ACTA LINGUISTICA LITHUANICA

L (2004), 1 – 10

Place names of north-central Lithuania with the suffix -išk-

RENATA ENDZELYTĖ

Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, Kaunas

This article deals with Lithuanian proper names derived with the suffix -išk-, which goes back to IE *-isk’-. In most cases this suffix is the token of a new formation based on the meanings of place, dependency or particularity. Toponyms with this suffix are derived from personal names, appellatives or other toponyms. Chronologically, toponyms with the suffix -išk- are of relatively recent origin, being for the most part derivatives based on other proper names (less frequently on appellatives).

1. INTRODUCTION

The suffix -išk- is very old, having developed from the Proto-Indo-European suffix *-isk’-. This suffix is found in Slavic, Germanic, and Scandinavian languages (Ambrazas 2000: 183). Among the Baltic languages, it is encountered least often in Latvian, while Lithuanian and Prussian have many derivatives formed with it (Skardžius 1996: 150). The suffix -išk- primarily means ‘the possession of some characteristic features of someone or something […], related to the very essence of the thing’ (Skardžius 1996: 153).

For adjectives, the suffix -išk- imparts a generalized quality meaning, a feature characteristic of the thing or word denoted by the base. Most adjectives with -išk- become nouns, for example: dváriškis, moteriškė (cf. adj. mót eriška), namiškis, vyriškis (cf. adj. výriškas), téviškė.

The variant -iškas, -a of the suffix -išk- is one of the most productive suffixes for forming qualitative adjectives. Its derivatives form the core of the adjective group denoting similarity and characteristic qualities. The most characteristic derivational meaning of denominal adjectives formed with this suffix is ‘resembling the thing named by the base word’ (šmé kl iškas vaizdas, draugiškas žmogus). Adjectives formed with the suffix -iškas, -a also denote essential features of a thing; this meaning is closely related to that of a characteristic feature. Usually formed from derived or compound adjectives, which can also function as nouns, adjectives with the suffix -iškas, -a generally denote a characteristic or essential feature of a thing (beprasmiška viltis, beviltiška būklė). (Ambrazas, ed., 1994: 207–208).

In contemporary Lithuanian, the variant -iškis, -ė of the suffix -išk- is commonly used to form names for people from proper nouns (names of cities, towns, and villages), according to their place of origin or residence, e.g.: kauniškis, -ė, vilniškis, -ė. In dialects, derivatives with the suffix -iškis, -ė are more common than those with the suffix -ietis, -ė, which is gaining currency in the standard language. Adjectives with a distinguishing meaning (similar to the nouns mentioned above) are also formed from proper nouns, e.g., vilniškiai svečiai. From common nouns denoting a place

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Derived forms of place names are few (dvȧriškis, kalniškis, namiškis). A few personal designations are formed not from place names or other generic place designations, but from other words with a somewhat different meaning of belonging (karališkis, kariškis, šeimyniškis) (Ambrazas, ed., 1994, 139–140, 219).

The meanings of origin and belonging are especially evident in place names derived from personal names. Names of settlements bearing this suffix are abundant throughout Lithuania (Razmukaitė 1998: 139–141), and in north-central Lithuania, in the former territory of Semigallia, according to Kazimieras Būga, the place-name suffix -išk- is the most faithful indicator of Lithuanian identity (Būga 1961: 582).

This article discusses place names in north-central Lithuania (the districts of Joniškis, Pakruojis, and Pasvalys)¹ that contain the suffix -išk- from the perspectives of word formation, semantics, and structure. More than fifty such names were found; they are especially numerous among settlement names and minor toponyms. Not all derivatives with this suffix are equally old; some may be relatively recent formations, particularly minor hydronyms or land names. In a sense, this is related to the possessive meaning of the suffix, since most of these place names are derived from personal names² (presumably designations of owners). Toponyms with -išk- occur in all classes of place names: settlement names (church villages, estates, villages, and isolated farmsteads), names of bodies of water (rivers and lakes, streams, ditches, springs, pools, marshes, bogs, and deep river pools), and land names (fields, plots, meadows, pastures, hills, forests, burial grounds, and various other places).

