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Acta Linguistica Lithuanica
LIX (2008), 29 – 49
Case Attraction in Comparative Constructions: Additions and Clarifications
VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA
Lietuvių kalbos institutas
This article carries further an investigation into the Lithuanian case hierarchy, the first part of which was presented in Čižik (2003). The investigation is based on an empirical test of the relative accessibility of the Lithuanian cases to case attraction in comparative constructions of the type tokie dalykai kaip žvaigždės ‘such things as stars’ (where the noun in the comparative construction can be in the nominative or be attracted to the case of the object of comparison in the main clause). The occurrence of attraction is determined not only by case but also by the categorial properties of nouns (animacy, number, proper/common) as well as by word order and other syntactic factors. Accessibility to attraction can, however, be used to establish the position of the Lithuanian cases in the case hierarchy. Whereas Čižik (2003) provided no data for the locative and the results were indecisive as to the relative position of the genitive and the dative, the additional tests described in this article point to the following ordering of cases: nominative > accusative > dative > genitive > instrumental > locative.
1. INTRODUCTION
This article revisits1 the discussion of comparative constructions of the *such as X* type2, e.g.:
1 The topic of case attraction was proposed by Prof. Axel Holvoet, with whose help case attraction was discussed for the first time and the first preliminary research findings were published in the journal Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 48, in the article “Case Attraction in Comparative Constructions” (see Čižik 2003).
2 As for why these constructions are called comparative constructions rather than
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(1) It is impossible to count such things as stars.
It has been observed that in comparative constructions of this type, not only the nominative form may be used, but also another form, agreeing with a particular form of a noun in the main clause. For example, in sentence (1), not only the nominative but also the genitive form is possible:
(2) It is impossible to count such things as stars.
If we reconstructed the comparative clause (it is impossible to count such things as there are stars), we would see that the main word of the comparative construction functions as the subject, so the nominative would be expected (as in sentence (1)). In sentence (2), we encounter case attraction3, because the word stars in the comparative construction agrees in case with the noun in the main clause, things. Although the nouns have matching case, this is not true agreement, since there is no direct syntactic relation between them4. Therefore, in such cases, we speak of case attraction rather than agreement. This article aims to supplement and clarify the data analyzed in the article cited in the footnote, to describe in greater detail when cases of case attraction occur, and to discuss the previously unexamined participation of the locative case in the phenomenon of attraction.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT
In December 2002, thirty students of Vilnius University were surveyed using comparative expressions, asking how they should be used according to The Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian; see Čižik (2003: 1–2). In studies of syntactic relations, constructions of this type are called reduced comparative clauses (see Holvoet & Judžentis, eds., 2003: 144–145).
3 Attraction (English attraction) is the agreement of two word forms that are not linked to each other by a direct syntactic relation (Matthews 1997: 29). The term attraction was borrowed from Greek grammar: it was introduced by J. Grimm (Grimm 1866), who was the first to investigate this phenomenon in German. The term is most often used in discussions of relative clauses.
A. Schleicher was the first to mention attraction in Lithuanian. He gives the following sentence with attraction: jis turėjo dukterį taip gražie kaip jo pace and adds that he had not heard people use it otherwise, i.e. without attraction, although the sentence without attraction is not considered an error (see Schleicher 1856: 330).
