LIETUVIŲ KALBOS SPECIALIOJI LEKSIKA

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXII (1983)

A. KAULAKIENĖ

COMPOUND CALQUE ADJECTIVES IN LITHUANIAN POLYTECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY

1. Introductory remarks

1.1. The terminology of each field of science has a nominative-definitional basis, consisting of the following parts of speech: noun, adjective, adverb, verb¹. However, the use of the aforementioned parts of speech as terms is not uniform. The noun is undoubtedly the principal means of expressing concepts that are being terminologized. Opinions differ regarding the adjective as a member of a terminological system. It is often thought that an adjective performs a terminological function only when it serves as a component of a compound term. Such an adjective, together with the modified component (the noun), is included in dictionaries and used as a term. However, not every adjective serving as a component of a compound term can be considered a term. O. Akhmanova is therefore entirely justified in asserting that adjectives whose semantic structure completely coincides with that of the headword cannot be considered terms². V. Danilenko expands the concept of the adjective as a term. In her view, an adjective in a word combination should be considered a term only when both components of the compound term can combine freely, e.g.: virtual (particle) and particle (virtual, elementary), and so on. When a special concept is named by a word combination characterized by stability, figurativeness, and unity, its individual component—the adjective—cannot be considered a term, e.g.: white series³. Thus, it cannot be claimed that the adjectival component of a compound term should in every case be considered a term. On the other hand, compound terms consisting of an adjective and a noun are used not only in terminological dictionaries for particular fields of science, but also in scholarly literature, which likewise contains individual adjectives performing a terminological function. Therefore, in scholarly literature (in various subgenres of scientific style), terminology cannot be isolated from context. It is only in context, in V. Danilenko’s words, that new terms emerge and are given motivation and the right to function⁴. An adjective can therefore be used both as a nominative unit of terminology and as a component of a term. Native (second harmonic || backward || longitudinal wave; open || self-sustaining || complex arc), borrowed (central || electrostatic || quasi-stationary || magnetic field; amorphous || chemical || dispersive || integral structure), and calqued (waveguide transformer) adjectives serve as term components.

¹ Даниленко В. П. Лексико-семантические и грамматические особенности слов-«терминов». — В кн.: Исследования по русской терминологии. М., 1971, с. 9.

² Ахманова О. С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. — М., 1966, с. 12.

³ See Даниленко В. П. cited work, p. 46.

⁴ Даниленко В. П. Терминологизация разных частей речи (термины-глаголы). — В кн.: Проблемы языка науки и техники. М., 1970, с. 41.

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Sudurtiniai vertiniai būdvardžiai

Lithuanian one-word compound

Dictionary

total Lithuanian one-word compound terms (adjectives)

genuinely Lithuanian terms (without equivalents in other languages)

number

%

FTŽ

262

160

61

PolŽ

458

307

67

STŽ

253

148

58,3

FTŽ, PolŽ, STŽ

973

615

63

Particularly many translated adjectives have emerged in recent years. This is entirely natural, since the rapid development of science and technology, the economy, and scientific information creates numerous new concepts or realities that need to be named. These concepts or realities are named using prefixed (subdivision [operation]), suffixed (limiting lamp), prefix-suffix (pre-jet [dryer]), and compound calque adjectives (multiline [engine]).

Compound calque adjectives very often serve as elements of terms in Polytechnic terminology. Apparently, their abundance is determined by the following reasons. First, word compounding is one of the most suitable ways to express new, sometimes exceptionally complex concepts. Second, word compounding is often the most productive method of word formation in the language from which calques are translated (i.e., the source language). For example, the source of compound calque adjectives is most often Russian, where compounding is one of the most productive methods of word formation. However, in this case, the source can be understood in three ways. First, in the formation of calques, Russian must often be considered merely an intermediary language, since a Russian source is sometimes itself a calque, e.g.: Russian полупроводниковый ← English semiconductor || French semiconducteur, etc. Second, the Russian source quite often has equivalents of analogous structure and semantics in other languages, e.g.: half-wave [radiator] ← Russian полуволновой || English half-wave || German Halbwellenstrahler; high-frequency [diode] ← Russian высокочастотный || English high frequency || German Hochfrequenzdiode, etc. Third, the Russian source has no equivalents of analogous structure and semantics in other languages at all, e.g.: steam-jet [apparatus] ← Russian пароструйный; sand-blasting [apparatus] ← Russian пескоструйный, etc. There are almost no direct calque adjectives translated from English, French, or Latin in Polytechnic terminology.

