Page 1LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXXI (1994)
KALBOS NORMALIZACIJOS KLAUSIMAI
ANGELĖ KAULAKIENĖ
THE TERMINOLOGY OF POPULAR SCIENCE ARTICLES ON PHYSICS IN “AUŠRA”
1. Homines historiarum ignari semper sunt pueri. With these words, J. Basanavičius began the preface to the first issue of “Aušra,” and they became the newspaper’s epigraph. “Our newspaper, issued only once a month, let it cover that place which lies fallow... In short, our newspaper will be purely secular, and, according to our means and abilities, will bring news only from the universal sciences. In providing our readers with this news, we shall chiefly concern ourselves with spreading among our brothers news about the ancient affairs of our kin (nation), as well as about our concerns as Lithuanians in these times... Our entire kin (nation) ought to remember and know the past time that it has lived on this Lithuanian land, and all the fortunate and unfortunate events which, in one way or another, made our kin what we see it to be today and led it to the hardships in which we live...”
Speaking further about the work of “Aušra,” we must also mention that we shall not forget to collect and describe all kinds of Lithuanian antiquities and remains (what has been left behind), from which one can learn about the life, character, customs, and ancient faith of our ancestors. Therefore, collectors of songs, tales, and other monuments will find a place in our newspaper for their work, according to its value and importance.
When recounting the past of antiquity, we shall not miss the opportunity to discuss with our readers the concerns of our nation in this age. Useful lessons and news, whether from natural science or the science of nature, from farming (agronomy), from healing (medicine), and so on, will always find a place in our “Aušra”1 (1, 5—7)2.
1.1. Although the editors and authors changed, J. Basanavičius’s principles, set out in the “Preface” to the first issue of “Aušra,” were adhered to thereafter. Certainly, most articles were published on questions of history, language, culture, and education. “Aušra” carried somewhat fewer popular science articles in agronomy, astronomy, botany, physics, geography, medicine, technology, veterinary science, zoology, and other fields. Here is a small selection: “About Bees” (18, 122—123), “A Study of Bees” (20, 202—206), “About Ants” (18, 115—116), “About the Earth’s Image” (22, 342—344), “Description of the Earth’s Wealth” (2, 47—49; 3, 72—75; 6, 172—176; 7, 208—210; 8, 256—265), “An Attempt to Gather the Names of Herbs Used by People in Lithuania” (26, 82—86), “Hypnoscope” (22, 319—325), “On the Occasion of the Discovery
1 Here and elsewhere, the text is reproduced in its original form. Spelling and punctuation have not been corrected.
2 See the list of sources. The first number indicates the year and issue of “Aušra,” the second—the page.
9*
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Page 2In Lithuania, “written stone” (23, 377—387), “A few words about road repair” (29, 181—183), “A few words about cultivation” (25, 46—49), “A few words about cholera” (4, 110—113; 5, 138—143), “A remedy for cholera” (28, 145—147), “A journey across the lakes and rivers into Lithuania” (3, 79—80), “A mathematical description of the earth” (11, 206—211; 12, 254—256), “Materials for building houses” (9, 56—59; 10, 125—131; 11, 166—174; 14, 351—354; 15, 412—416; 17, 50—54), “The science of national economy” (12, 217—222; 13, 297—304), “The visit of ants” (2, 43—47), “Light and life” (29, 184—185), “Walking little candles” (8, 279—282), “A word about veterinary medicine” (29, 169—172).
1.2. This article discusses the terminology of popular science articles on physics in „Aušra“. „Aušra“ was selected for the following reasons. First, it was the first monthly Lithuanian journal (newspaper) intended for Greater Lithuania. Second, it ushered in a new stage in the development of the modern Lithuanian literary, or standard, language3. Third, „Aušra“ also fostered the development of scientific style. Before it, journalistic and scientific styles existed only in embryonic form. After J. Basanavičius, J. Šliūpas, and others began writing popular articles on various fields of science, these styles not only became more distinct but also grew noticeably stronger.
2. The development and consolidation of scientific style—a precondition for the language of science. Its distinctiveness lies in terminology, the naming of concepts, and stereotypes of constructions and word order in sentences4.