4 Daugiau žr. Čižik (2003: 4).
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first-year students of the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics (aged 18–20). These students were given questionnaires twice, containing sentences in which case attraction could be expected. From two forms of a noun or pronoun, students had to choose one or both forms if, in their opinion, those forms could be used in the sentence. In both instances, various sentences were presented (75 different sentences in total, yielding 2,250 responses); both broader categories (membership in a particular part of speech) and subcategories (gender and number) were taken into account. The surveys aimed to determine whether it mattered what parts of speech the words were (e.g., pronoun, proper/common noun), and what categorical properties nouns had (e.g., animate/inanimate, inflecting/non-inflecting, singular/plural) when used as the head words of comparative constructions5. Since this survey was incomplete—that is, it did not include sentences with the locative—the position of the genitive and dative in the case hierarchy was not established, and a second survey was conducted in 2007. This time, seventy-three first-, second-, third-, and fourth-year students of the Faculty of Philology at Vilnius University were surveyed6. They were given 105 different sentences (58 sentences previously presented to students at the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics and 47 new, additional sentences), yielding 7,665 responses. The statement “case attraction does not apply” means that none of the people surveyed used a sentence with attraction, or that the same sentence was used by no more than three people (about 3% of all sentences of a given type, considered an error margin). If case attraction does apply, but the number of sentences with attraction differs only slightly from the error margin (approximately 1%), these are borderline cases of attraction. The statement “attraction is almost impossible” means that attraction does not apply in most cases, although it is sometimes possible. Most of the cases discussed in the article concern optional attraction: sentences with attraction make up less than half of all sentences of a given type.
3. TYPES OF COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
In the previous article (Čižik 2003), based on syntactic function, identified
5 The article mentioned in the first footnote was written on the basis of the data from this survey.
6 I am grateful for the data from the first survey to Dorota Čižik (an undergraduate student at the VU Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics), and for the data from the second survey to the lecturers of the Faculty of Philology at Vilnius University: Dr. Artūras Judžėntis, Dr. Daiva Sinkevičiūtė, and Dr. Jurgis Pakeris.
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After reconstructing the full comparative sentence, two types of comparative constructions were distinguished and discussed:
i) comparative constructions functioning as adverbials of manner (i.e., constructions with the conjunction as and the correlative word so), e.g.:
(3) Romas loves you as a son.
= Romas loves you as he loves a son.
(the word expressing the standard of comparison functions as the object)
(4) Why should we quarrel like some unintelligent creatures?
= Why should we quarrel, as some unintelligent creatures do?
(the word expressing the standard of comparison functions as the subject)
ii) comparative constructions functioning as attributive modifiers (i.e., constructions with the conjunction as and the correlative word such), e.g.:
(5) In the forest I find such bounty as mushrooms and berries.
= In the forest I find such bounty as mushrooms and berries are.
(the word expressing the standard of comparison functions as the subject)
The examples showed that case attraction is characteristic only of sentences such as (4)7 and (5), where the word expressing the standard of comparison, despite functioning as the subject in the reconstructed comparative sentence, can take the same oblique case form as the word in the main clause expressing the object of comparison. Attraction is not characteristic of sentences such as (3), because the case form of the main-clause word reflects its object function in the comparative sentence8. As mentioned, this article will discuss comparative constructions functioning as attributive modifiers. This approach is taken because it has been more difficult to identify the factors determining case attraction in sentences of this type; furthermore, as already noted, this article aims to supplement and refine earlier findings, discuss the previously unexamined locative case, and determine how the results of a survey of Lithuanian philology students compare with those of a survey of students in the MIF faculty. Accordingly, this article discusses comparative constructions with the conjunction as and the correlative word such,
7 Plačiau apie atrakciją tokio tipo sakiniuose žr. Čižik (2003: 7–9).
8 Sentences with negation are an exception: the accusative can be replaced by the genitive. For more on this, see Čižik (2003: 6–7).
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-ia. Constructions of this type serve only one function—that of the subject—but this does not explain the likelihood of attraction, so an attempt was made to determine whether the categorical properties of nouns determine case attraction.
4. TYPES OF CASE ATTRACTION
4.1. First, the factors affected by the syntactic structure of the main clause are discussed, that is, the case which, under the attraction rule, should replace the nominative. According to which case could be used instead of the nominative, the constructions under study were divided into five groups:
– attraction would cause the genitive to replace the nominative — NOM. / GEN.
– attraction would cause the dative to replace the nominative — NOM. / DAT.
– attraction would cause the accusative to replace the nominative — NOM. / ACC.
– attraction would cause the instrumental to replace the nominative — NOM. / INSTR.,
– attraction would cause the locative to replace the nominative — NOM. / LOC.
