽ 308 and kilnojamasis PolŽ 274;

psichrometras PolŽ 335 and drėgmėmatis PolŽ 47;

analizė FTŽ₁ 7 and tyrimas PolŽ 96; analizė FTŽ₂ I 13 (e.g., Rentgeno analizė FTŽ₂ I 14) and tyrimas FTŽ₂ II 882 (e.g., rentgenografinis tyrimas FTŽ₂ II 882); analizė PolŽ 14 and tyrimas PolŽ 127.

There are even more pairs that are linked in some dictionaries but not in others. For example:

magazinas, rinkinys “магазин — box — Magazin” FTŽ₂ II 418 and rinkinys “набор, совокупность — set, assembly — Gesamtheit, Menge, Satz” FTŽ₂ II 624; the terms differ in kind;

distortion, bending “дисторсия, искажение — distorsion — Verzeichnung (=Verzerrung? — J. K.), Distorsion” FTŽ₂ I 118 and bending — “изгиб — winding — Biegung, Krümmung” FTŽ₂ I 253, whereas “искажение — distorsion, contortion — Verzerrung” is rendered as distortion in FTŽ₂ I 250;

yield, efficiency “выход, отдача, эффективность — efficiency, yield — Ausbeute” FTŽ₂ II 484 and efficiency “эффективность — efficiency, effectiveness — Effektivität, Wirkungsgrad” FTŽ₂ I 135; they are different in kind.

When the equivalents in other languages and the terms of different kinds diverge in this way, one may also question whether the corresponding Lithuanian terms are identical. In that case, we would have an undesirable ambiguity in the Lithuanian or international terms (in the last pair).

114

effect FTŽ₁ 20 and phenomenon FTŽ₁ 76, but effect, phenomenon FTŽ₂ I 127 and phenomenon, effect FTŽ₂ II 611; determinism FTŽ₁ 16 and causality FTŽ₁ 72, but determinism, causality FTŽ₂ I 102; interval FTŽ₁ 37 and gap FTŽ₁ 93, but interval, gap FTŽ₂ I 240; detonator “детонатор” PolŽ 88 and exploder “взрыватель” PolŽ 44, but detonator, exploder FTŽ₂ I 102 and exploder FTŽ₂ II 754; polygon “полигон” PolŽ 302 and polygon “многоугольник” PolŽ 199, but polygon, polygon FTŽ₂ II 556 and polygon FTŽ₂ I 81; muscovite “мусковит” PolŽ 206 and mica “слюда” PolŽ 387, but muscovite — see mica ChŽ 188 and mica ChŽ 305; bronze “бронза” PolŽ 32 and brass “латунь” PolŽ 173, but bronze ChŽ 53 and brass (=bronze) ChŽ 305; enthalpy FTŽ₂ I 161 and calorific value FTŽ₂ II 825, but enthalpy PolŽ 515 and calorific value, enthalpy PolŽ 424; reaction FTŽ₁ 75 and response FTŽ₁ 9, but reaction FTŽ₂ II 600 and response, reaction FTŽ₂ I 34, as well as reaction, response (2.) PolŽ 354 and response, reaction PolŽ 331; refraction “рефракция” PolŽ 362 and refraction “преломление” PolŽ 315, as well as refraction FTŽ₁ 76 and refraction FTŽ₁ 56, but refraction FTŽ₂ II 607 and refraction, refraction, refraction FTŽ₂ I 418; dispersion FTŽ₁ 18 and scattering FTŽ₁ 38, scattering FTŽ₁ 38, as well as dispersion “дисперсия” PolŽ 91 and scattering, scattering “рассеяние” PolŽ 351, but dispersion, scattering FTŽ₂ I 117 and scattering FTŽ₂ II 707; dissociation FTŽ₁ 18 and disintegration FTŽ₁ 81, as well as dissociation FTŽ₂ I 116 and disintegration FTŽ₂ II 703, but dissociation, dissociating ChŽ 80 and disintegration (=dissociation) ChŽ 254; rheostat FTŽ₂ II 615 and resistor FTŽ₂ II 929, but rheostat (=resistor) FTŽ₁ 77 and resistor FTŽ₁ 100, as well as rheostat, resistor PolŽ 361; experiment FTŽ₁ 21 and test FTŽ₁ 10, as well as experiment “эксперимент — experiment — Experiment” FTŽ₂ I 140 and test “опыт — experiment, experience — Versuch, Experiment” FTŽ₂ I 144, but experiment (=test) ChŽ 85 and test (=experiment) ChŽ 41, as well as experiment, test “эксперимент” PolŽ 509 and test (2.) “опыт” PolŽ 245; insulator “изолятор” PolŽ 122 and nonconductor “непроводник” PolŽ 224, but insulator FTŽ₁ 39 and nonconductor (=insulator) FTŽ₁ 63, insulator FTŽ₂ I 263 and nonconductor, insulator FTŽ₂ II 486, nonconductor (=insulator) ChŽ 194⁴⁶.

