Linksnių atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose: papildymai ir patikslinimai

Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LIX (2008), 29 -49 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose: papildymai ir VESLAVA CiZIK-PROKASEVA Lietuviy kalbos institutas patikslinimai This article carries further an investigation into the Lithuanian case hierarchy, the first part of which was presented in Cizik (2003). The investigation is based on an empirical test of the relative accessibility of the Lithuanian cases to case attraction in comparative constructions of the type tokie dalykai kaip Zvaigédés ‘such things as stars’ (where the noun in the comparative construction can be in the nominative or be attracted to the case of the object of comparison in the main clause). The occurrence of attraction is determined not only by case but also by the categorial properties of nouns (animacy, number, proper/common) as well as by word order and other syntactic factors. Accessibility to attraction can, however, be used to establish the position of the Lithuanian cases in the case hierarchy. Whereas Cizik (2003) provided no data for the locative and the results were indecisive as to the relative position of the genitive and the dative, the additional tests described in this article point to the following ordering of cases: nominative > accusative > dative > genitive > instrumental > locative. 1. [WADS 1 The topic of linksniy attraction was first discussed by Prof. Axel Holvoet, with whose help linksniy attraction was first discussed and the first preliminary results of the research were published in the article,,Linksniy attraction in comparative constructions“ (Cit. CizZik 2003) in the journal Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 48. 2 About why These constructions are called comparative constructions, 0 no 29 Vesuava Cid1K-PROKASEVA (1) It is not possible to count such things as the Stars. It has been observed that in this type of comparative constructions not only the form of the denominator can be used, but also another form, adapted to a certain form of the main sentence nameWodzio. For example, in the sentence (1) not only the nominative but also the genitive form is possible: (2) It is not possible to count such a thing as a star. If we reconstruct a comparative sentence (it is not possible to count such things as the words), we would see that the main word of the comparative construction performs the function of the subject, so we have to wait for the denominator (as in the sentence (1)). In the sentence (2) we are faced with a verb attraction°, because the comparative construction Word Zvaigdziy is verbally aligned with the main sentence noun thingy. Though the nouns are harmonized in the verb, this is not a true harmonization, because there is no direct syntactic connection between the nouns*. Todél in such cases kalbétina about linksniy attraction, and not about matching. This article aims to supplement and clarify the data analyzed in the previous article, to examine when a funny attraction occurs, to discuss the previously undiscussed participation of the local funny in the attraction. 2. EXPERIMENT SETTINGS In December 2002, thirty students of Vilnius University were questioned in comparative sentences, as turéty biti according to the present Lithuanian language grammar, ar. Cidik (2003: 1-2). In syntax relations studies, such constructions are called reduced comparative sentences (see Holvoet & Judzentis, ed., 2003: 144-145). ° Atrakeiya (English: attraction) —the harmonization of two forms of a word, not connected by direct syntactic relationship (Matthews 1997: 29). The term attraction was adopted by the Greek grammar: it was introduced by J. Grimm (Grimm 1866), who was the first to study the term in German. This term is mostly used when talking about relative sentences. About atrakcija lietuviy language first uzsiminé A. Sleicheris. He refers to a sentence with attraction: he turéjo duktery teip grazie as jo pacze and adds that he had never heard Zmonés used otherwise, i.e. without attraction, although a sentence without attraction is not considered an error (see Schleicher 1856: 330). * More Zr. C1Zik (2003: 4). 