The effect of case form was indeed observed: attraction can be applied in all cases when the nominative can be replaced by the accusative (group three); attraction is sometimes observed and sometimes not when instrumental or locative forms are used in the main clause—the nominative in the comparative construction is rarely replaced by the instrumental (group four) and the locative (group five); when the noun denoting the object of comparison in the main clause has a genitive or dative form, attraction is usually observed (groups one and two).
Next, an attempt was made to determine what other factors, apart from the grammatical function or case of the word denoting the object of comparison, might determine the occurrence of attraction in constructions both with and without case attraction. The categorical properties of the noun were taken into account, beginning with the more general category of part of speech. As the study showed, case attraction is rarely applied to pronouns. In addition, an attempt was made to determine with which nouns case attraction is possible and with which it is not. In this respect, the contrast between proper and common nouns proved significant. Finally, the study sought to establish whether other categorical properties of the noun have an effect: “animate: inanimate,” “count: mass,” “singular: plural.” It emerged that the categorical property “animate: inanimate” sometimes affects case attraction. In addition, when examining the effect of categorical properties on case attraction,
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another factor determining the likelihood of attraction emerged—the differences in sentence structure.
4.2.1. Since case attraction is likely in all cases where the noun expressing the object of comparison has the accusative form, let us begin with the third group—NOM. / ACC. A summary of the data from the first and second surveys showed that even when the nominative can always be replaced by the accusative, noun categories have a greater influence on case attraction: with pronouns and proper nouns, the likelihood of attraction is half that with common nouns. Thus, the results of the second survey confirmed that:
i) case attraction is possible with pronouns, cf. (6), (7), although nominative forms are more commonly used, cf. the sentences without attraction in (8), (9):
(6) It is difficult to surprise people like us. cf. such as we are
(7) It is difficult to cheer up a gloomy person like you. cf. such as you are
(8) It is difficult to surprise people like us.
(9) It is difficult to cheer up a gloomy person like you.
A new survey showed that, in the case of pronouns, informants sometimes reject constructions with case attraction. This occurs when a finite verb form is used in the sentence: if an infinitive is used, attraction is more readily applied to pronouns; cf. sentences (6), (7) with sentences (10), (11), in which no attraction was observed:
(10) Everyone notices a girl like you.
(11) Everyone tells off troublemakers like them.
ii) case attraction is possible with proper nouns, although nominative forms are more usual; cf. (12), (13), (14) and (15), (16), (17):
(12) She was not ashamed to have a husband like Brazauskas. cf. a husband such as Brazauskas is
(13) People like the Petrauskases can be cited as an example to everyone. cf. people such as the Petrauskases are
(14) Many young people like to visit a city such as Paris. cf. a city such as Paris is
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(15) She was not ashamed to have a husband like Brazauskas.
(16) People like the Petrauskases can be cited as an example to everyone.
(17) Many young people like to visit a city such as Paris.
iii) Case attraction is also possible and more common with common nouns: (a) with countable common nouns denoting persons or living beings, cf. (18), (19), although sentences with the nominative are more common, cf. (20), (21):
(18) Not everyone allows themselves such a luxury as having a child.
(19) You won't see such creatures as snakes everywhere.
(20) Not everyone allows themselves such a luxury as a child.
(21) You won't see such creatures as snakes everywhere.
(b) with countable common nouns denoting inanimate objects—things, names of actions, and abstractions, cf. (22), (23), (24), although nominative forms are more usual in this case too, cf. (25), (26), (27):
(22) It's nice to receive such a gift as a computer.
(23) Deputies rarely fulfill such things as promises.
(24) It's a pleasure to give such a gift as laughter.
(25) It's nice to receive such a gift as a computer.
(26) Deputies rarely fulfill such things as promises.
(27) It's a pleasure to give such a gift as laughter.
(c) with uncountable common nouns, cf. (28), (29), (30); as in the previous cases, sentences with the nominative case are used more often, cf. (31), (32), (33):
(28) Season a dish such as curd cheese with sour cream.