In analyzing word formation, a derivational base and a derivational formant are distinguished. In this case, the derivational formant is the suffix -išk-. With certain reservations, the formation of proper nouns follows the principles used to analyze common nouns (Vanagas 1970: 24–29, 53–58). The specific nature of the class of proper nouns calls for distinguishing one more type of proper-name formation—primary toponyms. These are cases in which the name of one toponym is simply transferred to a nearby feature. Thus, primary place names are those whose base words (derivational bases) already contain the suffix -išk-; names whose base words do not contain this suffix—that is, names that became toponyms through the addition of the suffix -išk-—are considered secondary, or derived. Analysis of the place names showed that most are secondary onyms with a clear possessive meaning. Almost all place names are formed from nouns, and are therefore divided into those derived from proper nouns and those derived from common nouns.

Different endings lend variety to the suffix, giving rise to suffix variants. In living speech, the variants -iškė, -iškis, -iškės, -iškiai are often merely formal distinctions, but they can lead to the creation of a new place name, e.g.: Daunõr-iškė village, Daunorava parish, Jnš; Daunor-iškiai village, Svirpliai parish, Jnš, cf. Daũnoras personal name; Kárp-iškiai village, Pšvt; Kárp-iškis stream, Lnkv, cf. Kárpis personal name; Šleidar-iškė isolated farmstead, Krk; Šleidar-iškiai isolated farmstead, Skilvio-

¹ Place names were collected from living speech, the personal card index of Dr. Kazimieras Garšva, the Lithuanian Land Names collection, the archive of the Pakruojis branch of the Ethnographic Society, the register of place names and the protection of natural and cultural monuments of the Republican Land Management Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture of Lithuania, Lietuvos TSR administracinio-teritorinio suskirstymo žinyno (Vanagas, ed., 1976), Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardyno (Vanagas, ed., 1963).

² It is believed that place names with a possessive meaning are not very archaic, since their semantics have, through possessiveness, diverged from the semantics of a specific class of objects (Vanagas 1970: 278).

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nių parish, Jnš; Šleider-iškis isolated farmstead, Saugelaukis parish, Jnš, cf. Šleideris personal name. Sometimes the same feature may have different name variants, e.g., masculine or feminine forms, or singular or plural forms. This gives rise to a new name, which from the perspective of word formation is considered a suffixal or inflectional derivative, e.g.: Katìl-iškės village, Žagarė parish, Jnš; Katìl-iškiai village, ŽGR; Katìl-iškiai village, Žiūriai parish, Psv, cf. Katìlius personal name; Plėd-iškė plot, Giminėnai village, Jnš; Plėd-iškis plot, Plediškiai village, Stoniūnai village, Jnš, cf. Plėdiškiai village, Plėdis personal name; Veicel-iškė plot, Klioriškiai isolated farmstead, Jnš; Veicel-iškės plot, Skribakiai village, Jnš; Veicel-iškis plot, Stoniūnai village, Jnš, cf. Veicelis personal name.

When analyzing place names, it is often difficult to distinguish which of two identical toponyms is older, which is a suffixal derivative, and which has adopted a name that already contains a suffix. It is often difficult to determine the meaning of a base word when it is a personal name of appellative origin. This raises the question: did the place name derive from a personal name of appellative origin, or from a common noun? Such place names of dual origin are discussed separately, since they cannot be assigned exclusively to either the personal-name-derived or appellative-derived category, e.g.: Smailiškis plot, Jnšk, Smailiškis forest, Jnšk: cf. Smailýs, Smailis personal name (smailùs, -i ‘pointed’).

Etymological analysis shows that various personal names most often serve as the derivational bases of place names with the suffix -išk-: both old dithematic names (Dovìltiškė isolated farmstead, ŽGR: Dovìltas personal name), monothematic names (Dargìškis homestead, JnšKL: Dargis personal name), nickname-based designations (Sakališkiai village, PKR: Sākalas personal name – sākalas; Balčiškiai village, Psv: Balčius personal name – báltas, -à), patronymic personal names (Sindriūniškiai village, Psv: Sindriūnas personal name), and Christian names (Antaniškis isolated farmstead, PRK: Antānas personal name), their abbreviated forms (Kaziūliškė plot, LGM: Kaziūlis, cf. Kazýs, Kazimieras personal names); not only Lithuanian, but also Latvian (Dābarīškis isolated farmstead, LGM: Dabars personal name) and other (Gerliškiai hill, KRK: Herlich personal name) personal names. Other base lexemes are most often nouns denoting animals (wild animals, domestic livestock, reptiles, insects, and fish), birds (wild and domestic), and plants (trees and smaller plants); physiographic terms (kálnas, pakalnė, šilas); ethnonyms (gūdas, čigōnas, lātvis, žydas); designations for people (bérnas, kareivis, klebōnas); body-part terms (gārbana, kuprà, rāgas); and household items (didà, dālgis, kirvìs). Adjectival base lexemes indicate a feature of the place (plìkas, smailùs, ramùs) or its color (báltas, júodas, rùdas).