SELECTION OF LITHUANIAN EQUIVALENTS

Lithuanian equivalents for international terms are generally skillfully formed, carefully selected, and presented in abundance. Nevertheless, Lithuanian synonymic terms are sometimes omitted from dictionaries even though they have long been in use in the language. For example:

⁴⁶By the way, dielectric PolŽ 92, FTŽ₁ 17, FTŽ₂ I 109 is associated neither with conductor nor with insulator.

8*

115

absorption FTŽ₁ 5, FTŽ₂ I 1 (=and absorption), adsorption FTŽ₂ I 4 (=and surface absorption), achromatism FTŽ₁ 5, FTŽ₂ 4 (= and colorlessness), activation FTŽ₂ 6 (=and activation), binary systems FTŽ₁ 12 (= and binary systems), defect FTŽ₂ I 88 (=and flaw, shortcoming), diaphragm FTŽ₂ I 103 (=and partition, coating), distortion FTŽ₁ 18 (=and curving, bending), divergence FTŽ₁ 19 (=and separation), dominate FTŽ₂ I 119 (=and prevail, rule, dominate), exposure FTŽ₁ 21, FTŽ₂ I 140 (=and illumination), harmonious FTŽ₁ 34 (=and harmonious), induction FTŽ₁ 35 (=and excitation), contour FTŽ₂ I 337 (=and outline), turbulent motion FTŽ₂ I 283 (=and swirling motion), vibration FTŽ₂ II 942 (= and oscillation), fan FTŽ₂ II 937 (= and ventilator), visual FTŽ₁ 101 (=and visible), equatorial moment of inertia FTŽ₂ II 478 (=and equatorial moment of inertia), equatorial semiaxis FTŽ₂ II 585 (=and equatorial semiaxis);

equivalent PolŽ 508 (=and level⁴⁷, or equivalent level), calorifier PolŽ 130 (=and heating cable), beach (geol.) PolŽ 290 [=and beach, cf. beach, shore (V. Gudelis, Geologijos ir fizinės geografijos terminų žodynas, Vilnius, 1956, p. 106)], repair PolŽ 361 (=and mending), rack PolŽ 407 (=and shelf), hinge PolŽ 492 (=and hinge);

secretion ChŽ 245 (=and excretion), precision scales ChŽ 228 (=and precision balances), precision weights ChŽ 228 (=and precise weights).

These equivalents should also be used. In many cases, other languages (Russian, German) also have their own synonyms for these international words⁴⁸.

There are even cases in which an existing Lithuanian equivalent is used as a definition of the meaning (or part of one), but is not presented as a synonym, for example: texture “layering — текстура” ChŽ 275, terricone “spoil heap⁴⁹ — террикон” ChŽ 277, humus “humus — гумус” ChŽ 122, compost “decomposed matter, fertilizer made from a mixture of various manures with peat” ChŽ 154.

In other cases, the omission of Lithuanian synonyms that are already available seems to be merely a lack of thoroughness, since they are included in other terminology dictionaries. For example:

ozokerite PolŽ 240, but mountain wax — see ozokerite ChŽ 142 and ozokerite ChŽ 209;

relaxation FTŽ₁ 76, FTŽ₂ II 612, but relaxation (=weakening) ChŽ 237; method FTŽ₁ 59, FTŽ₂ II 447, but method, way PolŽ 193 and way, method PolŽ 398;

impulse FTŽ₁ 35, FTŽ₂ I 229, but impulse, stimulus PolŽ 123;

diffraction FTŽ₁ 17, PolŽ 91, but diffraction, bending FTŽ₂ I 110;

⁴⁷ The author of this word (in the sense mentioned) is apparently K. Būga: in the introduction to his “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” he writes: lygmuo (Aequivalent) (see K. Būga, Rinktiniai raštai, vol. III, Vilnius, 1961, p. 41). Cf. also: “Žemaičių vókýtis turi sau lygmenį ir latvių kalboje” (ibid., vol. II, 1959, p. 227).