(29) Such a food product as sugar is also produced from sugar beets.
(30) Many people like a dish such as bacon.
(31) Season a dish such as curd cheese with sour cream.
(32) Such a food product as sugar is also produced from sugar beets.
(33) Many people like a dish such as bacon.
All the summarized cases of case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the accusative are presented in Schema 1.
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Schema 1. Case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the accusative.
4.2.2. The same study was also conducted with sentences from the second group—NOM. / DAT., in which, in cases of attraction, the nominative would be expected to be replaced by the dative. As in the first case, an attempt was made to determine with which nouns case attraction is possible and with which it is not, and what influence the categorical properties of the noun have. The second survey made it possible to refine the data from the first survey: in the case of sentences in the second group (NOM. / DAT.), as in the first group (NOM. / ACC.), attraction can be applied almost always—the exception is sentences with pronouns.
Case attraction is generally not applied to pronouns, e.g.:
(34) *I would not entrust such a matter to someone like you.
(35) *I don't even know how to thank someone like you.
(36) *Even if you end up without a coat, you won't suit people like them.
(37) I would not entrust such a matter to someone like you.
(38) I don't even know how to thank someone like you.
(39) Even if you end up without a coat, you won't suit people like them.
Sometimes case attraction is also possible with a pronoun (this is a borderline case—in many sentences the nominative is used), e.g.:
(40) For students such as you (dative), passing the exam will be successful.
(41) For students such as you (nominative), passing the exam will be successful. (the nominative is more usual)
The possibility of attraction in sentence (40) may have been determined by the position of the comparative construction—
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that is, the comparative construction precedes the predicate; cf. sentence (40) with sentences (34), (35), as well as the fact that the direct object intervenes between the comparative construction and the predicate; cf. sentence (40) with sentence (36)9.
The second survey showed that attraction applies to proper nouns, although sentences with the nominative are more frequent, e.g.:
(42) A warm night's lodging under a roof was not even a dream for such an unfortunate as Raulus (dative).
(43) For such hardworking people as the Januliai (dative), even the longest day of the year is too short.
(44) A warm night's lodging under a roof was not even a dream for such an unfortunate as Raulas (nominative).
(45) For such hardworking people as the Januliai (nominative), even the longest day of the year is too short.
Case attraction is possible with common nouns:
(a) with countable common nouns denoting persons or living beings, cf. (46), (47), although use of the nominative is more usual, cf. (48), (49):
(46) For birds such as sparrows (dative), cold is no danger.
(47) For a person such as a homeless person (dative), even black bread tastes good.
(48) For birds such as sparrows (nominative), cold is no danger.
(49) For a person such as a homeless person (nominative), even black bread tastes good.
(b) with countable common nouns denoting inanimate objects, cf. (50), (51), although the nominative is more usual, cf. (52), (53), e.g.:
(50) There should be enough room in your cupboard for a food supply such as biscuits.
(51) A mechanism such as a bicycle needs both wheels.
(52) There should be enough room in your cupboard for a food supply such as biscuits.
(53) A mechanism such as a bicycle needs both wheels.
(c) with uncountable common nouns, cf. (54), (55); as in the previous cases, the nominative form is more usual, cf. (56), (57):
9For discussion of how these factors may affect the occurrence of attraction, see also below.
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(54) There is no room in his heart for a feeling such as resentment.
(55) He devotes too much attention to an activity such as painting.
(56) There is no room in his heart for a feeling such as resentment.
(57) He devotes too much attention to an activity such as painting.
Incidentally, as has already been mentioned, the position of the comparative construction in the sentence may affect the likelihood of attraction. In all the cases listed above (where attraction applies), the comparative constructions occurred before the predicate; however, if a comparative construction occurs at the end of the sentence, i.e. after the predicate, the likelihood of attraction either decreases considerably or attraction is altogether impossible. For example, sentence (58) is a borderline case, whereas sentences (59) and (60) are considered erroneous and classified as sentences without attraction:
(58) One must not pester a person such as a judge with one’s questions.