30 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose I year student of the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics (age — 18-20 years). These students were given twice questionnaires with sentences in which it was possible to expect a funny attraction. I8 Students were asked to choose one or both of the two given noun forms if they thought they could be used in the sentence. In both cases, a variety of sentences were presented (a total of 75 different sentences, 2250 answers were obtained), operating with both more general categories (belonging to a certain part of the language) and subcategories (family, number). The surveys are intended to determine whether the words of which part of the language (e.g., pronoun, proper/general noun) have meaning, and which nouns with categorical properties (e.g., alive/dead, variable/unvariable, singular/plural) are used as the main words® of comparative constructions. Since the 3i survey was not complete, i.e. it did not contain a sentence with a placeholder, and the position of the nobleman’s servant in the linksniy hierarchy was not determined, a second survey was conducted. $j time interviewed septyniasdegimt three Vilnius University Faculty of Philology ir 2007 m. I, Il, III ir IV course students®. They were given various 105 sentences (58 sentences that were given to the students of the Faculty of MIF and 47 new, additional sentences), 7665 responses were received. The statement- ,,attraction is not applicable* means that neither of the respondents used the sentence attraction, or the same sentence was used by su more than three respondents (this amounts to about 3% of all ne sentences of a certain type and is considered an error). If a funny attraction is applied, but the number of sentences with attraction differs very little from the error (about 1%), it is about marginal cases of attraction. Saying,,attraction almost impossible* implies that in most cases the attraction is not applicable, although sometimes it is possible. ma ji Most of the cases discussed in the article are of optional attraction: sentences with attraction make up less than half of all sentences of a certain type. 3. COMPARATIVE DESIGN OF TYPES In the previous article (Cizik 2003) according to the syntax function, determined ° According to the data of this survey, the article mentioned in the first i8naSo was called. °I am grateful for the first survey data to Dorota Cizik (bachelor of VU MIF Faculty), 0 for the second survey data — Students of the Faculty of Philology of Vilnius University: dr. Artiirui "JudZenéium, dr. Daivai Sinkeviéiitei ir dr. Jurgiui Packer. 31 Vestava C1Z1k-PROKASEVA after separating the whole comparative sentence, the types of ir comparative du constructions discussed were distinguished: i) comparative constructions performing the function of a given circumstance (ty. design switch su as a rebound ir I say so), e.g. : (3) Rom loves you as much as he does. = Rom loves you as much as he loves you. (reference standard changing) The word performs an object function) (4) Why should we be angry like some stupid creatures. = I'm not angry, I'm angry kaip with some crazy creatures. (reference standard required) The word performs the function of the subject) ii) comparative constructions performing the function of the subjunctive (ty. design switch su as a rebound ir Zodiiu toks, -ia), e.g. : (5) In the bowl I find such germs as mushrooms, berries. = In the bowl I find such gérybiy as mushrooms, berries. (the word meaning the standard of comparison I8 performs the function of the subject) example isrySkéjo, that the amusing attraction is suitable only for such sentences as (4)’ ir (5), when the reference standard is different The word, despite the function of the subject performed in the reconstructed comparative sentence, can take the form ta of an indirect verb, which has the object of comparison. Zodis. For such sentences as (3) attraction is not fearful, because the main The word's vowel form reflects Sio ZodZio performs the object function* in ma the comparative sentence. As mentioned, in this article we will discuss comparative constructions, which perform the function of a subjunctive. This is done because it was more difficult to determine the factors that determined the linksniy attraction in such types of sentences, be and, as already mentioned, this article is intended to supplement the ir previously obtained results, discuss the undiscussed local linksnj, with the aim of identifying the factors that determined the linksniy attraction in these types of sentences. MIF Faculty studenty survey results. So In this article we discuss comparative constructions with su conjunction as a reply ir word such as, More about attraction in 7 this type of sentences Zr. Cizik (2003: 7-9). 8 I8imt; forms sentences su with a negative: the adjective can replace the pronoun. More about this Zr. CiZik (2003: 6-7). 32 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose - Yeah. This type of comparative constructions perform only one function of the subject, but — this does not — affect the probability of attraction, so we tried to determine, noun categorical characteristics are determined by ar fun attraction. 