1.2. The aim of this article is to examine compound calque adjectives used in Lithuanian Polytechnic terminology, their relationship to the source, and to determine

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lietuvių politechnikos terminų žodynuose

Table 1

number of terms and types of calques

semi-calques (with equivalents in other languages)

calques from Russian (without equivalents in other languages)

calques from Russian (with equivalents in other languages)

number

%

number

%

number

%

77

29,5

4

1,5

21

8

101

22

20

4,4

30

6,6

83

33

3

1,2

19

7,5

261

27

27

2,8

70

7,2

the most productive working models of these calques and indicate tendencies in the correct and questionable use of such calques.

The compound calque adjectives examined here are drawn from Lithuanian dictionaries of Polytechnic, computing, and physics terms⁵.

The article discusses only compound adjectives whose two components are Lithuanian. It does not examine compound adjectives whose first component is international and whose second is Lithuanian, e.g.: magnetoresistive [multiplier], cf. English magnetoresistor [multiplier], radio-frequency, cf. Russian радиочастотный || English radiofrequency, or whose first component is Lithuanian and whose second is international, e.g.: high-temperature, cf. Russian высокотемпературный || English high temperature; multi-periodic, cf. Russian многопериодический || English multi-periodic, etc. Such compound adjectives should not be considered compound calques, because one component is translated and the other borrowed. They belong to the group of semi-calques and are therefore not analyzed in this article. Usually both components of compound calque adjectives are translated. Thus, the form of such adjectives is native, but the source motivation has been transferred. Therefore, by origin, compound calque adjectives belong to the group of working calques, which is the largest both in terminology and in lexicology generally⁶. For example, working calques account for about 70% of all the calques presented in the dictionaries mentioned. Compound calques (nouns and adjectives) make up the larger share of this percentage. They are distributed as follows: compound calque nouns—22%, compound calque adjectives—18.2%. The percentage of the latter in the dictionaries mentioned

⁵ See the list of abbreviations.

⁶ Flekenstein K. Calques based on the German model in the modern Russian literary language: Author’s abstract of candidate dissertation. — Moscow, 1963, p. 21; Matveev A. Ya. Latin lexical calques in German: Author’s abstract of candidate dissertation. — Lviv, 1966, pp. 16—17; Sorokin Yu. S. Development of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language, 1830s–1890s. — Moscow—Leningrad, — 1965, p. 167.

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dynuose nėra vienodas. „Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechniniame žodyne“ (V., 1959) sudurtinių vertinių būdvardžių vartojama 17%, „Rusų–lietuvių–anglų kalbų skaičiavimo technikos terminų žodyne“ (V., 1971) šių vertinių esama 17,2%, „Fizikos terminų žodyne“ (V., 1979) apie 20% visų darbybinių vertinių. Sudurtinių vertinių būdvardžių skaičius lietuviškuose politechnikos ir fizikos terminų žodynuose matyti 1 lentelėje.

2. Analysis of compound calque adjectives

2.1. Compound adjectives are formed from two words that are syntactically and semantically related to each other. They usually have the formal grammatical elements of a single word and a lexical meaning clearly dependent on both components. Therefore, the structure and semantics of such adjectives depend largely on which parts of speech make up their components. Accordingly, the most convenient way to classify compound calque adjectives is by the parts of speech from which their components originate and by the relationship between those components and the source components. In Lithuanian polytechnic terminology, compound calque adjectives are morphologically root-based, that is, their stems coincide with their roots. Such calques are usually formed from two roots and an ending.