(59) *Experienced people are always needed for work such as construction.
(60) The Šimoniai are not accustomed to serving masters such as Germans.
(61) Experienced people are always needed for work such as construction.
(62) The Šimoniai are not used to serving such masters as the Germans.
Cases of case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the dative, as well as cases in which case attraction does not occur, can be presented in summary form—see Schema 2.
Schema 2.Case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the dative.
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4.2.3. We will now discuss the first group—NOM. / GEN., where, in cases of attraction, the nominative case is replaced by the genitive. As in the first two cases, an attempt was made to determine with which nouns case attraction is possible and with which it is not, and what influence the categorical properties of the noun have. Here, too, the second survey made it possible to refine the data from the first survey: as in the case of the NOM. / DAT. group, attraction is almost never applied to pronouns, is possible with all common nouns, but is rare with proper nouns. Thus, we can say that attraction is almost never applied to pronouns, e.g.:
(63) *I don't need a friend like you.
(64) *I long for a friend like you.
(65) *I avoid types like them.
(66) I don't need a friend like you.
(67) I long for a friend like you.
(68) I avoid types like them.
Although rare, cases of case attraction also occur with pronouns (the nominative is used most often):
(69) Few people like us are left in the world.
(70) Few people like us are left in the world. (the nominative is more usual)
As in the case of the second group (see Section 4.2.2), attraction in this sentence may have been caused by the position of the comparative construction, i.e. the comparative construction is used before the predicate; compare sentence (69) with sentences (63), (64), and (65), as well as by the fact that an adverbial modifier intervenes between the comparative construction and the predicate.
It turned out that, unlike in the case of the NOM. / DAT. group, case attraction with proper nouns is almost impossible, e.g.:
(71) *You have not yet seen people like the Baranauskases.
(72) *She dislikes men like Antanas.
(73) You have not yet seen people like the Baranauskas family.
(74) She dislikes men like Antanas.
But in the case of proper nouns too, the construction with attraction was sometimes judged acceptable by the informants, e.g.:
(75) I would not wish neighbors like the Miškinis family on anyone.
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(76) I would not wish neighbors like the Miškinis family on anyone. (the nominative is more usual)
Most likely, in this case too, attraction is possible because the comparative construction precedes the predicate.
It has been established that attraction is possible with all common nouns: (a) with count-inflected common nouns denoting persons or living beings, cf. (77), (78), although sentences with the nominative are more frequent, cf. (79), (80):
(77) I don't need a child like a drug addict.
(78) Dear child, you won't see animals like turtles in the river.
(79) I don't need a child like a drug addict.
(80) Dear child, you won't see animals like turtles in the river.
(b) with count-inflected common nouns denoting inanimate objects—things, names of actions, and abstractions, e.g.:
(81) Documents like passports should not be shown to everyone.
(82) He did not expect an ending like prison.
(83) I don't like noise like an argument.
Case attraction is also rare in these instances; nominative forms are used more often:
(84) It is not appropriate to show documents such as passports to everyone.
(85) He did not expect an ending such as prison.
(86) I do not like noise such as an argument.
(c) with common nouns that are not inflected for number, e.g.:
(87) A person does not know how to seek something such as happiness.
(88) We do not want troubles such as expenses.
As in the cases listed above, sentences without case attraction are also more usual in this case:
(89) A person does not know how to seek something such as happiness.
(90) We do not want troubles such as expenses.
In some cases, the construction with case attraction was rejected, e.g.:
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(91) *In Classical Chinese, there is no abstract word such as truth10.
(92) In Classical Chinese, there is no abstract word such as truth.
Based on the cases of attraction involving common nouns, it cannot be claimed that these instances of attraction are influenced by the position of the comparative construction in the sentence11. It has also not been observed that, in the NOM. / GEN. group, the likelihood of attraction is determined by whether the sentence predicate is expressed by a negative verb or by a verb requiring a genitive complement. Cases of case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the genitive, as well as cases in which no case attraction occurs, can be presented schematically—see Schema 3.