4. TYPES OF LINK ATTRACTIONS 4.1. Firstly, those factors are discussed, which have a syntactic structure of the main sentence, the verb, t. y. which, applying the rule of attraction, should be replaced by the noun. According to the verb galéty biti used instead of the verb of the noun, the constructs were divided into five groups: dél attractions noun replaced originator j — — Name. / GEN., dél — attraction noun replaced by noun nom. — / pat., dél — attractions nominative changed suffix nom. — / acc., dél attraction - name changed owner nom. — / iNstR., dél ~ attraction namininka replaced deputy no. — / Loc. The effect of the verb form has been i8 observed: the attraction can be applied in all cases where the noun can be replaced by the suffix (third group); attraction is sometimes noticeable, sometimes not, when the noun is rarely replaced by the pronoun in the comparative construction o of the pronoun form of the noun in the main sentence ar — je ir (fifth group); when the object of comparison is the noun of the main sentenceZodis has the form of a noble ar utilitarian, the attraction is most often noticeable ir (the first second group). Further attempted to kokie determine, other be factors, comparison objecta rei8kianéio Grammatical functions of a word or a verb, which can lead to the appearance of an attraction, when the verb attraction, ir su ir be down. The j categorical characteristics of the word are examined: starting from the language — part of the more general category. As the study revealed, the names of funny attractioja ns are rarely used. Be of which, it was tried to determine, su which nouns the attraction is linksniy known, which not. o su — In this case it is atévilgiu pasirodé necessary to check the ir general noun preposition. Finally, it was sought to change, has some other ar noun category characteristics: ,,living : dead’’,,,singular plural’’. PaaiSkéjo : that categorical properties : ,,living : dead“ sometimes have jtako linksniy attraction. Be to, nagrinéjant kategoriniy savybiy jtaka linksniy attraction, 33 Vestava C1Z1K-PROKASEVA i8rySkéjo another attraction probability lemiantis veiksnys — sentence structure differences. 4.2.1. Since a funny attraction is likely in all cases, when the noun that represents the object of comparison has a suffix form, let's start with the third group of nouns. — / acc. Summarizing the data from ir the first and second surveys, it was shown that even when the noun can always be replaced by the suffix, noun categories have a greater influence on the attraction: the probability of attraction with nouns is half that with common nouns. su ir su Thus, the results of the second survey confirmed, kad: i) linksniy attraction jmanoma su jvardziami, plg. (6), (7), although more frequently used forms of the denominator, e.g. sentences be attractions (8), (9): (6) People like us are hard to surprise. plg. as we are (7) It's hard to entertain a man like you. plg. the way you are (8) It's hard to surprise people like us. (9) It's so hard to entertain such a tu paniérelj. A new survey showed that jvardziy case informants sometimes reject constructions linksniy attraction. su This is the case when the sentence uses the form of the personal verb: if the sentence uses the communicative form, attraction is applied to pronouns more easily, cf. sentences in (6), (7) su sentences in (10), (11), which attractions are not noted: (10) Everyone notices a merging like you. (11) Everyone loves iSdykés like them. ii) amusement can be expressed by nouns, although su tikriniais the more common form of the noun, e.g. (12), (13), (14) ir (15), (16), (17): (12) She was ashamed ne to have a man like Brazauska. plg. such a man as he is Brazauskas (13) For all as an example can be given such People like Petrauskus. plg. such as People as they are Petrauskai (14) | such a city as A lot of young people are coming to Paris. plg. j the city as it is Paris is a 34 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose (15) It was not good for her to have a man like Brazauskas. (16) People like Petrauskas can be cited as an example for all. (17) J city like A lot of young people are coming to Paris. iii) amusement is more common with general nouns: (a) with plural variable general nouns, meaning persons, living beings, cf. (18), (19), although more common sentences with a noun, cf. (20), (21): (18) Not all men can afford to have the luxury of a child. (19) You won't see creatures like snakes everywhere. (20) Not everyone can afford the luxury of a child. (21) You will not see creatures like serpents everywhere. (b) Numeral su variable generic nouns, designating inanimate