Compound calque adjectives may be adequate or inadequate in relation to the source. Their adequacy or inadequacy is determined not only by the parts of speech involved, but also by the differing derivational structures of the calque and the source. For example, the parts of speech making up compound calque adjectives are usually identical to those making up the source, but the derivational structures of the two cannot be equated, since they are not the same. According to L. Vialkina’s scheme of compound words⁹, the derivational structures of the calque and the source would be as follows: the calque’s derivational structure [R₁ + R₂] + n ≠ the source’s derivational structure [R₁ + (R₂ + S)] + n₁, where R₁ and R₂ are root morphemes, S is a suffix, n is the ending of the compound calque, and n₁ is the ending of the compound source word. Compound calque adjectives in polytechnic terminology are of two kinds: calques with a nominal second component and calques with a verbal second component.

2.2. In calques with a nominal second component, the second component is most often a noun. Only a few calques whose second component is an adjective are used in polytechnic terminology, e.g.: orasausis, -ė PolŽ 51, cf. Russian воздухосухой || English air-dried; oradrėgnis, -ė PolŽ 200, cf. Russian мокровоздушный, and so on; they are therefore not examined separately.

⁷ Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. – V., 1965, t. 1, p. 591.

⁸ For more on adequate and inadequate calques, see Kaulakienė A. Sudurtiniai vertiniai lietuvių politechnikos terminijoje. – Lietuvos TSR Mokslų Akademijos darbai. A serija, 1981. T. 1(74), p. 73–82.

⁹ Вялкина Л. В. Сложные слова в древнерусском языке в их отношении к языку греческого оригинала. – В кн.: Исследования по исторической лексикологии древнерусского языка. М., 1964, с. 96.

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In polytechnic terminology, compound calque adjectives with a nominal second component have an adjectival, nominal, numeral, adverbial, or pronominal first component. Thus, the derivational structures of compound calques with a nominal second component are: adjective + noun (B + D), noun + noun (D + D), numeral + noun (S + D), adverb + noun (P + D), and pronoun + noun (Į + D). Calques with the derivational structures (B + D), (P + D), and (S + D) are used most often in polytechnic terminology. Compound calque adjectives with the structures (D + D) and (Į + D) are used somewhat less frequently.

In general, compound adjectives with the derivational structure (B + D) are fairly productive in Lithuanian. They usually have what is called a possessive meaning: they indicate a distinguishing characteristic of the thing denoted and state what makes that thing distinctive. In addition to this meaning, compound adjectives with the aforementioned derivational structure have other meanings as well¹⁰. However, calque adjectives with this derivational structure differ from analogous compound adjectives. First, compound calques are not as productive. Second, the first (adjectival) component of calques with the derivational structure (B + D) qualifies the concept expressed by the second component, combining with it into a single semantic unit that indicates the shape or form of the thing denoted, or a characteristic of its operation.

The shape or form of the thing denoted is indicated by compound calque adjectives such as: ilgabangis [edge] FTŽ 150, cf. Russian длинноволновый || English long-wavelength || German langwellige; trumpabangis [edge] FTŽ 150, cf. Russian коротковолновый || English short-wavelength || German kurzwellige; ilgaliaepsnis [coal] PolŽ 450, cf. Russian длиннопламенный; trumpaliepsnis [fuel] PolŽ 432, cf. Russian короткопламенный; ilgaičiurkšlis [casting nozzle] PolŽ 93, cf. Russian дальноструйный; tiesiasrovis PolŽ 335, cf. Russian прямоточный, and so on.

Calques greitaeigis PolŽ 34; STŽ 216, cf. Russian быстроходный || English high-speed; lėtaeigis PolŽ 428, cf. Russian тихоходный || English low-speed, and others, indicate a characteristic of the operation of the thing denoted. Adjectives kreivaeigis PolŽ 166, tiesiaeigis PolŽ 335, tuščiaeigis PolŽ 477, and so on, have the same meaning. However, they are not semantically precise or equivalent to analogous compound adjectives in Russian and other languages; cf. kreivaeigis, Russian криволинейный || German krummlinig; tiesiaeigis, Russian прямолинейный || German geradlinig; tuščiaeigis, Russian холостой, and so on. Therefore, such compound adjectives cannot be classified in a subgroup of derivationally inadequate and semantically imprecise calques, which does not exist in any case. These adjectives are better regarded as neologisms formed according to the x-eigis derivational pattern, since the use of analogous compound adjectives in present-day terminology is increasing, where the x component is not only an adjective but may also be another part of speech, e.g.: apskritaeigis, cf. Russian круговращательный, круговой; tyliaeigis, Russian бесшумный; aukštyneigis, cf. Russian восходящий; žemynėgis, cf. Russian нисходящий, and so on. Some of these neologisms have synonyms that are identical in derivation and semantics to analogous Russian compound adjectives, e.g.: tiesiaeigis and tiesialinijinis PolŽ 335, cf.