Schema 3.Case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the genitive.
4.2.4. The fourth group is NOM. / INSTR., where, under attraction, the instrumental should replace the nominative. Based on the data from the first survey, it was de-
10 This sentence with attraction was used only three times and was considered an error. Attraction may have been avoided in the sentence in order to prevent ambiguity—applying case attraction would have changed the meaning of the sentence: in Chinese, there is no concept of truth, rather than no phenomenon of this kind itself. See also sentence (64), in which ambiguity could likewise have arisen.
11 Attraction is observed both in comparative constructions used before the predicate (sentences (78), (81), (82)) and in comparative constructions used after the predicate (sentences (77), (83), (87), (88)).
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It was established that the instrumental does not replace the nominative, regardless of the categorical properties of the standard of comparison. The second survey showed that, although very rarely, case attraction with the instrumental is possible. It was found that:
i) case attraction does not apply to pronouns, e.g.:
(93) *One can be proud of parents such as you (INSTR.).
(94) *It is easy to become someone such as you (INSTR.).
(95) One can be proud of parents such as you.
(96) It is easy to become someone such as you.
ii) case attraction does not apply to proper nouns12, e.g.:
(97) *Only the Zasranai can boast of acquaintances such as the Sopranos.
(98) *With a man such as Paleikis (INSTR.), she was ready for anything.
(99) Only Zasranai can boast of acquaintances such as the Sopranos.
(100) With a man like Paleikis, she was ready for anything.
iii) case attraction may apply to common nouns:
(a) case attraction does not always apply to countable common nouns denoting people or living beings, e.g.:
(101) *One can always become one like a father. (impossible)
(102) One can always become one like a father.
(103) Every child is fascinated by such creatures of nature as kittens. (possible)
(104) Every child is fascinated by such creatures of nature as kittens. (the nominative is more usual).
It is likely that case attraction is impossible in sentence (101) because ambiguity is to be avoided: becoming a father is different from becoming a person who resembles a father (see also footnote 10). There is no ambiguity in sentence (103).
(b) case attraction can usually apply to countable common nouns denoting inanimate objects—things, names of actions, and abstractions—e.g.:
(105) I would not recommend believing such nonsense as gossip.
12 It should also be checked whether attraction really does not apply to sentences with proper nouns. The examples cited are considered an error, i.e., only three sentences with case attraction were used. It would be possible to check whether the position of the comparative construction or some other factor could in this case affect the likelihood of case attraction.
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(106) I would not recommend believing such nonsense as gossip. (the nominative is more usual)
Sentence (107) is considered an error because only three sentences with attraction were used. Perhaps this was influenced by the position of the comparative construction: the comparative construction is inserted between the infinitive and the finite verb form (cf. sentence (105)):
(107) *Not everyone likes to be interested in such events as murders.
(108) Not everyone likes to be interested in such events as murder.
(c) common nouns that do not inflect for number, e.g.:
(109) It is not dangerous to contract a disease such as smallpox.
(110) It is not dangerous to contract a disease such as leprosy. (the nominative is more usual)
Cases of case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the instrumental, as well as cases in which case attraction does not occur, can be presented in summary form—see Diagram 4.
Diagram 4.Case attraction when the nominative is replaced by the instrumental.
4.2.5. 4.2.5.Finally, the fifth group, NOM. / LOC., should be discussed; in cases of attraction, the nominative can be replaced by the locative. As already mentioned, no sentences with the locative were presented in the first survey, so only data from the second survey are analyzed; these show that case attraction is sometimes possible with the locative as well. Let us consider these cases in turn.
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i) Case attraction does not apply to pronouns, e.g.:
(111) *Only in one such as him do I find consolation and peace.
(112) Let us look for reasons in ones such as them.
(113) Only in one such as he do I find consolation and peace.