2.1. The terminology of „Aušra“’s popular science articles on physics is diverse in origin. Most terms are words from the Lithuanian lexicon, such as: anglinis, -ė (7, 209), anglis (7, 209; 12, 217; 17, 52), anglius5 (15, 404), aszis (11, 209), balsas (29, 175), bėgimas (9, 27), buvis (24, 28; 28, 154), garai (11, 171—173; 15, 404), garavimas (11, 173; 15, 414), gintaras (28, 157), griausmas (29, 174), kibirkštis (22, 319), medega (2, 48; 9, 56; 23, 377; 29, 161), mėnulis (29, 177), padarinė (6, 175), padarymė (26, 89; 28, 157), prietaisas (23, 408; 24, 26; 29, 184), saulė (29, 177), skystimas (17, 54), sriovė (22, 319), srovė (29, 177), svarbybė (22, 320), szilima (11, 171; 15, 404), sziluma (6, 173; 11, 195; 22, 319—320), szviesa (11, 195; 22, 320), užgrūdimas (8, 259), virimas (15, 415), žvaigždė (9, 28; 11, 209), žvakė (24, 27), and others, taken from contemporary or older Lithuanian-language writings.
However, popular science articles on physics contain quite a few Lithuanian terms that editors of „Keleivis“ and other East Prussian periodicals had already translated from other languages or coined themselves, e.g.: apszvaista (9, 64) “illumination,” apvalumas (14, 351—353; 15, 415) “volume,” garlaivis (14, 345, 364; 24, 27; 25, 51), cf. German Dampfschiff, iron road (12, 260; 14, 363; 17, 49), gelžkelis (10, 121; 12, 296;
3 Palionis J. Dėl „Aušros“ vaidmens lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos istorijoje // „Aušra“ ir lietuvių visuomeninis judėjimas XIX a. pabaigoje. V., 1988. P. 189.
4 Plačiau apie mokslo kalbos ypatumus žr. Kaulakienė A. Mokslo kalbos užuomazgos „Keleivyje“ // Lietuvių leksikos ir terminologijos problemos: Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai. V., 1990. T. 29. P. 80—91.
5 These and certain other words belong to technical terminology. They are discussed here, however, because they occur in popular science articles on physics. At the time, physics and technology were closely interrelated. Physics was often considered the theoretical foundation of technology.
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Page 314, 389; 19, 166), cf. Russian железная дорога, German Eisenbahn, French chemin de fer, gelžkelio trūkis (4, 115), cf. German Eisenbahnzug, tolkalbis (12, 263; 27, 100), cf. Greek tēlē + phōnē, tolrašis (11, 183; 22, 365; 24, 26; 27, 99), cf. Greek tēlē + graphō, etc. The popular physics articles in *Aušra* also contain neologisms or calques coined by the articles’ authors and editors themselves, for example: atrastis (24, 25) ‘invention’, balsanešis (24, 26) ‘telephone’, gelžiena: „gelžis tirpsta ir teka į duobę, o ant viršaus pluduriūja gelžiena“ (8, 259), irėdis (21, 276) ‘program’, kibeklas, kibekla (6, 173) ‘cement, glue’, mėgis (8, 257) ‘fineness’, naugės (3, 73; 8, 256; 9, 13; 11, 5; 12, 217; 17, 51) ‘metal’⁶, pirmokas (2, 48) ‘atom’, pirmokiškas, -a (29, 170) ‘atomic’, ruksztadaris (10, 127—128), sąmaiztis (8, 47, 257) ‘mixture’, etc.
The Aušrininkai apparently coined Lithuanian neologisms for two reasons. First, lexical purification was probably their chief concern. The need to avoid all kinds of barbarisms and to write in pure language was continually emphasized both by the newspaper’s editors and by the authors of various articles and reviews⁷. On the other hand, the Aušrininkai coined many neologisms not only because they wanted to purify the language of *Aušra*’s articles, but also because they needed to name concepts from various fields of science in Lithuanian: they faced a severe shortage of Lithuanian terms and were forced to create them themselves. As one issue of *Aušra* states, “our language has only recently begun to be adapted to the sciences, and therefore some Lithuanian words are not yet fully developed or used correctly: we often encounter cases in which it is difficult to find in the language itself a word for some particularly abstract notions, and so we have to invent one; but this is no easy task: it is not uncommon to go astray and sometimes to ‘forge a word’ that is not very apt or elegant” (19, 157). However, authors and editors with a better linguistic intuition, a stronger sense of their native language, and familiarity with the linguistic works of the period coined successful terms. The following are among the terms coined by such Aušrininkai: anglárinkštė, dirbtuvė, įstatas ‘law’, juodmena ‘black thing’, mokslavyris ‘scientist’, pervi̇šzis ‘surplus’, pobūdis ‘character’, prieplūdis⁸.