¹⁰ Žr. Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, t. 1, p. 597.

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Russian прямолинейный || German geradlinig; kreivaegis and kreivalinijinis PolŽ 290, cf. Russian криволинейный || German krummlinig, etc. Such synonymous neologisms are apparently best assigned to the group of partial calques, since their first component is Lithuanian and the second is borrowed; cf. linijinis [<Latin linea “line”].

Compound calque adjectives of both meanings mentioned above often have logical opposites; cf. ilgalaepis, -ė and trumpalaepis, -ė; ilgabangis, -ė and trumpabangis, -ė; greitaeigis, -ė and lėtaeigis, -ė, etc. From the semantic perspective, these structurally non-equivalent compound calque adjectives are accurate, because their semantics is identical to that of their source forms. Thus, these calques belong to the subgroup of compound calques that are derivationally non-equivalent but semantically accurate.

Second in frequency in polytechnic terminology is the derivational structure (A + N) of compound calque adjectives. Their first (adverbial) component is most often the adverbs many, cf. Russian many, and everywhere, cf. Russian everywhere. In polytechnic terminology, calques whose first component is the adverb daug ‘many’ are more widespread. Compound calque adjectives formed from the adverb daug and a noun have a possessive meaning—they indicate a distinguishing property of the designated object, stating what special feature the object possesses, e.g.: many-wave PolŽ 198, cf. Russian multiwave; multimachine [work] PolŽ 338, cf. Russian multi-machine, and so on. In their formation, these compound adjectives are not equivalent to the source forms, since the calque is suffixless, whereas the source form is suffixed. Therefore, the derivational structure of the calque [R₁ + R₂] + n ≠ the source’s derivational structure [R₁ + (R₂ + S)] + n₁. Sometimes, following the source model, attempts are also made to form calques of this derivational structure with the suffix -inis, e.g. multibeam [antenna] (= multibeam), cf. Russian multibeam [antenna]; multiparticle [forces] (= multiparticle), cf. Russian multiparticle [forces], and so on. This derivational tendency is unacceptable because it conflicts with the rule for forming analogous Lithuanian compound adjectives¹¹. In polytechnic terminology, only a few calques with the derivational structure (A + N), whose first component is the adverb all-terrain-, are used, e.g.: all-terrain [chassis] PolŽ 492, cf. Russian all-terrain, etc. This calque is becoming nominalized, that is, it tends to shift into the category of compound nouns. Apparently, this tendency of the aforementioned calque is determined by one degree of nominalization¹², in which the compound adjective is used in parallel as both an adjective and a noun, cf.: an all-terrain vehicle and an all-terrain (Russian all-terrain vehicle).

Thus, the compound calque adjectives mentioned above are derivationally non-equivalent to their source forms, but semantically accurate, because the meanings of the calque and the source form are identical. Therefore, calques with both derivational structure (Adv + N) and derivational structure (Adj + N) belong to the subgroup of compound calques that are derivationally non-equivalent but semantically accurate.

Compound calque adjectives with another derivational structure (Num + N) are also considered derivationally non-equivalent but semantically accurate. The first component of these calques is a cardinal numeral: vienas, du, trys, which indicates the number of the object denoted. The second (nominal) component expresses a distinguishing part of the designated object or the object itself; for example: dvieigis PolŽ 84, cf. Russian двухходовой || English two-

¹¹ Kniūkšta P. Priesagos -inis būdvardžiai. — V., 1976, p. 46.

¹² Drotvinas V. Structural-semantic types of compound adjectives in the Lithuanian literary language (Based on material from 16th–18th-century writings). — Kalbotyra, 1963, vol. 6, p. 76.