(114) Let us look for reasons in ones such as they.
ii) Case attraction sometimes applies to proper nouns:
(a) Case attraction does not apply to proper nouns denoting people or living beings, e.g.:
(115) *I just wonder how there can be so much strength in such a little fellow as Jonukas?
(116) The struggle for truth raged even in such swindlers as the Kazlauskai family.
(117) I just wonder how there can be so much strength in such a little fellow as Jonukas?
(118) The struggle for truth raged even in such swindlers as the Kazlauskai family.
(b) Case attraction applies to proper nouns denoting inanimate objects, e.g.:
(119) You are always dreaming of living in a land such as Africa.
(120) Interesting customs have been found in places such as Žemaičiai and Tartučiai.
(121) You are always dreaming of living in a land such as Africa. (the nominative is more usual)
(122) Interesting customs have been found in places such as Žemaičiai and Tartučiai. (the nominative is more usual)
iii) Case attraction may apply to common nouns:
(a) Case attraction does not apply to common nouns inflected for number that denote people or living beings, e.g.:
(123) *Scientists have already found this virus in patients such as consumptives.
(124) *I spoke about the desire for freedom inherent not only in animals but also in such a creature of God as a human being.
(125) Scientists have already found this virus in patients such as consumptives.
(126) I spoke about the desire for freedom inherent not only in animals but also in such a creature of God as a human being.
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(b) Case attraction applies to common nouns inflected for number that denote inanimate objects, e.g.:
(127) In a book such as an encyclopedia, you will find many interesting things.
(128) Services will become more expensive and salaries will rise in institutions such as hospitals.
(129) In a book such as an encyclopedia, you will find many interesting things. (the nominative is more usual)
(130) Services will become more expensive and salaries will rise in institutions such as hospitals. (the nominative is more usual)
(c) Case attraction sometimes applies and sometimes does not apply to common nouns that are not inflected for number, e.g.:
(131) It is always great fun at feasts such as christenings.
(132) In competitions such as races, the best driver usually wins.
(133) *Our strength lies not in force, but in such a bond as unity.
(134) It is always great fun at feasts such as christenings. (the nominative is much more usual)
(135) In such competitions as races, the best driver usually wins. (the nominative is much more usual)
(136) Our strength lies not in power, but in a connection such as unity. (only the nominative is used)
The fact that the locative form was not used in sentence (133) may have been determined by the semantics of the head word of the comparative construction.
Cases of case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the locative, as well as cases in which case attraction does not occur, can be presented in summary form—see Scheme 5.
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Scheme 5. Case attraction in which the nominative is replaced by the locative.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Kaip jau buvo pastebėta anksčiau (Čižik 2003), linksnių atrakcija būdinga lyginamosioms konstrukcijoms, bet ne lyginamiesiems sakiniams: atkurtame pilname lyginamajame sakinyje lyginimo standartą galima išreikšti tik vardininku. Šiame straipsnyje aptartos pažyminio funkciją atliekančios lyginamosios konstrukcijos, kurių pagrindinis žodis atlieka subjekto funkciją, ir vardininką keičia netiesioginis (objekto) linksnis, pvz.: Miške randu tokių gėrybių kaip grybų, uogų (vietoje kaip grybai, uogos).
Attraction can be determined by various factors. The second survey confirmed that attraction is influenced by:
(a) case: the possibility of attraction is determined by the CASE HIERARCHY. For more on this hierarchy, first described as the “noun phrase accessibility hierarchy” (noun phrase accessibility hierarchy — Keenan, Comrie 1977), see Čižik (2003: 16–17); Holvoet, Semėnienė (2004: 28–32); Holvoet, Semėnienė (2005: 51–54).