⁴⁸ Consistent screening could reveal quite a lot about the specific nature of the relationship between international and native words in different languages. But that is a separate question. Here we will merely note that a group of international terms with Lithuanian equivalents have no corresponding Russian equivalents. For example: adaptacija (=prisitaikymas) “адаптация” FTŽ₁ 5 and prisitaikymas (=adaptacija) “адаптация” FTŽ₂ 72. Lithuanian has aparatas and prietaisas FTŽ₂ 7 and 72, while Russian has only аппарат FTŽ₂ 7 and 72; Lithuanian has sensibilizacija and jautrinimas FTŽ₂ 79 and 39, while Russian has only сенсибилизация FTŽ₂ 79 and 39; Lithuanian has presas and slėgtuvas FTŽ₂ 72 and 82, while Russian has only пресс FTŽ₂ 72 and so on.

⁴⁹ It could also be a single word—bergždynas (cf. šiukšlynas, sąšlavynas; rūdynas, uolynas, akmenynas, smėlynas, žvyrynas).

116

reverberacija FTŽ₁ 77, PolŽ 354, bet reverberacija, aidėjimas FTŽ₂ II 615; akumuliacija FTŽ₂ I 8, bet akumuliacija, akumuliavimas(is) [= kaupimas(is)] ChŽ 13 bei kaupimas (=akumuliacija) ChŽ 147 ir akumuliacija, kaupimas(is) PolŽ 12;

constant FTŽ₁ 48, but constant, constant quantity FTŽ₂ I 329, constant (=constant value) ChŽ 156, constant, constant value PolŽ 153, and constant PolŽ 310.

Of course, ready-made Lithuanian synonyms are not always available. Sometimes coining them poses no major semantic or practical problems, for example: kriologija “the science of ice” ChŽ 158 (=and ledotyra), liofilinis koloidas “swells in a liquid” ChŽ 169 (=and brinkusis koloidas), liofobinis koloidas “does not swell in a liquid” ChŽ 169 (=non-swelling colloid), matini̇mas “elimination of gloss” ChŽ 175 [= blaišinimas, cf. matinės anglys (= dull coals) ChŽ 175].

However, there should be many more Lithuanian synonyms. They are especially important from the pedagogical and popularization perspectives. Admittedly, choosing and establishing them is not always easy or straightforward. But many more could still be proposed for consideration, for example: aeritas FTŽ₂ I 25 (=and stopper?), difuzija FTŽ₂ I 111 (=and dispersion | dispersal?, cf. scattered, diffuse lighting FTŽ₂ I 24), ekstinkcija FTŽ₂ I 140 (=and weakening | extinction?), geteris FTŽ₂ I 203 (=and gas absorber?), imersija FTŽ₂ I 229 (=and injection?), interferencija FTŽ₁ 36 (=and transfer? | displacement?), inversija FTŽ₁ 37 (=and change | reversal?), konversija FTŽ₁ 48 (=and conversion?), kalorikas FTŽ₂ I 290 (=and heater | heating agent?), konvekcija FTŽ₁ 48 (=and heat transfer?), krioforas FTŽ₂ I 352 (=and coolant?), luminoforas FTŽ₂ I 417 (=and luminescent material?), luminescencija FTŽ₂ I 416 (=and glow?), rezonansas FTŽ₁ 77 (=and echo?), šleifas FTŽ₁ 91 (=and drag | trail?). This is especially relevant to physics terminology, since the project for the new edition of the “Dictionary of Physics Terms” gives the impression that Russian and German physics terminology has considerably more native terms than Lithuanian terminology.