(The popular physics articles in *Aušra* contain somewhat fewer borrowed terms, for example: atomiszkas, -a (29, 170), bombarda (9, 39), centimetras (22, 319), fabrika (22, 346), gazas (14, 351), hidraulinis, -ė (14, 351; 15, 414), hypnoskopas (22, 319), kemija (12, 217), kontrefortas (11, 171), kosmografija (29, 176), kvalitetas (17, 39), kvizika (9, 35), materija (28, 140), materijolas (12, 222), materijoliszkas, -a (12, 222), meridijonas (12, 255), metolas (8, 256), optiszkas, -a (7, 207), oricontaliszkai (22, 356), polis (11, 209—210), polius (22, 320), potografija (21, 277), praba (8, 251), respiratoras (7, 220), tekno-mėkaniszkas, -a (22, 359), teleponas (12, 263), etc.
Most borrowed terms are of Latin or Greek origin (e.g., astronomija (12, 217; 29, 175), cf. astro... + Greek nomos, dijametras (22, 319), cf. Greek diametros
6 See also Fraenkel E. *Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch*. Heidelberg—Göttingen, 1962. P. 487.
7 Dainauskas J. Auszra ir jos gadyne // Lietuvių tautos praeitis. 1983. T. 7. P. 716.
8 Ibid. P. 717—718.
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Page 4elektra (8, 281; 22, 321—324), elektrinis, -ė (8, 281; 29, 170), elektriškas, -a (22, 320, 324; 24, 26—27), cf. Greek ēlektron, elektromagnasis (22, 320), cf. Greek ēlektron + magnētis, magnasas (22, 319), magnasinis, -ė (29, 166), magnasizskumas (22, 324), magnasūtas, -a (22, 320), magnetismas (29, 170), pamagna savimas (22, 319), cf. Greek magnētis, maszina (11, 168—169), maszyna (21, 288), cf. Latin machina, mēkanika (7, 207; 12, 217; 22, 358), mēkanikiškas, -a (23, 408), mēkanismas (12, 273), cf. Greek mēchanikē, minuta (20, 222; 22, 320), cf. Latin minutus, permanentizskas, -a (22, 320), cf. Latin permanens, permula (15, 404), cf. Latin formula, radikalas (15, 404), cf. Latin radikalis, etc.), and only a few are borrowed from Slavic, German, or other languages (e.g., kliszija (25, 64), cf. French cliché, liampa (26, 90), cf. German Lampe, Polish lampa, maliava (17, 52—54), cf. Polish malować, peczius (11, 170), cf. Belarusian neu, sila (11, 210), syla (21, 277; 29, 184), cf. Russian cua, sudynas (28, 157), cf. Belarusian cydzina, szpatas (6, 172), cf. German Spat, szriubas (29, 188), cf. German Schraube, etc.).
From what has been said, it is clear that, in terms of origin, the physics terminology of the period consisted of two strata: native Lithuanian terms and borrowings. The words assigned to the native Lithuanian terms were: (a) those taken from dialects or early Lithuanian writings, (b) those translated on the model of other languages, and (c) those newly coined by the Aušrininkai. Of the 342 terms discussed, 67.9% are Lithuanian words and 32.1% are borrowings. Thus, the physics terminology of the period was still based on Lithuanian vocabulary, although its proportion was slightly lower than at the initial stage of the formation of physics and technical terminology9.