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pass; dvigireitis [engine] PolŽ 81, cf. Russian двухскоростный; vienalelė [wave function] FTŽ 90, cf. Russian одночастичная || English one particle; vienadažnis PolŽ 240, cf. Russian одночастотный || English one-frequency; vienaegis [heat exchanger] PolŽ 424, cf. Russian одноходовой; trieigis PolŽ 440, cf. Russian трехходовой, etc.

Compound calque adjectives with derivational structure (N + N) are used only occasionally in polytechnic terminology. Most often, calques with derivational structure (N + N) indicate a distinguishing feature of the designated object’s operation; for example: garasrovis [apparatus] PolŽ 264 “operating by a stream of steam,” cf. Russian пароструйный; smėliasrovis [apparatus] PolŽ 15 “operating by a stream of sand,” cf. Russian пескоструйный, etc. Calques with this derivational structure are semantically accurate, but derivationally non-equivalent to their source forms. Their non-equivalence is determined not by the parts of speech, but by the difference in derivational structure. Thus, according to the formula mentioned above, the derivational structure of the calque (R₁ + R₂) + n ≠ the derivational structure of the source [R₁ + (R₂ + S)] + n₁.

Compound calque adjectives with the non-productive derivational structure (Pron + N) are likewise non-equivalent. The first component of these calques expresses a feature of the action of the object denoted by the nominal component. The derivational structure of such adjectives consists of the reflexive pronoun savęs: savo + noun, whereas the source form’s derivational structure consists of a demonstrative pronoun + noun + suffix. Thus, the derivational structure of the calque (R₁ + R₂) + n ≠ the derivational structure of the source [R₁ + (R₂ + S)] + n₁; for example: savaeigĭs [paver] PolŽ 452, cf. Russian самоходный. This calque is also affected by the process of substantivization and tends to pass into the category of compound nouns; cf. savaeigis, Russian самоход.

2.3. In polytechnic terminology, the first component of compound calque adjectives with a verbal second component is nominal or pronominal. Thus, the working structures of compound calques with a verbal second component are as follows: noun + verb (N + V) and pronoun + verb (Pron + V).

Adjectival calques with the working structure (Pron + V) are used most frequently in polytechnic terminology. In calques of this structure, the first component denotes the object of the action expressed by the verbal component. The working structure of all such calques used in polytechnic terminology consists of the reflexive pronoun savęs ‘oneself’: savi + verb, whereas the working structure of their sources consists of a demonstrative pronoun + present participle. Thus, such calques are not equivalent to their sources.

Therefore, calques with the working structure (Pron + V) correspond to sources with the working structure (Pron + Part), e.g.: savigrūdis [plienas] PolŽ 402, cf. Rus. самозакаливающаяся [сталь] || Eng. self-hardening; savirašis FTŽ 107, PolŽ 368, STŽ 29, cf. Rus. самопишущий; savivartis PolŽ 368, cf. Rus. саморазгружающийся; savitepis [guolis] PolŽ 298, cf. Rus. самосмазывающийся; savistabdis [sliekas] PolŽ 487, cf. Rus. самотормозящий; savavald(is) [pernešimas] STŽ 186, cf. Rus. самоуправляющийся, and so on. Semantically, these calques are accurate, since their meanings are identical to those of their sources. These calques have certain features. First, some of the calques mentioned tend to become nouns, e.g.: savirašis, savivartis, and so on. On the other hand, the productivity of these calques shows that a new derivational pattern (reflexive pronoun savęs ‘oneself’: savi + verb) is beginning to take hold in the formation of Lithuanian compound adjectives, and is quite convenient in terminology. However, one or another calque of the aforementioned derivational structure is questionable, e.g.:

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A calque with this structure is questionable, e.g.: self-governing [transfer] STŽ 186, cf. Russian самоуправляющийся, and so on. For reasons of analogy and systematicity, the adjective self-governing should be used, cf. the economic terms—compound nouns self-government, municipality, and so on.