objects, things, verbs, abstracts, e.g. — (22), (23), (24), though ir In this case, the worse forms of the denominator, e.g. (25), (26), (27): (22) It's nice to get such a gift as a computer. (23) Members rarely fulfil such things as promises. (24) It is a pleasure to give such a gift as laughter. (25) It's nice to get a gift like a computer. (26) Members of Parliament rarely do such things as pazadas. (27) It is a pleasure to give such a gift as laughter. (c) with numerals of non-verbal generic nouns, cf. (28), (29), (30); as in the previous cases, sentences with the noun's vowel are used more often, cf. (31), (32), (33): (28) Takj jedi kot varske začinj smetano. (29) Such foodstuffs as sugars are also produced from sugar beet. (30) Many humans eat just like laSines. (31) Eat such as curd, season with cream. (32) Such foodstuffs as sugar are produced ir is from sugar beet. (33) Many Zmoniy go to eat like lasiniai. All generalized cases of linksniy attraction, when the denominator is replaced by the adjective, are presented in diagram 1. 35 Vestava C1z1K-PROKASEVA Schema 1. Linksniy attraction, when the denominator is replaced by the adjective. noun noun noun (attraction jmanoma) eee actual general (attraction jimanoma) (attraction jmanoma) variable unchangeabskai le in numbers eee Those, (attraction jimanoma) alive dead (attraction jmanoma) (attraction jmanoma) 4.2.2. The same study was carried out with ir su the sentences of the — second group nom. / pat., when the attraction case nominative turéty replace the noun. As in the first case, ir it was tried to determine which nouns can be used to describe a funny su attraction and which not, which jtaka has the characteristics of a noun category. The ir su second survey made it possible to refine the data of the first survey: (Nom. / par.) in the case of the sentencpirmosios e, paws as a group (nom. / acc. ), the attraction can be applied almost always in Simtj — subjunctives. Linksniy ro attraction su is usually not applied to nouns, e.g. : (34) *I wouldn't trust someone like you with such a thing. (35) *I don't even know how to say goodbye to someone like you. (36) *Kad ir be You'll be in your fur, you're not fit for them. (37) I wouldn't have entrusted that to someone like you. (38) AS I wasn't even defending how to deal with someone like you. (39) Kad ir be You'll be in your fur, you're not fit for them. Sometimes linksniy attraction ir su jmanoma ivarddiu (this is a marginal case of a — nominative used in many sentences), e.g. : (40) Students like you will pass the exam. (41) Students like him will pass the exam. The possibility of attraction in the sentence could be determined by the place (40) of the comparative construction, i.e. the 36 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose comparative construction goes to the S tarin, cf. sentence (40) with sentences (34), (35), and the fact that between the comparative construction and the tarin a direct complement is inserted, cf. sentence (40) with sentence (36)°. The second survey showed that the attraction applies to actual nouns, although more frequent sentences with a noun, e.g.: (42) The unfortunate Raul never dreamed of a warm night under the roof. (43) For such hardworking people as the Januli, even the longest day of the month is too short. (44) Siltq's night under the roof was not even in the dreams of such an unfortunate man as Raulis. (45) For hardworking people like Januliai, even the longest day of the month is too short. (a) with plural variable general nouns, referring to persons, living beings, cf. (46), (47), although the use of the nominative is more common, cf. (48), (49): (46) Birds such as Sparrows will not be afraid of Saléis. (47) Tokiam For a man like a homeless ir black bread is delicious. (48) For such birds as sparrows Salciai will not be afraid. (49) For a homeless man, black bread is delicious. (b) plural su variable generic nouns denoting inanimate objects, e.g. (50), (51), though more common use of the denominator, cf. (52), (53), e.g. : (50) There should be enough space in your cupboard for a food supply like cookies. (51) A machine like a bicycle needs both wheels. (52) There should be enough space in your cupboard for a food supply like cookies. (53) A machine like a bicycle needs both sides. (c) with numerals of unmodified generic nouns, cf. (54), (55); as in the previous cases, jjednodušší form of the denominator, cf. (56), (57): ® About the fact that These factors may have influenced the appearance of a certain Zr ir continue. 