2.2 The popular physics articles in *Aušra* contain mostly suffixal derivatives. Derivatives with the suffixes -imas/-ymas, -ininkas, -inis, -ė, -ystė, -iškas, -a, -umas are frequent, for example: atvėsimas (11, 173), atvirinimas (8, 259), bėgimas [of stars] (9, 27), burbuliavimas (15, 415), [of bricks] džiovinimas (11, 169), [of water] garavimas (15, 414), gesinimas [of furnaces] (14, 352), išdegimas (11, 174), [of bricks] išdeg inimas (11, 170), įtaisymas (22, 358), įkaitinimas (11, 173), įveikimas [of magnetism] (22, 320), [of stars] kritimas (29, 177), pamag nasavimas (22, 319), persikraipimas [of wood] (9, 58), puldinėjimas [of stars] (29, 175), pulimas (29, 182), sugniužimas (10, 126), susitraukimas [of wood] (9, 58), sužadinimas (22, 322), tirpimas [of iron] (9, 58), [a device] for ignition (23, 396), užgrudimas (8, 259), užleidimas (11, 168), vėdinimas (11, 167), virimas (15, 415), virinimas (9, 102); irklininkas (9, 12), kėmininkas (9, 89), kugininkas (laivininkas) (9, 12), marininkas (26, 88), orkulkininkas (23, 408), varininkas (28, 146); akmeninė [bullet] (9, 39; 26, 95), anglinis [gas] (14, 351), elektrinė [from the current] (8, 281), garinė [steam-powered machine] (27, 124), gelžinis [strip] (9, 28), izslaikytinis [magnet] (22, 320), magnasinė [needle] (29, 166), nuolietinis [object] (8, 260), statitiniai [stone] (10, 126), sukrautinė [part] (12, 217), vopniniai [stones] (14, 351), žaibinė [mass] (24, 25); akrutinininkystė (24, 27), amatininkystė (9, 6), sziporystė (24, 27), žvaigždininkystė (12, 222); elektriška [spark], [machine] (22, 320), [force] (22, 324), [light] (24, 27), marininkiszkas [science-
9 Gastila L., Kruopas J., Žitkutė A. Pioneers of technical literature and terminology // Mokslas ir technika. 1969. No. 11. P. 34—36; Gastila L., Žitkutė A. The beginnings of Lithuanian technical terminology in eighteenth-century East Prussia // Mokslas ir technika. 1969. No. 4. P. 20—21.
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Page 5las] (21, 270), material-like, -a, materialistic, -a (12, 222), mechanical [work] (23, 408), [exploration] (23, 408), optical [glass] (7, 207), permanent [magnet] (22, 320), techno-mechanical [friendship] (22, 359), astronomical [observatory] (14, 375); roundness (14, 351—354; 15, 415), height (9, 58; 14, 352), size (11, 168, 171), moisture (10, 125), solidity (9, 57), strength (29, 183), depth (29, 182), length (9, 57; 10, 126; 14, 352; 29, 183), slowness (21, 277), magnetism (22, 324), width (10, 126; 29, 182), inclination (9, 58), strength (9, 58), thickness (11, 171; 14, 352), weight (17, 47), density (9, 58), solidity (9, 56; 21, 277), and so on.
Somewhat fewer (sometimes just one or two) are terms formed with the suffixes -eklas (kibeklas 6, 173), -ybė (svarbybė 22, 320), -iena (geležiena 8, 259), -yklė (kasyklė [vario] 28, 146; sžiaudiklė 9, 47), -ima (szilima 11, 171; 15, 404), -uma (sziluma 6, 173; 11, 195; 22, 319—320), -ynė (padarynė 26, 89; 28, 157), -mė (veikmė 10, 119), -smas (griausmas 29, 174; trauksmas 11, 173), -snė (vyksnė 21, 277), -stis (atrastis 24, 25), -tojas, -tojis (barstytojas 26, 97; išzrastojis 22, 319), -tukas (kvėptukas 7, 220), -tuvas (dirbtuvas 12, 217; 21, 288; 23, 408; piaustuvas 11, 169; pjautuvas 9, 62; trintuvas 8, 259), -tuvė (dirbtuvė 22, 346; 28, 155; padėtuvė 26, 97).
The popular physics articles also contain a considerable number of derivatives formed with endings. Derivatives with the endings -a, -as, -is are more frequent, for example: apsvaista (9, 64), sugaba (21, 277), eiga (25, 63); garas (11, 171—173; 15, 404), stumas: “science is a thrust that pushes everything farther, harder, more” (27, 100); augštis (11, 167, 171), buvis (9, 7; 24, 28; 28, 154), degis (15, 404), ilgis (9, 28; 11, 170—171), ėrėdis (21, 276), plotis (9, 7; 10; 11, 168), sądėlis (3, 74), storis (11, 168, 171), and so on.
There are also a few prefix derivatives, for example: antviršis (21, 276), atgar sis (29, 176), priešstulpis (11, 171).