SINONIMŲ DIFERENCIACIJOS ATVEJAI

In eliminating synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms, semantic differentiation between the members of a pair occurs, though quite rarely. For example:

fibra has almost completely displaced skaidula in literary language and terminology (consistency would also require replacing fibrile ChŽ 95 with skaidulėle), but fibra, “rag paper hardened with zinc chloride,” ChŽ 95, cannot be replaced by skaidula;

košimas cannot displace filtravimo, since it is merely “simplified filtration” (see ChŽ 157);

korozija ir rūdijimas are not quite the same in chemical terminology: korozija is “the disintegration of a material,” ChŽ 157, whereas rūdijimas is only “the reaction of metals with atmospheric gases,” ChŽ 241; hence there can also be tarpkristalinė korozija—“in stainless steel,” ChŽ 274;

in chemical terminology, palydovas means “impurities of other minerals present in a mineral,” ChŽ 211, whereas in technology satelitas means “a gear in planetary mechanisms that moves together with an axle around a central wheel,” PolŽ 369⁵⁰;

⁵⁰ Palydovas is also a term in astronomy and cosmonautics. Admittedly, American artificial satellites are sometimes also called satelitais, because that is what the Americans themselves call them (English satellite).

117

Įąstelė has irreversibly replaced celė in Lithuanian terminology (although some dictionaries still give both, e.g.: ląstelė, celė PolŽ 144), although, despite the heterogeneity of the microsystem, preference is given to celiuliozei: ląsteliena—see celiuliozė ChŽ 164 (only celiuliozė, “клетчатка,” PolŽ 144); however, celė, “целла,” PolŽ 478, in architecture (although it also has a Lithuanian synonym: celė, vienutė, “келья,” PolŽ 137) and celė, “a separate reaction vessel,” ChŽ 54, in chemistry (although sometimes it too is called ląstele: ячейка — 1. ląstelė, celė PolŽ 517) has remained.

Sometimes the differentiation between international and Lithuanian synonyms already exists in literary language, but is not yet taken into account in terminology. For example, charakterį tends to be recognized as applicable only to a person. Therefore, the charakterį _{FTŽ₂ I 67 of physical phenomena should be called} pobūdžiu. Charakteringasis greitis _{FTŽ₂ I 211,} charakteringa(oji) matrica _{FTŽ₂ II 435,} charakteringas(is) parametras _{FTŽ₂ II 522,} charakteringas(is) paviršius _{FTŽ₂ II 530,} charakteringas(is) spektras _{FTŽ₂ II 725,} charakteringi(eji) spinduliai _{FTŽ₂ II 741,} charakteringas(is) spinduliavimas _{FTŽ₂ II 745 should be replaced by} būdingasis, -oji, -ieji, while of the pairs charakteringas(is) matmuo, būdingas(is) matmuo _{FTŽ₂ II 434,} charakteringas(is) Rentgeno spinduliavimas, būdingas(is) Rentgeno spinduliavimas _{FTŽ₂ II 749,} charakteringa(oji) vertė, būdinga(oji) vertė _{FTŽ₂ II 938, only the latter members should be retained. And} charakteristika _{FTŽ₂ I 68 could perhaps be replaced by} pobūdis, apibūdinimas, duomenys, bruožai, ypatybės. A distinction should be made between akustinį and garsinį, garso: banga _{FTŽ₂ I 45, 46,} energija _{FTŽ₂ I 156,} filtras _{FTŽ₂ I 169 should use only} garso; whereas akustinis relates to acoustics, that is, the science of sound or the propagation and absorption of sound in a room.

REJECTION OF BORROWINGS

A much more common way of eliminating synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms is to reject the borrowing. Our topic does not require us to discuss those borrowings that no longer appear in terminology dictionaries. However, Lithuanian terminography still contains quite a number of completely unnecessary or needless international words and other foreignisms that can easily be replaced by Lithuanian words (and in literary language have in many cases been eliminated long ago). In terminology dictionaries, they should either not be included at all, or, if included, be marked ntk. Yet even clearly foreign words are not marked in this way; instead, they are simply referred by see to Lithuanian terms. For example: broga — see žlaug tai ChŽ 51 and žlaug tai ChŽ 306. But by exactly the same see reference, Lithuanian words that are otherwise perfectly acceptable are also referred to more preferred terms: tirščiai — see žlaug tai ChŽ 283. There are many similar examples: gazogeneratorius — see dujų generatorius ChŽ 105; gerbavimas — see rauginimas ChŽ 107; konusinė kolba ChŽ 156 — see kūginė kolba ChŽ 156; liakas — see smalka ChŽ 166; misingis — see skaistvaris ChŽ 183; neuzilberis — see naujasi sidabris ChŽ 198; slancai — see skalūnai ChŽ 255; špalis — see mentelė ChŽ 269; vitriolis — see sieros rūgštis ChŽ 302; ekspliozija — see sprogimas ChŽ 85; permeabiliškumas — see pralaidumas⁵¹ ChŽ 216; semipermeabilinė membrana — see puslaidė membrana ChŽ 247; semikoloidai — see puskoloidai ChŽ 247⁵². Similarly, unnecessary foreignisms are referred to international words or otherwise acceptable borrowings, for example:

⁵¹The suffixed form — laidumas — would suffice; cf. below — puslaidis, -ė.