2. PRIMARY PLACE NAMES

Primary names are considered to be those names of places that, when shifting from one word category to another, acquire no formal derivational markers. In other words, the base words of place names considered primary are nouns that already have the suffix -išk-. Most often these are personal names or oikonyms whose name is transferred to a nearby feature. The name of a larger feature is most often transferred to a smaller one: Kiaulìškis village, PKR: Kiaulìškis former estate, PKR; Kūpeliškės hamlet, Jnš: Kūpeliškės village; Kudrėniškis hamlet, LNKV: Kudrėniškis village, LNKV; Spitkiškė settlement, PKR: Spitkiškė estate; Trūliškis woodland, Psv: Trūliškis forest, Psv. For some features, a name is transferred to emphasize their location: Jakiškiai II settlement, Jnš: Jakiškiai village, estate, settlement, Jnš; Kareiviškis I, Kareiviškis II villages, PKR: Kareiviškis village, PKR; Keliuotìškiai II village, VŠK: Keliuotìškiai village, Jnšk; Šiliškiai I village, PKR, KRK, Šiliškiai II village, PKR KRK: Šiliškiai settlement, PKR.

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A few primary oikonyms can be derived from personal names³: Gipiškiai village, Psv: Gipiškis personal name; Judiškiai estate, LNKV: Judiškis personal name. Oikonyms derived from personal names most often take the nominative plural form (pluralia tantum). This indicates that the place is named not after one individual, but after a group of people (a family) as a unit. In a sense, such oikonyms could be treated as inflectional derivatives, but essentially they are the same name, only with a collective meaning. Names of smaller features do not change in number: Katėliškis village, PŠVT: Katėliškis personal name.

Place names formed from compound adjectives that have become nouns and denote physiographic terms include Kalniškiai settlement, PKR: kalniškis ‘a person living on a hill, a hill-dweller’ (LKŽ^V 148); Pakalniškiai village, LNKV; Pakalniškis settlement, KRK: pakalniškis, pakalniškis ‘a person living at the foot of a hill, a resident of the hillside’ (LKŽ^IX 147).

3. SECONDARY PLACE NAMES

In secondary toponyms, the suffix -išk- is a derivational marker; the base words do not contain this suffix. The derivational bases of these place names are various nouns, most often personal names. Place names with the suffix -išk- clearly express possession (when the name is derived from a personal name or oikonym) and a characteristic (when the name is derived from another kind of noun or an adjective). Secondary place names are most often formed from personal names (70.66%). Other proper names are very rarely used: place names of oikonymic origin account for approximately 1.3%, while those of hydronymic origin account for 1.9%. Place names of unclear origin account for about 16%, while toponyms formed from nouns with various meanings make up nearly 11%.

3.1. Secondary Oikonyms

Most oikonyms, or names of inhabited places, derive from personal names and appellatives. A few oikonyms may derive from hydronyms or other oikonyms.