Compound calque adjectives with the structure (N + V) are used very rarely in polytechnic terminology—only a few, e.g.: gas-glowing [lamp] FTŽ 163, PolŽ 172, cf. Russian газосветный, and so on. This calque tends to become a noun. Instead of the compound term gas-glowing lamp, only the compound calque gas-glowing is often used. Compound calque adjectives with this structure are not adequate to their source forms. Their inadequacy is determined by the different parts of speech making up the calque and the source, as well as by the structure itself.

3. Išvados

3.1. On the basis of Lithuanian polytechnic and physics terminology dictionaries, it was established that compound adjectival calques are used one third less frequently than compound nominal calques. However, the proportion of these calques relative to compound terms in polytechnic terminology as a whole, or to term elements (adjectives), is not large. In terminology dictionaries, compound Lithuanian adjectives make up about 1.66% of all listed terms, while compound calques among them account for 10% of all compound one-word Lithuanian terms (adjectives).

3.2. Most calques have been translated from Russian. However, the Russian source quite often has equivalents of analogous structure and semantics in other languages as well, e.g.: high-frequency ← Russian высокочастотный || English high-frequency. Such calques predominate in polytechnic terminology (about 7.2%). Compound calque adjectives copied from the Russian source, which has no equivalents of analogous structure and semantics (e.g.: steam-jet ← Russian пароструйный, etc.), account for 2.8% of all compound Lithuanian one-word terms (adjectives) used in polytechnic terminology. The dictionaries mentioned make almost no use of compound calque adjectives copied from German, English, or French.

3.3. The most productive working structures of compound calque adjectives are the following: adjective + noun (A + N), adverb + noun (Adv + N), numeral + noun (Num + N), pronoun + verb (Pron + V). The parts of speech of these calques are identical to those in the source language, but an equals sign cannot be placed between the working structures of the two, since they differ. The words serving as the components of a calque are root words, i.e., their stems coincide with their roots, whereas the source components are morphologically complex—they consist of roots and a suffix, e.g.: long-wave, cf. Russian длинноволновый || English long-wavelength || German langwellige; multi-spindle, cf. Russian многостаночный; two-stroke, cf. Russian двухходовой || English two-pass, etc. Working calques of the (Pron + V) type differ from the source not only in their differing working structure but also in their parts of speech, e.g.: self-writing, cf. Russian самопишущий. Therefore, the working structure of the calque (Pron + V) corresponds to the working structure of the source (Pron + Part).

Thus, the calques mentioned belong to the subgroup of derivationally non-equivalent but semantically accurate working calques.

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Abbreviations

FTŽ – Fizikos terminų žodynas. – V., 1979.

PolŽ – Rusų–lietuvių kalbų politechninis žodynas. – V., 1959.

STŽ – Rusų–lietuvių–anglų kalbų skaičiavimo technikos terminų žodynas. – V., 1971.

COMPOUND DERIVATIONAL CALQUES (ADJECTIVES) IN LITHUANIAN POLYTECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY

Abstract

On the basis of Lithuanian polytechnical and physics dictionaries, the relationship between compound derivational calques (adjectives) and their corresponding sources (the forms being calqued) is examined. It is established that compound derivational calques (adjectives) whose models also occur in Russian and other languages predominate in Lithuanian polytechnical and physics terminology. In this terminology, such calques make up 7.2% of Lithuanian compound polytechnical and physics terms (adjectives). The second group comprises terms calqued directly from a Russian source. Such calques make up 2.8% of Lithuanian compound polytechnical and physics terms (adjectives). Compound adjectives calqued directly from German, English, and other sources are almost never found.

It is established that the compound derivational calques (adjectives) discussed in the article, which belong to Lithuanian polytechnical and physics terminology, have derivational structures characterized by the following types of relationships with the source structures: adjective + noun (calques) corresponds to the source structure adjective + noun + suffix; adverb + noun (calques) corresponds to the source structure adverb + noun + suffix; numeral + noun (calques) corresponds to the source structure numeral + noun + suffix; pronoun + verb (calques) corresponds to the source structure pronoun + participle. Since the derivational structures of the calques and their sources (the forms being calqued) are not equivalent, these calques are included in the group of derivational calques that are structurally non-equivalent but semantically accurate. In most cases, the non-equivalence is due to the presence of a suffix in the word being calqued.

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