⁵²And semikarbazidas ChŽ 247 should be puskarbazidas, while semikarbazonas ChŽ 247 should be puskarbazonis; likewise, semipolinis ryšys ChŽ 247 should be puspolis ryšys.

118

onal words or otherwise acceptable borrowings, e.g.: izumrudas – see smar plantas ChŽ 131, develdrekis – see asafetidė ChŽ 73, cinas – see alavas ChŽ 65, and so on. This method of presentation is inadequate, unclear, and misleading.

International words are entirely unnecessary in the following pairs:

garintuvas (= evaporatorius) ChŽ 104; saturacija (= prisotinimas) ChŽ 245⁵³;

židinys, fokusas „фокус“ PolŽ 467; kert(uoklis), ekeris „эккер“ PolŽ 508; oro šildytuvas, kauperis „каупер“ PolŽ 136; maišytuvas, mikseris „миксер“ PolŽ 198; antlangis, sandrikas „сандрик“ PolŽ 369; isprūda, filingas „филёнка“ PolŽ 465; lizdas, rozetė „розетка“ PolŽ 364; santvara, ferma „ферма“ PolŽ 464; plūdur(as), buja „буй“ PolŽ 33; griebt(uvas), greiferis „грейфер“ PolŽ 76; gesintuvas, disolveris „диссольвер“ PolŽ 91; zirzeklis⁵⁴, zumeris „зуммер“ PolŽ 118; įspa(u)d(i)klis, indentorius „индентор“ PolŽ 123; miltų klijai⁵⁵, kleisteris „клейстер“ PolŽ 144; plokštelė, lamelė „ламель“ PolŽ 172; skersmuo, diametras „диаметр“ PolŽ 89; dujomatis, gazometras „газомер“ PolŽ 63⁵⁶;

angliavandenis, karbohidratas „углевод“ PolŽ 447; ketursienis, tetraedras „четырёхгранник“ PolŽ 488;

half(v)indas, side wind “гальфвинд” PolŽ 65; roll, coil “рулон” PolŽ 366; octahedron, eight-faced solid “октаэдр” PolŽ 242; fascine, brushwood bundle “фашина” PolŽ 464;

dujų rezervuaras, gazholderis „газохранилище“ PolŽ 64 and „газгольдер“ PolŽ 63; lėšis, linžė „чечевица“ PolŽ 488 and lėšis „линза“ PolŽ 176; ilgiklis, alonžas „аллонж“ PolŽ 12 and ilgiklis „удлинитель“ PolŽ 451; stačiakampis, ortogonalinis „ортогональный“ PolŽ 247 and stačiakampis „прямоугольный“ PolŽ 335; diagonalė, įstrižainė FTŽ₂ I 103 and įstrižainė, diagonalė FTŽ₂ I 243⁵⁷; planeris, sklandytuvas FTŽ₂ II 541; poligonas, daugiakampis FTŽ₂ II 556 and daugiakampis FTŽ₂ I 81; trekas FTŽ₂ II 891, pėdsakas, trekas FTŽ₂ II 532 and takas, trekas FTŽ₂ II 833; rotacija, sukimasis FTŽ₂ II 635 and sukimasis FTŽ₂ II 798, as well as sukimosi ašis, rotacijos ašis FTŽ₂ I 30, sukimosi greitis, rotacijos greitis FTŽ₂ I 216⁵⁸; energijos vienodo pasiskirstymo (ekviparticijos) dėsnis FTŽ₂ I 98; valdymo skydas, valdymo panelis FTŽ₂ II 702; kūginis (koninis) lūžimas FTŽ₂ I 419; konfokalinis, bendro židinio FTŽ₂ I 328; laminarinis, sluoksninis judėjimas FTŽ₂ I 279; amžinis (sekuliar(inis)) kitimas FTŽ₂ I 308; skersinis greitis, transversinis greitis FTŽ₂ I 215; vienlypis, singuletinis būvis FTŽ₂ I 64; trily(pis), tripletinis būvis FTŽ₂ I 64; binokulinis regėjimas, dviakis regėjimas FTŽ₂ II 608; monokulinis regėjimas, vienakis regėjimas FTŽ₂ II 609; nebuliar(inis) spektras, ūko spektras FTŽ₂ II 730⁵⁹; singularinė matrica, ypatingoji matrica FTŽ₂ II 436; ašinis laukas, aksialinis laukas FTŽ₂ I 378, ašinė (aksialinė)