Alongside derivatives formed with prefixes, suffixes, and endings, the popular physics articles in “Aušra” also abound in compounds, which can be divided as follows: 1) compounds with a noun as the second constituent (anglarūkštė 10, 128; garlaivis 25, 51; geležinkelis 12, 268; 16, 24; 27, 109; 29, 187; gelžkelis 10, 121; 12, 296; 14, 389; 19, 166; pusgaris 25, 52; szeszkertis 9, 28; trupskaitlis 10, 119, etc.); 2) compounds with a verb as the second constituent (balsaneszis 24, 26; garvežys 27, 100; 29, 165; rukšt daris 10, 127—128; skersakisztė 22, 319; tolgirdis 27, 99; tolkalbis 12, 263; 27, 100; tolraszis 11, 183; 22, 365; 24, 26; 27, 99; vandendaris 15, 404; žemapraszis 12, 227, etc.).
These prefix, suffix, and ending derivatives, as well as compounds, can be classified into certain functional categories, which are also generally used to characterize the categories of the terms themselves. Among the cases mentioned, one can distinguish categories of actions, properties, phenomena, objects, dimensions, and professions, which are associated with certain features of term nomination.
2.3. One of these is the variation in the names of concepts presented in the popular physics articles in “Aušra.” The varying lexical terms can be grouped as follows: 1) when a concept is designated by a multiword and a single-word name, for example: geležinis kelias (12, 260; 14, 363; 17, 49) and geležinkelis (12, 268; 16, 24; 27, 109; 29, 187), gelžkelis (10, 121; 12, 296; 14, 389; 19, 166), pjaunama masina (pjautuvas)
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Page 6(7, 217). Very often such names are joined by the conjunction or, for example: daigtai darantieji or maliavos (17, 52), umbra or žemė tamsei raudona (17, 51), vienkartiniai pečiai or kakaliai (11, 170), žaibinė vėka or macis, etc.; 2) when a concept is designated by two single-word names, which are separated from one another by a comma or parentheses, or joined by the conjunction “or,” for example: gencizažymis, etnografija (21, 276), įrėdis, programatas (21, 276), medega, materijolas (12, 222), medegiškas, materijoliškas (12, 222), nutrauka, potografija (21, 277), svarumas, physiziškas (21, 276), vopna, kalkės (14, 354); [magnasinė] adata (yla) (29, 166), atimtinė (negatyviška) [elektra] (22, 321), atomiszka (pirmokiszka) [teorija] (29, 170), atrastis (atradimas) (24, 25), cinas (skardas) (8, 257), daidalyštė (daildaryštė) (26, 68), dirbtuvvas (maszina) (12, 217), (maszyina) (21, 288; 23, 408), galas (polius) (22, 320), išlaikytinis (permanentiszkas) [magnasas] (22, 320), kibeklas (cementas): “clay mixed with sand gives good kibeklas (cement)” (6, 173), kibeklė (klejai): “when burnt clay is poured over with water, great heat arises and they turn into a heap of lime powder; this powder, mixed with sand and water, makes lime or a strong kibeklas (glue) for stones” (6, 173), kibirkštis (žižerka) (22, 319), kokybė (kvalitetas) (17, 39), ligdienis (ekvatorius) (12, 255), mėgis (praba) (8, 257), naugės (metolai) (3, 73), oramieris (barometras) (7, 207), pirmokas (atomas) (2, 48), pridėtinė (pozityviška) [elektra] (22, 321), priešstulpiai (kontrefortai) (11, 171), pusiau dienis (meridijonas) (12, 255), respiratoras (kvėptukas), (7, 220), skersakižstė (dijametras) (22, 319), sudas (rykas) (28, 146), šiltamieris (termometras) (7, 207), teleponas (tolkalbis) (12, 263), trintuvai (pielicizios) (8, 259), vėka (syla) (23, 408), žemėprazsis (geografija) (12, 227), žingunė (pustas, paszta) (27, 121); amatai or prekionė (22, 316), bombarda or armota (9, 39), dirbtuvė or amatvietė (28, 155), koczilas or piausttuvas (11, 168), naugės or metolai (8, 256).
Thus, variation in nomination manifests itself in two ways. First, when a concept is named differently in different articles, for example: geležinis kelias (12, 260; 14, 363; 17, 49), geležinkelis (12, 268; 16, 24; 27, 109; 29, 187), and gelžkelis (10, 121; 12, 296; 14, 389; 19, 166), augsztis (11, 167, 171) and augsztumas (14, 352), ilgis (9, 28; 11, 170—171) and ilgumas (9, 57; 10, 126; 14, 325; 29, 183), plotis (9, 7, 10; 11, 168) and platumas (29, 182), storis (11, 168, 171) and storumas (14, 352). Second, when two names for a concept are given in one article, using the conjunction or, or separating the names from one another by commas or parentheses, for example: daigtai darantieji or maliavos (17, 52), medega, materijolas (12, 222), pirmokas (atomas) (2, 48), and so on.