Names of Lithuanian origin (old two-stem and one-stem names, patronymics, and appellative-based names) and non-Lithuanian origin (Christian names and names from other nations) serve as the base words for oikonyms derived from personal names (Vanagas 1982: 62–97; Maciejauskienė 1991: 243–248): Adõmiškis settlement, JNŠK: Adõmas personal name; Albertiškiai settlement, KRK: Álbertas personal name; Aleniškis settlement, PKR: Alenà, Elenà personal names; Antaniškis settlement, PRK: Antãnas personal name; Bādariškis settlement, PŠVT: Bādaras personal name; Būiviškiai village, SLČ: Buivỹs, cf. Bùivydas personal name; Čeniškiai village, JNŠK: Čenỹs personal name; Čiaučynīškis settlement, LGM: Čiaučỹnas personal name; Dābariškis settlement, LGM: Dābaras personal name; Dovainiškiai estate, PKR, Dovainiškis settlement, PKR: Dovainis personal name; Dóviltiškė farmstead, ŽGR: Dóviltis personal name; Gailiōniškiai village, JNŠK: Gailiōnis personal name; Gražiškiai village, JNŠ: Gražỹs personal name; Jākiškiai settlement, KRK, Jakiškiai estate, village, JNŠ: Jākas personal name; Jūkiškiai village, PKR: *Jūkas, cf. Jukōnis personal name; Karaliūniškis village, PŠVT: Karaliūnas personal name; Katiliškiai village, ŽGR: Katilius personal name; Keliuotiškiai village, JNŠK: Keliuotis personal name; Krasniškiai village, ŽML: *Krašnas, *Krasnỹs personal names, cf. Krasnàuskas,

³ Oikonyms derived from personal names may have two possible origins: from a suffixed personal name (primary) and from an unsuffixed personal name (secondary). Since the Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames also records suffixed personal names, such oikonyms are classified as primary; cf. Gipas and Gipiškis, Judỹs and Judiškis.

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Kasnickas, Krasnevičius surnames; Kungiškiai village, ŽML: Kūngas, Kungys surnames; Laumekiškis single farmstead, SLČ: Laumekis surname; Mineikiškis single farmstead, PSv: Mineikà, Mineikis surnames; Minginiškiai single farmstead, KRK: Mìnginas surname; Nãgliškis single farmstead, SLČ: Nãglis, Nãglius surnames; Norkūniškiai single farmstead, LGM: Norkūnas surname; Pėtriškis single farmstead, LGM: Pėtras surname; Plikiškis estate, VŠK, Plikiškiai village, JNŠ: Plikis, Plikys surnames; Pūtriškiai village, PSv: Pūtris, Putrys surnames; Razališkis village, SLČ: Rozãlija surname; Rimšōniškiai village, PKR: Rimšōnis surname; Stasiškiai single farmstead, SLČ: Stasys surname; Šilingiškis single farmstead, LNKV: Šilingis surname; Šulmiškis single farmstead, LGM: *Šulmas, cf. Šulminas surname; Svōbiškis farmstead, estate, JNŠK: Svōba, Svōbas surnames; Trūliškis single farmstead, PSV: Trūlis surname; Urnėžiškės village, SKS: Urnėžas, Urnėžis, Urnėžius surnames; Valantiniškis homestead, JNŠK: Valantinas surname; Vešelkškiai village, LNKV: Vešėlka surname; Zimbiškiai village, LNKV: Zimbà surname.

A separate group of oikonyms consists of those derived from Latvian personal names⁴: Mìlidiškiai single farmstead, JNŠK: Latvian Milidis surname; Pileriškis village, KRK: Latvian Pileris surname; Pundeniškis single farmstead, PŠVT: Latvian Pundenis surname; cf. Lithuanian Pundys, Pundìnas surnames; Vagariškis village, KRK: Latvian Vagars surname; cf. Lithuanian Vagrys surname.

Several oikonyms may derive from the names of neighboring villages: Reibiniškiai village, SKS: Reibiniai village, SKS; Šikšnėliškiai village, PSv: Šikšnėliai village, PKR; Žagariškiai village, ŽGR: Žagarė.

Oikonyms of hydronymic origin are usually readily explained, since the village lies beside a body of water of the same name: Savėliškis village, PKR: Savėlis stream; Šidabriškis village, PSv: Šidabra river; Šiladiškis single farmstead, LGM: Šiladis stream; Vėngriškis estate, KRK, Vėngriškis single farmstead, PKR: Vėngris stream.

Some place names are associated with common nouns: Akmeniškiai village, ŽML: akmuò ‘stone’; Dirvōniškiai village, JNŠK: dirvōnas; Dvareliškiai village, KRK: dvarėlis, dvāras; Kalneliškiai village, VŠK: kalnėlis, kálnas; Kriaūšiškiai village, VŠK: kriaūšis; Šiliškiai single farmstead, KRK, Šiliškis single farmstead, LGM, KRK: šilas ‘pine forest’.

