CHRISTIANE SCHILLER

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

Research areas: Prussian-Lithuanian lexicography, onomastics, Baltic-German linguistic, literary, and cultural relations.

OCCUPATIONAL SURNAMES IN PRUSSIAN LITHUANIAN

Personal names related to occupations in Prussian Lithuanian

ABSTRACT

The article focuses on occupational surnames, a name class that, unlike in German- and English-language scholarship, has not hitherto been identified as an independent name class in Lithuanian onomastic research. All surnames that can be classified as occupational surnames were recorded from a source of Prussian-Lithuanian provenance dating from the 18th century and classified according to derivational-morphological and semantic principles. In addition, the frequency of individual occupational surnames and their derivatives was determined, making it possible to draw conclusions about the prevalence of individual occupational fields within the Lithuanian-speaking community. Finally, problems related to the classification of occupational surnames are discussed.

ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on occupational surnames. Unlike German and English research Lithuanian onomastics has not given attention to occupational surnames as a name class of its own hitherto. The basis for the research results presented here is a Lithuanian-Prussian source from the beginning of the 18th century. From this source all occupational surnames are excerpted and classified according to derivational-morphological and semantic principles. Furthermore the frequency of some occupational surnames and their derivations are determined, which gives information about the distribution of some occupations within the Lithuanian-speaking community. In the end of this paper problems with classifying occupational surnames are discussed.

KEYWORDS: onomastics, occupational surnames, Prussian Lithuania.

KEYWORDS: occupational surname, Prussia Minor, onomastics.

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Occupational surnames have so far rarely been the subject of scholarly research in Lithuanian onomastics. This is due, among other things, to the fact that, unlike in German-language onomastics¹, they are not identified here as an independent class of surnames but are assigned to the class of bynames.² The only relevant studies for the Lithuanian-speaking area of Lithuania proper are those by Zigmas Zinkevičius (1977: 59–62) and (2008: 539–548). In this context, Asta Urbonavičiūtė’s study (2005) should be mentioned for Prussian Lithuania.

This article examines the class of direct occupational surnames in Prussian Lithuania. Direct occupational surnames are understood as surnames originally formed from bynames, referring either to the main or secondary occupation, social status, or offices held by the bearers of the names (Kunze 1998: 107). They differ from indirect occupational surnames in their non-metonymic use.³ The source for this study is the register of the Amtsbauern and Kölmer in northern East Prussia around 1736, edited by Horst Kenkel in 1972 (hereafter cited as K), from which registers III, “Lithuanians” (K 249–273), and IV, “Kölmer and Erbfreie” (K 273–282), were analyzed. For the period under consideration, this register comprehensively documents the historical stock of surnames in Prussian Lithuania. Given that the formation of surnames had not yet been completed in the 18th century, there is a concrete connection to the occupations or activities of the respective name-bearers and their immediate ancestors. The surnames identified can therefore provide insight into the occupational fields in which Lithuanians actually worked.

In contrast to German surnames, among which direct occupational surnames are among the most common surnames of all,⁴ in Prussian-

¹ In German-language onomastics, surnames are usually divided into five classes: surnames from given names, surnames based on origin, surnames based on residence, surnames based on occupation, office, and status, and surnames from bynames; see Fleischer (1968: 98–120), Kunze (1998: 63), Kohlheim/Kohlheim (2008: 21–40), among others.

² So von Zigmas Zinkevičius (2008), der, wie das Inhaltsverzeichnis (S.10) erkennen lässt, die Berufsnamen (Asmenvardžiai, susiję su žmogaus amatu) unter III. Übernamen (Pravardynas) behandelt. Aleksandras Vanagas (1999: 470f.) verzichtet in seiner Klassifikation der litauischen Familiennamen gänzlich auf die Ausgliederung der Berufsnamen.

³ Indirect occupational surnames are names given to people after tools, products, work clothes, and similar items typical of their occupation, e.g., Mehlhose for a baker or Kupfer for a smith. Indirect occupational surnames occupy an intermediate position between occupational surnames and bynames, since they refer to an occupation only metonymically. Kunze (1998: 137).

⁴ The positions 1–14 among the most common German surnames are occupied by direct occupational surnames; see Müller, Schmidt, Schneider, Fischer, Weber, Meyer, Wagner, Becker, Schulz, Hoffmann, Schäfer, Bauer, Koch, Richter. Only at position 15 does a byname, Klein, appear. Source: TopNames 5000.