⁵³And saturatorius ChŽ 245 should be sotintuvas.

⁵⁴Preferably, zirzulas (see K. Gaivenis, Terminijos ugdymo vingiai, – „Kalbos kultūra“, 25, Vilnius, 1973, p. 25).

⁵⁵A compound miltklijai could be used (cf. miltligė and so on).

⁵⁶But FTŽ₂ I 198 has only gazometras…

⁵⁷Diagonalinis elementas FTŽ₂ I 150 = įstrižaininis elementas.

⁵⁸ Also, rotational dispersion FTŽ₂ II 118 = rotational /rotary dispersion/ scattering.

⁵⁹ Nebular spectrograph FTŽ₂ II 733 = nebula spectrograph.

119

abерация FTŽ₂ I 1, axial molecule, axial molecule FTŽ₂ II 474⁶⁰; satellite orbit, satellite orbit FTŽ₂ II 507; tripod, stand FTŽ₂ II 826 and tripod ChŽ 269 (also laboratory tripod ChŽ 162) and stand ChŽ 261; partial area, partial area FTŽ₂ II 550, partial volume, partial volume FTŽ₂ II 903, partial vacuum, partial vacuum FTŽ₂ II 915, partial valence, partial valence FTŽ₂ II 915 and partial compression ChŽ 212, partial valence ChŽ 212; penetration (=permeation) ChŽ 213 and permeation FTŽ₂ II 565; dash, hyphen FTŽ₂ II 826 and dash, hyphen PolŽ 505; sedimentation (=settling) ChŽ 245 and sedimentation, settling PolŽ 375; scrubber (=washer) ChŽ 254, washer (=scrubber) ChŽ 222 and scrubber PolŽ 385; charge – see burden ChŽ 269, burden (=charge) ChŽ 123 and burden PolŽ 497; gasification, gasification, gasification “газификация” PolŽ 63 and gasification “газификация, conversion of solid fuel into gas; газификация” ChŽ 82 and gasification, gasification “дуjиниmas, conversion of solid fuel into combustible gas; газифицирование” ChŽ 105; boiler, water heater “бойлер” PolŽ 29 and water heater “кипятильник, бойлер” ChŽ 301; scintillation (=scintillation) FTŽ₁ 12 and scintillation (=scintillation) FTŽ₁ 79, scintillation, scintillation FTŽ₂ I 56 and scintillation, scintillation FTŽ₂ II 652 and scintillation, scintillation “сцинтиляция” PolŽ 417 and flash, scintillation “вспышка” PolŽ 56; spin, spin FTŽ₁ 39, FTŽ₂ II 799, spin – see spin ChŽ 257 and spin ChŽ 264 and spin, spin PolŽ 397⁶¹