The oikonym Cigōniškis village, JNŠ, is associated with the ethnonym cigōnas, cigōnas.

3.2. Secondary hydronyms⁵

Most secondary hydronyms derive from personal names. It should be noted, however, that these hydronyms are chiefly used to name smaller bodies of water: pools, backwaters, and the like. These are relatively recent names, indicating that an object belongs to a particular person, has some characteristic, or bears another kind of relation to the base word.

The formation of hydronyms derived from personal names is fairly clear: Abrōmiškis pond, PKR: *Abrōmas, cf. Abraōmas surname; Aliūniškė stream, PKR: Aliūnas surname; Bėkiškis pond, PŠVT: Bėkas, Bekys surnames; Buletriškis pool, PŠVT: Būletris surname; Būrbìškis pool, PŠVT: Būrba surname; Dáudiškas stream, PKR: Daudà surname; Daugéliškis pool, SLČ: Daugėla surname; Dragiškis pond, KRK: Drāgas surname; Jeñkeliškės pool, SKS: Jeñkelis surname; Jėčiškės pool, JNŠ: Jėčius surname; Kārpiškis stream, LNKV, Kārpiškiai pool, PŠVT: Kārpis surname; Kindariškis pool, PŠVT: *Kindaris, cf. Kindaravičius, Kindėris surnames; Kleiniškė pool, ŽML: Kleinas, Kle inys surnames; Kraujeliškis pond, JNŠK: Kraujelis surname; Kvedariškė watercourse, ŽGR: Kvě daras surname; Láimiškis stream, LNKV: Láima surname; Liberiš-

⁴ This is what the place-name informants indicated, although some Latvian surnames also have Lithuanian equivalents.

⁵ The analysis of many river names is based on the research of Aleksandras Vanagas (see the bibliography); other place names have been analyzed by analogy with these.

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kis village, VŠK: Liberis, Lūberis surname; Majūliškis village, VŠK: Majūlis surname; Martyniškis locality, KRK: Martynas surname; Sargeliškis stream, LNKV: Sargėlis surname; Sargėliškis stream, river, PKR: Sargėlis surname; Šemetiškės village, LNKV: Šemeta surname; Šlekiškis village, VŠK: Šlekys surname; Vaitiškės village, JNŠ, Vaitiškė stream, JNŠ: Vaitis, Vaitys, Vaičius surname.

The place name Pagaleibiškė village, PŠVT, appears to have a double derivation: it may be both a suffixal derivative and a prepositional construction formed from the personal name Leiba; cf. pagal-leib-iškė.

The nouns that serve as bases for the formation of hydronyms belong to several semantic groups:

• designations of persons: Berniškis village, JNŠ: bėrnas, cf. Latvian bērns ‘child’;

• ethnonyms: Čigoniškė village, JNŠK: čigonas ‘Gypsy’;

• nouns with various meanings: Vilniškė village, PKR: vilna, vilnis.