The examples show that the names that vary most are those belonging to the categories of objects, dimensions10, properties, and phenomena. Some of these varying names
10 Derivatives with the suffix -umas and ending -is in the popular physics articles in “Aušra” denote not only names of properties but also certain quantities and quantitative parameters, for example: half a fathom in height (11, 167) and augsztumas-gi ūlakis su cverte (14, 352), length… four fathoms (11, 170) and ilgumas two and a half fathoms (29, 183), a fathom in width (11, 168) and colio platumo (10, 126), half an inch thick (11, 168) and storumas half a fathom (14, 352). Thus, the conceptual content of such names encompasses features belonging simultaneously to two logical categories: “property” and
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Page 7are morphologically related to one another. They usually form morphological variants, which can be divided into the following groups: 1) a compound term and a one-word term formed through univerbation (iron road and railway); 2) a compound term and a term formed by derivation (cutting machine and cutter (7, 217); 3) two terms formed by derivation from the same root, differing in whether their form is longer or shorter (height and heightness, length and lengthness, width and wideness).
Another group of varying names is semantically related. They are more or less synonyms, joined by the conjunction or (klystugnė or žaltyvėkslė (24, 25), naugės or metolai (8, 256)), separated by a comma (nūtrauka, fotografija (21, 277), sva-raunas, physizkas (21, 276)) or enclosed in parentheses) išlaikytinis (permanentizskas) [magnasas] (22, 320), pridėtinė (pozityviszka) [elektra] (22, 321), and so on.
Thus, variation in naming gives rise to terminological variation and synonymy. These features (especially variation) are undesirable in terminology. However, at the initial stage of terminology formation they are inevitable and justified. On the other hand, variants such as geležinkelis, gelžkelis alongside geležinio kelio, pjautuvas alongside pjaunamosios mašinos, show the beginnings of a tendency to shorten terms.
2.4. The components of the compound terms presented in popular physics articles are related to one another in particular ways. Most often, these relations are attributive. They are expressed by: a) an agreeing modifier (carbon gas (14, 351), atomic (primordial) theory (29, 170), forged iron (8, 259), electric discharge (8, 281), electric spark (24, 26), electric machine (22, 320), electric force (22, 324), natural electricity (22, 321), hydraulic lime (14, 351; 15, 414), permanent magnet (permanentizskas) (22, 320), external attributes (21, 276), magnetic needle (awl) (29, 166), magnetic tube (22, 320), mechanical investigation (23, 408), optical glass (7, 207), mutual attraction (17, 47), composite part (12, 217), technical-mechanical association (22, 359), lightning power or might (24, 25), astronomical observatory (14, 375)); b) a non-agreeing modifier (dust of tin (16, 25), lump of iron (22, 319), influence of electricity (29, 170), potassium-stone water (20, 222), copper mine (28, 146), salt paint (17, 52), power of flow (23, 408), weight of truth (17, 47)).
These examples show that even then there was a need to distinguish specific and generic terms. Some of them even form nests and subnests, for example: stones: limestone s. (10, 127), wild s. (29, 181), sandy s. (10, 127), statite s. (10, 126): statite stones for walls, statite stones for floors, statite stones for roofs (10, 126), flint s. (29, 181), lime s. (14, 351); coal: mineral coals (7, 209; 12, 217), tree or grass coals (17, 52), true coals (7, 209); work:mechanical w. (23, 408), weight-bearing w. (21, 277); workshop:farm w. (23, 408), pab-
“size.” Thus, one might say, categorical polysemy already existed in the physics terminology of that period.
The articles contain derivatives with the suffix -umas denoting only a quantitative parameter, a certain volume, for example: as it dries, gypsum dough does not diminish in its roundness (15, 415); lean lime does not increase its roundness any further than twice… (14, 353), size (10, 127).