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In Prussian Lithuania, direct occupational surnames of Lithuanian provenance compete directly with patronymics and bynames. These differences are primarily explained by the different origins of the two naming systems. The German surname system was shaped largely in the context of medieval towns, where, owing to relatively high population density and settlements organized by occupation, occupation in particular offered itself as a naming motive. By contrast, Prussian Lithuania had small-scale settlement structures and a limited division of labor (and a correspondingly undifferentiated occupational structure); there, surnames were formed primarily according to patronymic—that is, based on given names—and byname-based patterns. The sole exception is the surname Kalwis, which will be discussed further below.

When presenting the name forms in the corpus, it should be borne in mind that the records were generally made by Germans, whose knowledge of Lithuanian cannot necessarily be assumed. Accordingly, the Lithuanian names must be presumed to have been recorded inaccurately, that is, not in a phonetically faithful manner. In addition, aspects of the integration of Lithuanian name material into the German linguistic system at the phonetic and morphological levels must be taken into account. The Prussian Lithuanian name forms are given here in their original spelling; the Lithuanian comparative material is presented in standard orthography. Variations attributable to the contemporary context of record-making are not commented on.

1. NAME TYPES FROM DERIVATIONAL-MORPHOLOGICAL AND GENETIC PERSPECTIVES

On the basis of the underlying appellatives, occupational names can be divided from a derivational-morphological perspective into simplex forms, derivatives, and compounds.

1.1. Simplex forms

Here, simplex forms are taken to include all originally Lithuanian lexemes that, synchronically, with reference to the period under consideration (17th/18th century),

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can be analyzed neither as derivatives nor as compounds. According to this definition, the only simplex forms attested in the corpus are the name forms based on the occupational designation kálvis⁵ ‘smith’: Kalwis (K 53, K 140), Kalwies (K 20, K 32, K 35, among others), Calwis (K 131), and Calwies (K 35).⁶ This fact points to the great antiquity of the formation, which is an expression of the earliest division of labor. The prominent position of this occupational field is documented by the high frequency of direct occupational names meaning ‘smith’ in all European languages.⁷

1.2.

Derivatives

Lithuanian forms agent nouns with the derivational affixes -ius and -ininkas (-inykas). When a tool or product serves as the derivational base, these function as occupational designations from which direct occupational names can arise.

1.2.1. -ius⁸. The formation of occupational designations with the derivational affix -ius is complex and, in addition to suffixation, usually also involves root metatony; cf. puõdžius from púodas (Stundžia 2009: 127). Occupational names derived from occupational designations of this type are frequent in the present corpus. The derivational base of the corresponding appellative may be either an inherited word, as in Bal(l)nus (K 30, among others), from Lithuanian bálnus ‘saddler’ (cf. Lithuanian bálnas ‘saddle’), Girnus (K 20, among others), from Lithuanian gĩrnius ‘millstone cutter’ (cf. Lithuanian gìrnos ‘millstones’), Dirszus (K 32, among others), from Lithuanian diržius ‘belt maker’ (cf. Lithuanian diržas ‘belt’), or a loanword, as in Bludszus (K 84, among others), from Lithuanian bliùdžius ‘bowl maker’ (cf. Lithuanian bliùdas ‘bowl’, from Old Russian блюдо), Kubillus (K 95), from Lithuanian kubìlius ‘cooper’ (cf. Lithuanian kùbilas ‘tub’, from Old High German kubilo, Middle High German kübel). In the family names examined, the palatality of the consonant preceding the inflectional ending is generally not indicated.

⁵ All standard Lithuanian reference forms are cited according to LKŽe.

⁶ Sowohl Pranas Skardžius (1943 [1996]: 379) als auch LKG I (§ 530) analysieren kálvis als Ableitung aus dem Verb ká lti mit dem Suffix -vis (Skardžius -vja-). Diese Interpretation hat aus diachroner Perspektive durchaus ihre Berechtigung, wird aber dem synchronen Befund nicht gerecht, da das Suffix -vis längst nicht mehr produktiv war und dementsprechend im betrachteten Zeitraum nicht mehr zur Bildung von Nomina agentis und damit zur Bildung von Berufsnamen verwendet wurde.