3.3. Secondary land names

Suffixal derivatives in this class of place names, formed with -išk-, are most often derived from personal names and appellatives. The names indicate that an object belongs to a person (as do most of the minor hydronyms discussed above) or denote a characteristic of the place. As in the preceding toponym classes, most land names are derived from personal names: Aleksándriškė field, ŽML: Aleksándras surname; Aneliškis meadow, JNŠK: Anėlė surname; Bagdoniškė field, meadow, PKR: Bagdōnas surname; Balčiškė field, JNŠ: Balkis, Balčius surname; Būrbiškiai settlement, KRK, Būrbiškis field, PŠVT: Būrba surname; Butkiškė field, PŠVT: Būtkus surname; Čėpiškės field, JNŠ: Čėpas surname; Dabu liškis field, JNŠK: Dabulis surname; Dāpkiškis field, PSV: Dāpkus surname; Gedviliškis field, LGM: Gedvilas surname; Jurgiškis field, meadow, KRK: Jūrgis surname; Kaziuliškė field, LGM: Kaziūlis, Kazys surname; Klioriškis field, JNŠ: Kl iorys surname; Kū kuliškis field, meadow, PKR: Kūkulas surname; Laučiškė field, SKS: Laučius surname; Leibiškė field, SKS, Leibiškis hill, SKS: Leiba surname; Lipiškiai field, ŽML: Lipas surname; Martyniškiai farmstead, LNKV: Martynas surname; Mažeikiškis field, VŠK: Mažeikā, Mažeikis surname; Merkeliškis meadow, PSV: Mėrkelis surname; Mūreliškės settlement, farmstead, SKS: Mūrelis surname; Naudžiūniškis hill, ŽML: Naudžiūnas surname; Pauriškis field, PKR: Pāuras surname; Pėtriškis forest, SLČ: Pėtras surname; Plėdiškė field, JNŠ, Plėdiškis field, JNŠ: Pledys surname; Pōviliškis meadow, LNKV: Póvilas surname; Sargėliškiai field, LNKV: Sargėlis surname; Smailiškis field, JNŠKL: Smailys surname; Šoviškis meadow, SLČ: Šova, Šovys surname; Šūnakiškis field, JNŠ: Šūnakis surname; Ūsiškiai locality, SLČ: Ūsas surname; Valiušiškė meadow, LGM: Valiušis surname; Žemriet iškis field, JNŠ: Žemriėta surname.

The place name Pāmozūriškis settlement, LGM, may have a double derivation—as both a prefixal and a suffixal derivative. It is most likely derived with the prefix pa- from the suffixal ethnonym možūras or the personal name Mozūras; cf. pa-mozūr-iškis.

The place name Šiladiškis field, LGM, is of hydronymic origin: Šiladis stream.

Place names are somewhat more often derived from oikonyms⁶: Bivainiškis forest, JNŠ: Bivainiai village, JNŠ; Gedžiūniškis forest, JNŠK: Gedžiūnai village, LNKV; Kibiškiai meadow, LNKV: Kibai village; Mažūtiškė field, PŠVT: Mažučiai village, ŽML; Reibiniškės farmstead, SKS: Reibiniai village, SKS; Orel iškiai settlement, LNKV: Orėliai village, JNŠK.

⁶ The basis for the formation of the place names was specified by the informants.

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Other nouns that serve as bases for the formation of place names are semantically very diverse:

• designations of people: Burliokiškis hill, Psv: burliokas ‘an Old Believer Russian in Lithuania’ (LKŽ₁₁ 1193); Kleboniškis meadow, PŠVT, field, PKR: klebōnas; Mur̃kliškis field, PŠVT: murklys ‘one who purrs; a sullen, taciturn person; a fat person, a chubby person’ (LKŽᵥᵢᵢ 420), cf. mur̃kti; Pirduliškis meadow, SLČ: pirdùlis ‘farting person’ (LKŽ₉ 1087);

• ethnonyms: Cigoniškis village, PŠVT: čigōnas; Žydiškė meadow, forest, PŠVT, village, JNŠ: žydas;

• body parts: Gárbaniškė meadow, ŽGR: gárbana; Kiaũšiškė meadow, PKR: kiaũšis, kiaũšinis;

• tools: Dalgiškis meadow, JNŠ: dalgis; Kirveliškės meadow, coppice, SKS: kirvelis, kirvis;

• physiographic terms: Pakluoniškis place, forest, LGM: pakluōnė; Sodeliškis meadow, PKR: sodēlis, sōdžius; Šniūriškiai hill, ŽML: šniūras, šniūrai ‘a long, narrow strip of land; a unit of area’ (LKŽₓᵢᵢ 195);

• plants or their parts: Žabiškis coppice, VŠK: žabas ‘twig, small branch; stem, brushwood, switch; shrub, thicket’ (LKŽₓₓ 14), ‘twig, small branch’ (DLKŽ 947);

• names of dishes: Šiupiniškis village, PKR: šiupinys;

• mythonyms: Perkūniškis meadow, Psv: Perkūnas;

• animal names: Glindiskis field, Psv: glinda; Oželiškis field, SLČ: oželis, ožys;

• abstract nouns: Siautiškės meadow, PŠVT: siaūtis ‘gust, squall; sweep, swing’ (LKŽₓᵢᵢ 482), ‘raging’ (DLKŽ 689); cf. siaūtėti.