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Page 8artisan w. (23, 408); paints: tin p. (17, 54), tin-oil p. (17, 54), glue p. (17, 50—53), milk p. (17, 50), milk or curd p. (17, 53), lime p. (17, 50); machine: steam threshing m. (27, 124), iron threshing m. (12, 273), threshing m. (7, 217), cutting m. (cutter) (7, 217); material: carbonaceous material (7, 209), artificial material (9, 56), natural material (9, 56); powders: white tin p. (17, 54), white lead p. (17, 54); tiles: fired tiles (9, 56), unfired tiles (9, 56); lime: slaked lime or chalk (9, 56), fat l. (14, 351), gypsum l. (14, 351), cementing or boiling l. (14, 351), and so on. Some articles also mention the names of “crafts, tools, materials, products” (21, 279), branches of science (“arithmetic, algebra, geometry, cosmography, mineralogy, physics, chemistry” (8, 258), and professions (“engineer, lawyer” (26, 93), “chemist (knows how to invent composite parts of all kinds of things”) (9, 89). This shows the authors’ and editors’ desire to present as much scientific knowledge as possible and introduce readers to the names of basic concepts, sometimes clarifying them with words from other languages (most often German), for example: walking candles (German Eimsfeuer) (8, 281), vyksnė (aspiration) (21, 277), industry (art) (29, 186), ability, capacity (fähigkeit) (21, 277), sulfuric acid (acidum sulfuricum) (5, 42), pormitis (radical of formic acid, pormilsuperchloride) (15, 404), and the like. It seems such clarification of concepts can be explained in two ways. First, undoubtedly, the Prussian literary language had a major influence on the general language of the popular science articles in „Aušra“, on the explanation of concepts, and on the presentation of terms. This is entirely understandable: the editors of this newspaper were familiar with periodicals published in East Prussia („Keleivis“ 1849—1880, „Naujasis keleivis“ 1880—1886, „Lietuviška ceitunga“ 1878—1939, and others), and some of them—J. Basanavičius, J. Šliūpas, A. Vištelis—had also published their articles in the latter two periodicals¹¹. Second, the Aušrininkai, wishing to be understood by all Lithuanians and seeking to continue earlier traditions of language purification (those of S. Daukantas, M. Valančius, and others)¹², tried to replace loanwords and semi-loanwords with Lithuanian words as terms (thus, whereas „Keleivis“ gave the variants damšėpis, garšėpis, garinė šėpis, garinis šėpis, garų šėpis, garu varomoji šėpis, „Aušra“ uses only one term, garlaivis (14, 345, 364; 24, 27; 25, 51; 29, 165); and instead of telegrafas, vielę pustas, vielinis pustas, žaibinis pustas — tolrašis (11, 183; 22, 365; 24, 26; 27, 99)), while they often explained neologisms they had coined or borrowed from elsewhere by means of familiar words, for example: spark (žiežerka), first particle (atom), force, strength (sila) (12, 217), and the like. Third, such clarification or explanation of concepts also follows from the very specific nature of scientific language, which is touched upon in part in one issue of „Aušra“. “The author of the last-mentioned work (the article „Apraszymas žemės turtu“ is being discussed) provides the reader with information about various stones, salts, coals, ashes, describes the nature of each object, its forms, whether it burns in fire or dissolves in water, whether it is pure or mixed, what it is used for, what benefit it brings to people, and so on. He adds nothing of his own, invents nothing out of his head, but says only what is actually true. From this descrip-
11 Palionis J. Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos istorija. V., 1979. P. 221.
In the same place. P. 222.12
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Page 9the reader acquires knowledge about things, sets them forth in thought and comprehends them with the mind, i.e. understands them” (24, 7).
2.5. Such texts often provide explanations of new names, something like definitions. Here are a few of them. “There is a natural force which the learned call electricity (8, 281). Lightning’s power or might separates from the misleading little candles called will-o’-the-wisps or fire-salamanders […] (24, 25). But why is that new instrument, which shows how magnetic power overcomes a person, not called a ‘magnoscope,’ but only a ‘hypnoscope’? (22, 322) […] Moreover, Newton, reasoning further, discovered great truths about gravity and attraction, or mutual drawing, whose force governs the movements of all celestial bodies, that is, the sun, moon, stars, planets, and comets (17, 47).
The last example also shows some manifestations of the systematization of concepts: the term celestial bodies and the terms—sun, moon, stars, planets, comets. There are more such examples: we wear iron in three forms, calling them pure iron, steel, and cast iron (8, 258). Its [diamond’s] composition is the same as that of carbon and graphite (alupkós, szwino) (3, 74). Natural electricity is further divided into positive and negative (22, 321).