37 Vestava C1Z1K-PROKASEVA i) attraction, a fun attraction does not apply to jvardzZiams, e.g. : (111) *Only in him I find comfort and a¥ peace. ir (112) *Let's look at people like them. (113) Only in one like him do I find a¥ comfort and ir peace. (114) Let's look for pride in people like them. ii) linksniy atrakcija is sometimes applied to proper nouns: (a) proper nouns, referring to persons, living beings, entertainment does not apply, pvz.: (115) *I'm just wondering where if in such a small Zmogutyje kaip Jonuke is so yo-yo? (116) *The fight u tiesq viré even in such fraudsters as Kazlauskuose. (117) AS I'm just wondering if where in such a small person as Jonukas so yogos? (118) The fight uz tiesq viré even in such apherists as Kazlauskai. (b) for actual nouns denoting inanimate objects, the amusement is applied, e.g. : (119) Tu still dreaming of living on such a shore as In Africa. (120) In places like In Zemaitije, Tarucije, jdomiy paprociy was discovered. (121) Tu still dreaming of living on such a shore as Africa. (nominative jslabší) (122) In places like Zemaiciai, Taruciai discovered idimiy paprociy. (noun jgorszy) iii) amusement can be applied to general nouns: (a) general nouns with a plural, meaning persons, living beings, entertainment, do not apply, e.g. : (123) *Scientists have already found the 3{ virus in patients like the devinks. (124) *I told about the desire for freedom, gliding only in animals, ne but in such ir God's creation as He can do it. (125) Scientists have already §j found virusq in such patients as the swimmers. (126) A¥ I talked about the desire for freedom, gliding only ne in animals, but in such a ir God's creation as Zmogus. 44 Linksniy attraction in comparative constructions (b) generic nouns, skaigiais kaitomiems which denote inanimate objects, are used for the purpose of amusement, e.g. : (127) In such a book as an encyclopedia you will find a lot of interesting things. (128) In institutions such as hospitals, higher wages will ir make the service more expensive. (129) In such a book as an encyclopedia you will find many interesting things. (nominative jslabší) (130) In such institutions as hospitals, the service will be more expensive ir due to higher salaries. (nominative jslabší) (c) innumerable general nouns, linksniy atrakcija sometimes applies, sometimes not, e.g. : o — (131) It's always fun at labai parties like christening. (132) In such competitions as races, the best driver usually wins. (133) *We are strong in ne yoga, in o such a relationship as unity. (134) It is always very fun at such parties as christening. (denominator much worse) (135) In such competitions as races daZmost often wins the best driver. (denominator much more common) (136) We must be ne strong in o yoga, in such a way as unity. (denominator only) The absence of the local form in the (133) sentence may have been due to the semantics of the basic word of the comparative construction. Cases of funny attraction, where the denominator is replaced by a placeholder when funny attraction does not ir occur, can be presented in a generalized scheme — Zr. 5. 45 Vestava CiZ1K-PROKASEVA Schema 5. Funny attraction, when the denominator is replaced by the local. noun noun pronoun (attraction not noticed) actual | __— general OY = (attraction sometimes jmanoma) alive dead a i (attraction not observed) (attraction is Ne not known) variable number variable number if (attraction is not known, yrs but ae sometimes informanty aye rejected) S alive dead (attraction is not observed) (attraction is not known) 5. MISVADOS As noted earlier, (Cizik's 2003), linksniy attraction is valid for comparative constructions, but not for ne comparative sentences: in a reconstructed me complete comparative sentence the standard of comparison can be used only as a denominator. This article discusses comparative constructions performing the function of a subjunctive, in which the The word performs the function of subject, ir noun, indirect (object) pronoun, e.g. : Mike I find such goodies as mushrooms, berries (in place as mushrooms, berries). Attraction can be caused by various factors. The second survey confirmed that the attraction jtakos have: (a) slant: the possibility of attraction determines unxsniy Hierarcuua. About This hierarchy, first described as ,,vardaZodziy availability hierarchy“ (noun phrase accessibility hierarchy — Keenan, Comrie 1977), more Zr. CiZik (2003: 16-17); Holvoet, Seméniené (2004: 28-32); Holvoet, Seméniené (2005: 51-54). (b) the inherent characteristics of the noun category: part of the speech, actual general, living, / dead)", The fact that the / attractivene- © ss of the verb is sometimes not noticed in the nouns of the actual objects of the su comparative ir construction: in certain 46 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose (c) syntactic factors: + nefinitiné form (gendratis): when a sentence uses the general form, the