It is characteristic that in these cases Russian, too, most often makes do with native words alone. However, there are many examples where Russian uses international words or direct borrowings, while Lithuanian terminology has Lithuanian equivalents and makes do with these alone, e.g.: echo “эхо” PolŽ 517, spigot “штуцер” PolŽ 505, blast furnace “домна” PolŽ 94, fine, penalty “штраф” PolŽ 504, fire wall “брандмауер” PolŽ 31, baseboard “плинтус” PolŽ 285, horizontal timber “ватерас” PolŽ 39, slot “шлиц” PolŽ 499, hypotenuse “гипотенуза” PolŽ 68, set square “винкель” PolŽ 45, plug “штепсель” PolŽ 504, rod “шток” PolŽ 504, parallelogram “параллелограмм” PolŽ 263, parallel “параллель” PolŽ 263, sleeve, case “футляр” PolŽ 473, coupling (1.), clutch (2.) “муфта” PolŽ 206, masonry chisel “шлямбур” PolŽ 499, inside caliper “кронциркуль” PolŽ 168, sleeper “шпала” PolŽ 501, angle bisector “биссектриса” PolŽ 27, median “медиана” PolŽ 191, stack (2.) “штабель” PolŽ 503, digit “цифра” PolŽ 484, glider “планер” PolŽ 283, compass “циркуль” PolŽ 483, block and tackle “полиспаст” PolŽ 303, vernier caliper “штангенциркуль” PolŽ 504, printing press “типография” PolŽ 427, groove, tongue “шпунт” PolŽ 503, leg “катет” PolŽ 136, pound “фунт” PolŽ 473, plug “штеккер” PolŽ 504, sidewalk “тротуар” PolŽ 441, syringe (1.), rammer (2.) “шприц” PolŽ 503, plaster, plastering “штукатурка” PolŽ 505, port “порт” PolŽ 308, screen “ширма” PolŽ 497, rebate (1.), lap (2.) “фальц” PolŽ 463, curtain “штора” PolŽ 504, weather vane “флюгер” PolŽ

⁶⁰ Coaxial resonator FTŽ₂ II 618 = coaxial resonator, coaxial attenuator FTŽ₂ II 716 = coaxial attenuator.

⁶¹ Regarding the inadmissibility of spin, see also A. Jucys, State, quantum-mechanical and a couple more physics terms, — “Kalbos kultūra,” 22, 1972, p. 26.

120

467⁶², cotter pin “шплинт” PolŽ 502, reserved-seat marker “плацкарт” PolŽ 284, headlamp “фара” PolŽ 463.

Or Russian has an international term (or a borrowing) and a native equivalent, while Lithuanian has only a Lithuanian one, e.g.:

неодометр – pedometer PolŽ 266 and шагомер – pedometer PolŽ 491; плювиограф – rain gauge PolŽ 289 and дождемер – rain gauge PolŽ 93; штрихмас – bore gauge PolŽ 504 and нутромер – bore gauge PolŽ 229.

In discussing unnecessary international words and borrowings (and at the same time proposing to change the way they are presented, making it clearer and stricter), we have dealt here only with clearer, non-contentious examples. It would probably be worth considering whether international words should be eliminated from many more pairs, e.g.: attenuation, damping FTŽ₂ I 31 (also damping, attenuation characteristic FTŽ₂ I 70), attenuator, damper FTŽ₂ I 70; approximation, approach⁶³ FTŽ₂ I 23, approach, approximation FTŽ₂ I 26 and approximation, approach FTŽ₂ II 566; coincidence (=coincidence⁶⁴) FTŽ₂ 47, coincidence, coincidence FTŽ₂ P 24 and coincidence FTŽ₂ II 807, as well as coincidence analyzer FTŽ₂ I 12 and anticoincidence, anticoincidence FTŽ₂ I 18; perturbed state FTŽ₂ I 63, disturbance, perturbation center FTŽ₂ I 67, etc.

The draft of the new edition of the “Physics Terminology Dictionary” has indeed accumulated many such pseudo-international words unnecessarily, e.g.: double helix, bifilar winding FTŽ₂ I 25; compression, compression FTŽ₂ I 324; multiple, multiplet FTŽ₂ I 81; multiplicity, multiplet multiplicity FTŽ₂ I 81 (also law of multiplet alternation FTŽ₂ I 97).

Sometimes an international word that is otherwise used and acceptable in Lithuanian is not very suitable as a partner for the Lithuanian term because of its meaning, e.g.: front wave, leading wave FTŽ₂ I 46; regular, proper doublet FTŽ₂ I 123; translational motion, translational motion, sliding FTŽ₂ I 281, sliding speed, translational speed FTŽ₂ I 215, displacement, translation axis FTŽ₂ I 30. For front-line is associated with warfare, regular is more customary when speaking of time, while translational relates to radio and television.

One or another so-called international word is unsuitable because of a form that is unusual and foreign to Lithuanian. For example, from the pairs—proximity effect, pinch effect FTŽ₂ I 132, surface effect, skin effect FTŽ₂ I 132 (and surface effect, skin effect PolŽ 383)—only the Lithuanian members should be retained.