• things relating to the social environment: Pūniškis place, PKR: pūnė ‘a partitioned-off section of a threshing barn for piling chaff, a chaff room; a stable; an open yard; a hut, a tent; a hollow, a cave, a burrow; the hollow inside an egg’ (LKŽₓ 916).

The place name Juodókiškis forest, VŠK may be derived from the adjective juodókas, cf. juodas.

3.4. Unclear place names

The origins of some place names can be described in several ways, since it is impossible to determine them precisely. First of all, these are place names whose base lexemes may be either personal names or appellatives, e.g.:

• names of animals and birds: Brėdiškė l., ŽGR: Brėdis personal name, brėdis; Kūrmìškis meadow, PKR: Kurmà, Kùrmis personal names, kùrmis; Gaidžiškis homestead, forest, LNKV, forest edge, PKR: Gaidỹs personal name, gaidỹs; Gėrviškiai village, JNŠK: Gérvė, Gervỹs personal names, gėrvė; Pelėdiškis hamlet, JNŠK: Pelėda, Pelėdžius personal names, pelėda; Sakališkis hamlet, LGM, forest edge, PKR: Sãkalas personal name, sãkalas; Šarkiškės forest edge, JNŠ: Šárka, Šarkis, Šarkỹs, Šarkus personal names, šárka; Varniškis homestead, forest edge, LNKV: Vãrnas personal name, var̃nas;

• ethnonyms: Gudiškis⁷ village, VŠK: gùdas, Gùdas personal name; Latvėliškis village, settlement, KRK: Latvėlis personal name, cf. Lãtvis personal name, latvėlis, lātvis; Latviškė village, PKR, Latviškis village, PŠVT: lātvis, Lātvis personal name; Maskoliškiai village, SLČ: Maskōlius personal name, cf. maskōlius ‘a soldier in the tsarist army; a Russian’ (LKŽᵥᵢᵢ 893);

⁷ The root gud- may derive not from the ethnonym gudai, but from the common noun *gūdas, *gudà ‘field, meadow’; cf. Prussian gudde ‘bushes’; see Karaliūnas (1999: 27–40); also cf. gūdà ‘hump; scarecrow for frightening birds; scarecrow for frightening children’ (LKŽₓᵢᵢ 692), gūde ‘whetstone, sharpening stone, hone’ (LKŽₓᵢᵢ 693).

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• names of persons and occupations: Kairiškis meadow, Jnšk: cf. Kairýs personal name, kairys; Kálviškis hamlet, Jnšk: cf. Kálvis personal name, kálvis, kalvà; Kareiviškis village, Pkr: cf. Kareíva personal name, kareíva, kareivís; Kūpriškis hamlet, Všk, meadow, LnkV: cf. Kuprýs personal name, kuprà, kūprius.

It is not entirely appropriate to regard these onymic names as deriving exclusively from personal names or exclusively from appellatives. It is more likely that settlement names may derive from personal names, while some land names, such as names of forests, meadows, and fields, derive from appellatives. From one point of view, there is no doubt: they are all derivations from nouns with the suffix -išk-.

4. CONCLUSIONS

1. For adjectives, the suffix variant -iškas, -a conveys a generalized meaning of quality, a characteristic of the thing denoted by the base word. The other suffix variant, -iškis, -ė, is commonly used to derive names for people from proper names (names of cities, towns, and villages), according to their origin or place of residence. This suffix’s meaning of origin and affiliation is especially evident in place names derived from personal names, which are abundant throughout Lithuania. In north-central Lithuania, in the former territory of Žiemgala, place names with the suffix -išk- indicate their Lithuanian origin.

2. Chronologically, place names with the suffix -išk- may be relatively recent formations, since most are derived from other proper names (usually personal names). In addition, the possessive meaning of the suffix and its derivatives suggests that the place names are recent.

3. Various variants of the suffix -išk- are used to form place names. The variants -iškis, -iškiai, -iškė are more characteristic of north-central Lithuania, while the suffix -iškės is somewhat less common. Different suffix variants can be used to form several place names from the same name, e.g.: Daunora, Daūnoras personal names: Daunoriškė village, Daunorava area, Jnš, Daunoriškiai village, Svirpliai area, Jnš; Šleideris personal name: Šleidariškė hamlet, Krk, Šleidariškiai hamlet, Skilvioniai area, Jnš, Šleideriškis hamlet, Saugelaukis area, Jnš.