In “Aušra”’s popular physics articles, the names of scientists and inventors are also often given. Some appear in their original form (e.g.: Faraday, Foucault, Lindsay (22, 320), Lohmeyer (9, 75)), while others are Lithuanianized (e.g.: Demokritas (29, 170), Newton’as (17, 47), Ochorowicz’ius (22, 319), Tacitas (9, 75), etc.). The articles also include symbolic names, that is, the titles of newspapers, journals, or other publications in their original language, for example: „Klosy“ (7, 215), „Lumière électrique“ (22, 319), „Tygodnik illustrowany“ (11, 183), „Wędrowiec“ (8, 287), etc., as well as formulae, for example: a radical consisting of carbon and hydrogen is called formyl (C₂H) (15, 404). Its [the radical’s] combination with chlorine is called chloroform (C₂HCl₃) (15, 404).
Some articles also include certain tables. For example: here one may add the magnitude of the loads required to crush certain stones… The stones are crushed when the following pressure is applied to a square inch:
for granite from 6000 to 11200 pounds; for limestone from 1000 to 8000 pounds; — — — sandstone — — 1600 — — — 4000 — — — — — — marble — — — — — 4000 — — —10400 — — — — — — brick wall made of red bricks from 960 to 1440 pounds (10, 127).
All these elements show the strengthening and consolidation of the language of science, which takes the form of assertions, the formulation of hypotheses, their substantiation, argumentation, and discussion.
2.6. The analysis of the terminology in “Aušra”’s popular physics articles can be summed up in the following observations: 1) the terminology—the principal element of the language of science—had not yet been formed systematically enough, but rested on a solid foundation: Lithuanian vocabulary, which included words drawn from dialects and old Lithuanian writings, neologisms already found in earlier publications, calques, and coinages by the Aušrininkai themselves
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Page 10terms were formed; 2) variation in the nomination of terms manifested itself in synonymy and morphological variation. The latter created conditions for categorical polysemy to emerge. However, aspects of terminology standardization are also evident: a decline in manifestations of morphological variation and the shortening of terms; 3) attempts were made to provide definitions of terms, coin new terms or translate them, and distinguish generic, specific, and even subspecific terms.
ŠALTINIAI
Auszra, Laikrasztis, iszleidžiamas per Dra. Bassanawicziu.
1. 1883. Nr. 1.
2. 1883. Nr. 2.
3. 1883. Nr. 3.
4. 1883. Nr. 4.
5. 1883. Nr. 5.
6. 1883. Nr. 6.
7. 1883. Nr. 7.
8. 1883. Nr. 8, 9, 10.
9. 1884. Nr. 1, 2, 3.
10. 1884. Nr. 4.
11. 1884. Nr. 5, 6.
12. 1884. Nr. 7, 8.
13. 1884. Nr. 9.
14. 1884. Nr. 10, 11.
15. 1884. Nr. 12.
16. 1885. Nr. 1.
17. 1885. Nr. 2, 3.
18. 1885. Nr. 4, 5.
19. 1885. Nr. 6.
20. 1885. Nr. 7, 8.
21. 1885. Nr. 9.
22. 1885. Nr. 10, 11.
23. 1885. Nr. 12.
24. 1886. Nr. 1.
25. 1886. Nr. 2.
26. 1886. Nr. 3.
27. 1886. Nr. 4.
28. 1886. Nr. 5.
29. 1886. Nr. 6.
ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЯ В ПЕРИОДИЧЕСКОМ ИЗДАНИИ «АУШРА»
Резюме
На основе физико-технических научно-популярных статей, опубликованных в период с 1883 по 1886 г. в „Аушре“, был проведен анализ литовской физической терминологии. Из данного анализа можно сделать следующие выводы.
Во-первых, основной элемент языка науки — терминология — на данном этапе еще не обладала систематичностью, тем не менее основывалась на базе литовской лексики. Понятия именовались как литовскими словами, привлеченными из диалектов, письменных памятников, так и неологизмами или кальками, созданными авторами физико-технических научно-популярных статей, а также редакторами „Аушры“.
Во-вторых, варьирование номинации терминов проявлялось в синонимичности и морфологической вариантности. Подобная вариантность была основой категориальной многозначности, которая в разных формах проявляется как в физико-технической, так и любой другой терминологии до сих пор.
В-третьих, ощутимы попытки привести в физико-технических научно-популярных статьях дефиниции терминов, выделить как родовые, так и видовые термины.