(b) inherent categorical properties of the noun: part of speech, proper / common, animate / inanimate)13,
13 The fact that case attraction is sometimes not noticeable with pronouns and proper nouns
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(c) syntactic factors:
non-finite form (infinitive): when an infinitive is used in a sentence, case attraction also applies to pronouns (see Section 4.2.1);
position of the comparative construction: in certain cases, when the comparative construction precedes the predicate, there is a greater tendency for case attraction to apply (see Sections 4.2.2, 4.2.3); furthermore, the insertion of an object or an adverbial between the head of the comparative construction and the predicate can sometimes also lead to case attraction (see Sections 4.2.2, 4.2.3);
ambiguity: to avoid ambiguity, case attraction is not applied (see Sections 4.2.3, 4.2.4); moreover, case attraction may be absent because of the meaning of the head of the comparative construction (see Section 4.2.5).
Thus, based on the survey data, attraction is most likely to occur with the accusative case, that is, when the nominative is replaced by the accusative as a result of applying the attraction rule. Attraction is least likely with the locative and instrumental cases (the nominative is rarely replaced by the locative or instrumental), while the dative and genitive occupy an intermediate position between these cases. The second survey made it possible to refine the ordering of cases. According to the survey data, the hierarchy of cases in Lithuanian should be as follows:
with nouns, may be conditioned by the ANIMACY HIERARCHY. W. Croft presents the following expanded animacy hierarchy: 1st- and 2nd-person pronoun < 3rd-person pronoun < proper name < common noun denoting a human being < common noun denoting an animal < common noun denoting an inanimate object, which in turn consists of three finer-grained hierarchies: Person: first < second < third Referentiality: pronoun < proper name < common noun Animacy: human < animate being < inanimate object (Croft 2004: 130). For further discussion of the animacy hierarchy and its application to grammatical research, see Čižik (2003: 15-16); Šemėnienė (2005: 70ff.); Comrie (1989: 128, 185ff.).
14 Cf. the case hierarchy established by Harbert for Old German: NOM > ACC > DAT > GEN (Harbert 1989: 146). Harbert’s study is based on case attraction in relative clauses.
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The higher a particular word is in the case hierarchy, the more likely it is to be affected by attraction. It should be borne in mind that case attraction (case matching) is only a possibility15, since sentences in which nominal forms do not agree are more common. In addition, there are sentences in which, despite the established tendency, case attraction does not apply.
LITERATŪRA
Croft, W. 2004: Typology and Universals. 2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press.
Comrie, B. 1989: Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. 2nd edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Erdmann, O. 1874: Untersuchungen über die Syntax der Sprache Otfrids. Erster Teil. Halle. Reprint: Hildesheim–New York: Olms, 1973.
Grimm, J. 1866: Über einige Fälle der Attraktion. In: Kleinere Schriften III. Abhandlungen zur Literatur und Grammatik. Berlin: Dümmler, 312–348.
Harbert, W. 1989: Case attraction and the hierarchization of case. Proceedings of the Eastern States Conference on Linguistics 6. Ithaca: CLC Publications, 138–149.
Holvoet, A. & A. Judžentis, 2003: Sudėtinio prijungiamojo sakinio aprašymo pagrindai. In: Holvoet & Judžentis, red., Sintaksinių ryšių tyrimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 115–172.
Holvoet, A. & L. Semėnienė, 2004: Linksnių teorijos pagrindai. In: A. Holvoet & L. Semėnienė, red., Gramatinių kategorijų tyrimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 11–33.
Holvoet, A. & L. Semėnienė, 2005: Veiksnio ir tiesioginio papildinio sąvokos. In: A. Holvoet & R. Mikulskas, red., Gramatinių funkcijų tyrimai. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 39–64.
15 Anot O. Erdmanno, linksnio atrakcija yra veikiau išimtis nei dėsningumas (Erdmann 1874: 130).
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Keenan, E. L. & B. Comrie. 1977: Noun phrase accessibility and Universal Grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 8.1, 63–99.
Matthews, P. H. 1997: Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: University Press.
Schleicher, A. 1856: Handbuch der Litauischen Sprache: Litauische Grammatik. Prag: J. G. Calve’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.
Semėnienė, L. 2005: Intransityvinio subjekto žymėjimas vardininku ir / ar kilmininku. Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 52: 67–82.