4. The base words of place names are most often nouns. These include personal names of various origins (70.66%): Lithuanian and, less often, non-Lithuanian; Christian and appellative; simple and suffixed. Other commonly used words are appellatives of various meanings (10.92%). Place names of unclear origin account for 15.98%. Hydronyms and oikonyms are rarely used to form place names (1.92% and 1.3% of all place names, respectively). Non-nominal toponyms make up only 0.2% of place names. Similar proportions are characteristic of both settlement names and land names.

5. Etymological analysis shows that the base lexemes of place names with the suffix -išk- are most often personal names and other nouns denoting animals (wild animals and domestic livestock, reptiles, insects, fish), birds (wild and domestic), and plants (trees and smaller plants); physiographic terms (kálnas, pakalnė, šilas); ethnonyms (gūdas, čigõnas, látvis, žýdas); names for persons (bérnas, kareivis, klebõnas); names of body parts (gárbana, kuprà, rãgas), and household implements (dūdà, dãlgis, kìrvis). Adjectival base lexemes indicate a feature of the object (plikas, smailus, ramùs) or its color (báltas, júodas, rùdas).

VIETOVARDŽIAI SU PRIESAGA -išk-

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PLACE-NAME ABBREVIATIONS

Jnš – Joniškis

Jnšk – Joniškėlis

Krk – Kriukai

Lgm – Lygumai

Lnkv – Linkuva

Pkr – Pakruojis

Psv – Pasvalys

Psvt – Pašvitinys

Sks – Skaistgiris

Slč – Saločiai

Všk – Vaškai

Žgr – Žagarė

Žml – Žeimelis

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

apl. – vicinity

avd. – personal name

b. – bog

bk. – church village

br. – ford

dr. – soil

dv. – manor

gn. – pasture

gr. – ditch

k. – village

kdr. – pond

kln. – hill

krm. – shrubs

l. – field

la. – Latvian

lie. – Lithuanian

lkn. – boggy meadow

mš. – forest

plv. – manor farm

pv. – meadow

sdb. – homestead

stv. – pool

šlt. – spring

upl. – stream

vk. – single homestead

vt. – locality

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RENATA ENDZELYTĖ

LITERATURE AND SOURCES

AMBRAZAS, S. 2000: Daiktavardžių darybos raida. Lietuvių kalbos vardažodiniai vediniai, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

AMBRAZAS, V., red., 1994: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

BŪGA, K. 1961: Rinktiniai raštai 3, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

KARALIŪNAS, S. 1999: Etnonimo Gudai kilmė. Darbai ir dienos 10 (19), 7–54.

KUZAVINIS, K., SAVUKYNAS, B. 1987: Lietuvių vardų kilmės žodynas; Vilnius: Mokslas.

LKŽ – Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language A–Ž, Vilnius, 1941–2002.

LPŽ – Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames 1–2, ed. A. Vanagas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985, 1989.

MACIEJAUSKIENĖ, V. 1991: Lietuvių pavardžių susidarymas, Vilnius: Mokslas.

MICKIENĖ, I. 2001: Telšių rajono toponimų daryba. Daktaro disertacija, Kaunas.

RAZUMKAITĖ, M. 1998: Lietuvos priesaginių oikonimų; Daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

SKARDŽIUS, P. 1996: Rinktiniai raštai 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla.

VANAGAS, A. 1970: Lietuvos TSR hidronimų daryba, Vilnius: Mintis.

VANAGAS, A. 1981a: Lietuvių hidronimų etimologinis žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas.

VANAGAS, A. 1981b: Lietuvių hidronimų semantika. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 21, 4–153.

VANAGAS, A. 1982: Mūsų vardai ir pavardės, Vilnius: Mokslas.

VANAGAS, A., red., 1963: Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardynas, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

VANAGAS, A., red., 1976: Lietuvos TSR administracinio-teritorinio suskirstymo žinynas 2, Vilnius: Mintis.

Received 2004 03 25

Renata Endzelytė Vytautas Magnus University K. Donelaičio St. 52, 3000 Kaunas, Lithuania [email protected]