⁷ Eine entsprechende Übersicht bietet Kunze (1998: 117).

⁸ Zu diesem Wortbildungstyp s. Skardžius (1943 [1996]: 78).

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1.2.2. -inin kas⁹. Appellatives with the suffix -inin kas, which is also productive in modern standard Lithuanian, form the basis for a large number of further occupational surnames. Here too, the derivational base may consist, alongside the corresponding inherited words, of loanwords, as in Drawenings (K 100), from Lithuanian draviniṅkas ‘bee-keeper’ (cf. Lithuanian dravė or Lithuanian draviš ‘beehive’), Laukenings (K 188), from Lithuanian laukininkas ‘farmer’ (cf. Lithuanian laũkas ‘field’), or Szardinings (K 131), from Lithuanian žardininkas ‘gardener’ (cf. Lithuanian žardis ‘corral’), as well as loanwords, as in Kalkenings (K 116 et al.), from Lithuanian kalkininkas ‘lime burner’ (cf. Lithuanian kálkis ‘lime’, from Middle Low German kalk¹⁰), Kragenings (K 122 et al.), from Lithuanian krāgininkas ‘potter’ (cf. Lithuanian krāgas ‘jug’, from Middle Low German krōg), or Murenings (K 157), from Lithuanian mūrininkas ‘mason’ (cf. Lithuanian mūras ‘wall’, from Middle High German mūr(e) or Middle Low German mūre). In the family names studied, the suffix -iniṅkas displays the vowel reduction in an unstressed syllable typical of German, and is therefore generally written as -enings.

Occupational surnames can occasionally be attested that go back to appellatives formed from a stem using both affixes; cf. Kurpenings (K 37), from Lithuanian kùrpininkas ‘shoemaker’, and Kurpius (K 59 et al.), from Lithuanian kur̃pius ‘shoemaker’, or Plitzus (K 90), from Lithuanian plyčius ‘brickmaker, bricklayer’, and Plietenings (K 117), from Lithuanian plytininkas ‘brickmaker, bricklayer’.

1.2.3. -ėjas¹¹. -ėjas is another derivational affix that remains productive today and is used to form agent nouns. The derivational base here is the verb’s preterite stem. However, occupational surnames that can be traced to occupational terms formed with this affix are scarcely attested in the present corpus. Only one such occupational surname was identified here: Audeyus (K 14), from Lithuanian audėjas ‘weaver’. This finding largely agrees with that of Zinkevičius (2008: 539–548). In addition to Audėjas (541), he lists only Kalejas ‘blacksmith’ (543). The historically well-attested ių-stem audėjus¹² apparently follows the pattern of the other occupational terms ending in -ius.

1.3. Compounds

The number of direct occupational surnames that can be traced to a compound appellative is small, corresponding to the role of

⁹ Zu diesem Wortbildungstyp s. Skardžius (1943 [1996]: 140–148).

¹⁰ All Middle High German and Middle Low German forms are cited according to the EWD.

¹¹ Zu diesem Wortbildungstyp s. Skardžius (1943 [1996]: 83f.).

¹² Kurschat (1876: 204). LKŽe führt darüber hinaus Belege aus den Wörterbüchern von Konstantinas Sirvydas und Christian Gottlieb Mielcke an.

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compounding within Lithuanian word formation. In this connection, the family names formed from the corresponding appellatives include Rupkalwis (K 139 et al.), from Lithuanian rùpkalvis ‘rough smith’, Schaltkalwis (K 140), from Lithuanian šáltkalvis ‘cold smith’, Kraule(y)dies (K 43 et al.), from Lithuanian kraujalėdỹs ‘bloodletter, cupper’, or Bandszerus (K 142 et al.), probably from Lithuanian bandšėris ‘servant who tends livestock’. In the case of Bandszerus too, if its interpretation as an occupational surname is correct, one may assume that the iu-stem was influenced by the other occupational terms with iu-stems.