linksniy attraction applies to ir nouns (Zr. skyrium 4.2.1); + cases, when the comparative construction goes before the tarinj, there is a greater ji tendency to apply the attractiveness of the verb (Zr. chapter of the 4.2.2, 4.2.3); be supplementary ar circumstances jsintroduction between the comparative construction of the main The ir pronunciation of the word sometimes can also lead to the appearance of a funny attraction (Zr. chapter 4.2.2, 4.2.3); + ambiguity: avoiding ambiguity, linksniy not applyatrakcija ma (Zr. section of 4.2.3, 4.2.4); be that, linksniy attractions may nebiti dél comparative construction of the main Zodzio reik'més (Zr. skyrium 4.2.5). Thus, according to the survey data, it is most likely that the attraction will occur in the case of the denominatot. y. r, when the denominator, after applying the attraction rule, replaces the denominator. The least likely attraction ir in the case of a local namesake (the noun is rarely replaced by a local namesake or o by a namesake), a servant and a descendant is in an intermediate position between You're linksniy. The second survey allowed to clarify the linksniy eiliskuma. Pagal apklausos duomenis lietuviu kalbos linksniy hierarchija turéty atrodyti taip: vardininkas galininkas > naudininkas > kilmininkas > inagininkas > vietininkas" > vardiiais, gal bati salygojama cvvuMo HierarcHuos. W. Croft presents the following hierarchy of living things: person noun 1, 2 < person's name real 3 name living thing < common noun living < thing asmeni common noun non-living < thing < The substantive general noun, which in turn consists of three smaller hierarchies: Personal: first i second third Referentiality: noun proper name general noun Life: Man living batybé < inanimate object < < < < < (Croft 2004: 130). More about the hierarchy of vitality and its application ir to grammar research Zr. Gizik (2003: 15-16); Semeni (2005: 70tt); Comrie (1989: 128, 185tt). \Plg. with Harbert- 's Old German language established linksniy hierarchya: Name > Acc par > > Gen (Harbert 1989: 146). Herbert's study is based on the linksniy attraction in relativizing sentences. 47 Vestava CrZ1k-PROKASEVA The higher a certain Zodis linksniy in the hierarchy, the more likely it will be affected by the attraction. It is necessary to remember that the linksniy attraction (linksniy combination) is only a possibilité"®, because more often sentences are used, in which noun forms are not combined. In addition, there are sentences, in which, despite the established trend, the funny attraction is not applied. LITERATURA Crort, W. 2004: Typology and Universals. 2nd edition. Cambridge: University Press. Comrie, B. 1989: Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. 2nd edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Craik, V. 2003: Linksniy attraction in comparative constructions. Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 48, 1-17. ErpMANN, O. 1874: Studies on the Syntax of Otfrid's Language. First part. Halle. Reprint: Hildesheim-New York: Olms, 1973. Grimm, J. 1866: Uber einige Fallen der Attraktion. In: Journal of Economics II. Essays on literature and grammar. Berlin: Diimmler, 312-348. Harsert, W. 1989: Case attraction and the hierarchization of case. Proceedings of the Eastern States Conference on Linguistics 6. Ithaca: CLC Publications, 138-149. Ho.voer, A. & A. Jupzentis, 2003: Basics of the expression of a subjective conjunction sentence. In: Ho.vorr & Jupzentis, red., Syntax relations research. Vilnius: Lietuviy kalbos institutas, 115-172. Hotvoet, A. & L. Sementene, 2004: Fundamentals of Funny Theory. In: A. Hotvorr & L. Seminieng, ed., Gramatiniy kategorijy tyrimai. Vilnius: Lithuanian Language Institute, 11-33. Hotvoet, A. & L. Seménrené, 2005: The morphology of the verb and the direct complement. In: A. Hoivoer & R. Mikutskas, red., Gramatiniy funky tyrimai. Vilnius: Lithuanian Language Institute, 39-64. 8 Anot O. For Erdmann, the attraction of a verb is more inheritance than conjugation (Erdmann 1874: 130). 48 Linksniy atrakcija lyginamosiose konstrukcijose Keenan, E. L. & B. Comrtg. 1977: Noun phrase accessibility and Universal Grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 8.1, 63-99. Mattuews, P. H. 1997: Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: University Press Press. Scueicuer, A. 1856: Handbook of the Lithuanian Language: Lithuanian Grammar. Prague: J. G. Calve’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. SemEntené, L. 2005: Intransitive subjects as nouns and/or adjectives. Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 52: 67-82. Veslava Cizik-ProkaSeva Lietuviy kalbos institutas P. Vileisio g. 5, 2055 Vilnius, Lithuania veslava- @lki.lt lt 49