In conclusion, it should be noted that dispensing with unnecessary or nonessential international words (or borrowings) usually presents no great difficulty because, as the examples given show, most of them already have Lithuanian equivalents. Some entries are given without such equivalents (although they do exist in the language), e.g.: lampshade PolŽ 9 (= cover), overall dimension PolŽ 62 (= dimension), or they do not have them, e.g.: ductilometer PolŽ 98 (= extensometer, cf. эктильность – extensibility, ductility), evaporometer PolŽ 507 (= evaporimeter, cf. evaporation, “evaporability”, vaporizer “evaporator”), forvacuum FTŽ₂ I

⁶² But FTŽ₂ I 173 gives only fluger.

⁶³ More precisely, it would be *artutinumas* (see A. Jucys, P. Kniūkšta, “Approach and *artutinumas*,” “Kalbos kultūra”, 25, pp. 73–75).

A better option would be “sutaptis” (coincidence).⁶⁴

121

179 (= pre-vacuum || primary | initial vacuum), gliangold ChŽ 109 (= liquid gold), glancilberis ChŽ 109 (= liquid silver) kalandras PolŽ 129 (= calender, cf. каландрирование — calendering, calendering), zilbergetas ChŽ 304 (=?), zilcas PolŽ 115 (= meat cheese, pressed meat loaf), are very few.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms is abundant and varied.

2. In terminography, it is presented in a differentiated manner according to the degree of synonymy.

3. The differentiation of how synonyms are presented does not fully correspond to the actual typology of synonymy.

4. The way synonymy among specific determinants is presented and its degree of synonymy sometimes conflict with the presentation of synonymy among generic terms and the gradation of their identity.

5. The principles for presenting synonymy in a differentiated manner are not set out in term dictionaries, and readers have to work them out for themselves.

6. In practice, the principles for presenting synonymy are implemented tolerably well; however, pairs of recurring synonyms are sometimes presented inconsistently within the same dictionary or across different dictionaries.

7. In synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms, separate synonymy among individual members of synonym pairs and non-equivalent polysemy are manifested to a considerable extent. This depends mainly not on the presentation or its principles, but on the imperfection of the terminology itself.

8. Cases in which international and Lithuanian synonyms are not linked do occur, but they are relatively few.

9. Lithuanian equivalents for international terms are not used as fully as they could be, and their potential for creation is far from exhausted.

10. Semantic differentiation between international and Lithuanian synonyms is uncommon.

11. In Lithuanian terminography, one can observe an excessive inclusion of international words or other borrowings that are not used or are inadmissible in literary language (usually even without normative labels).

12. The cultivation and standardization of synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms are just as necessary as improving the principles for presenting it and their practical implementation. This is a shared concern of subject specialists and linguists.

Й. КЛИМАВИЧЮС

SYNONYMY OF INTERNATIONAL AND LITHUANIAN TERMS IN TERMINOGRAPHY

Summary

The relationship between international and Lithuanian words is a complex and multifaceted problem. This study examines only one particular aspect of it—the synonymy of international and Lithuanian words in terminography. Examination of the material allows the following conclusions to be drawn:

1. Synonymy between international and Lithuanian terms is abundant and diverse.

122

2. In terminography, it is presented in a differentiated manner.

3. The differentiation in the presentation of synonyms does not fully correspond to the actual typology of synonymy.

4. The way synonymy among specific determiners is presented sometimes contradicts the presentation of synonymy among generic terms.

5. The principles for the differentiated presentation of synonymy in terminological dictionaries are not set out, and readers must work them out for themselves.

6. The principles for presenting synonymy are implemented satisfactorily in practice; however, pairs of recurring synonyms are sometimes presented differently within the same dictionary or across different dictionaries.

7. In the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, separate synonymy and non-equivalent polysemy of individual members of synonym pairs are manifested to a considerable extent.

8. There are instances in which international and Lithuanian synonyms are not linked, but they are relatively few.

9. Lithuanian equivalents of international terms are not used sufficiently, and the potential for coining them is by no means exhausted.

10. Semantic differentiation between international and Lithuanian synonyms is not common.

11. Lithuanian terminography makes excessive use in literary language of international words that are no longer in use or are not recommended, or simply of borrowings (often even without normative labels).

12. Research into the synonymy of international and Lithuanian terms, attention to it, and its standardization are just as necessary as improving the principles for presenting them and their practical implementation. This is a common task for specialists and linguists.