1.4. Loanwords

A distinct class of direct occupational surnames consists of names that derive from occupational terms borrowed from German or Slavic languages. The corresponding appellatives borrowed from German can be traced to both (Middle) High German and (Middle) Low German sources; cf. Zimmermons (K 123), from Lithuanian cìmermonas < Middle High German zimmerman, Beckeris (K 30), from Lithuanian bekėris < Middle High German or Middle Low German becker, Schipporus (K 104), from Lithuanian šiporius < from Middle Low German schipper ‘shipper’. Direct occupational surnames based on appellatives borrowed from Slavic languages derive from loanwords from both Polish and Belarusian, although in individual cases the precise source often cannot be determined; cf. Kawohl (K 146 et al.), from Lithuanian kavõlis ‘blacksmith’, from Polish kowal or Belarusian кавалъ, Skambraks (K 31 et al.), from Lithuanian skámbrakas ‘minstrel’, from Polish skomoroch, or Kažemecks (K 90 et al.), from Lithuanian kažemėkas ‘tanner’, from Belarusian кажемяка. As Zinkevičius’s corpus (2008: 539–548) shows, among the Slavic loanwords there are a number of occupational surnames in -orius that can be traced to corresponding Belarusian or Polish formations in -арь or -arz. Occupational surnames of this type served not only as models for creating occupational surnames in Lithuanian, as in the case of Stiglorus (K 97), from Lithuanian stiklõrius ‘glazier’¹³; the reanalyzed derivational suffix -orius apparently also replaced in Schipporus (K 104), from Lithuanian šiporius, the corresponding suffix -eris expected in loans from German (cf. šiùsteris ‘shoemaker’) or -ėris (cf. bėkėris ‘baker’).¹⁴

¹³ Skardžius (1931 [1998]: 264) nimmt für lit. stiklorjus eine Umbildung von wruss. стекларъ auf der Basis von lit. stìklas ‘Glas’ an.

¹⁴ Slavic mediation, suggested by the suffix -orius, is initially unlikely, since the corresponding occupational term borrowed from German is Polish Szyper (Linde V 633).

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2. NAME TYPES FROM A SEMANTIC PERSPECTIVE

Bereits Zinkevičius (2008: 539–548), der eine umfassende Liste der litauischen Berufsnamen darbietet, hat eine entsprechende Klassifizierung vorgenommen. Er unterscheidet vier Subklassen: 1. Soziale Stellung, 2. Amt, 3. Handwerk, 4. Militärtär. Diese Subklassifizierung lässt sich durch Differenzierung der Berufsfelder im Bereich Handwerk erweitern. An dieser Stelle soll eine modifizierte Version der von Kunze (1998: 107f.) angeführten Klassifizierung zugrunde gelegt werden. Neben den aus den Berufsbezeichnungen hervorgegangenen direkten Berufsnamen werden, wenn diese selbst nicht greifbar sind, die von diesen gebildeten patronymischen Ableitungen berücksichtigt.¹⁵

1. Agricultural occupations, forestry and fishery, primordial occupations

Laukenings (K 188) from Lithuanian laukininkas ‘farmer’, Szemenings (K 123) from Lithuanian žėmininkas ‘farmer’¹⁸, Uckeninck (K 133) from Lithuanian ūkininkas ‘(large-scale) farmer’, Szard inings (K 131) from Lithuanian žardininkas ‘gardener’, Bandszerus (K 142 et al.), probably from Lithuanian bandžėris ‘farmhand who tends the livestock’, Kum(m)etz (K 154 et al.) from Lithuanian kūmetis ‘farmhand’, Bandszus (K 50) from Lithuanian bandžius ‘herdsman’¹⁹, Klaptschus (K 30 et al.) from Lithuanian klāpičius ‘farmhand’, Almonaitis (K 72), patronymic from Lithuanian almonas ‘steward’²⁰, Drawenings (K 100) from Lithuanian drąnininkas ‘beekeeper’.

¹⁵ I would like to thank Ms Asta Urbonavičiūtė for critically reviewing this overview and for her further comments.

¹⁶ Since Lithuanian žėmininkas allows not only the meaning ‘farmer’ but also ‘inhabitant of the mainland’, this name form can potentially also be classified as a name of origin.

¹⁷ According to LPŽ (I 186), this name form may be derived not only as an occupational surname but also from the Belarusian given name Бандзоў (from Бенедикт).

¹⁸ Lithuanian almonas in the meaning ‘steward’ is well attested in the dictionaries of Prussian Lithuanian; compare Clavis Germanico-Lithvana (CIG): Hoffmann Álmonas, ó. M. (962); Hoffmutter Álmonene, ês. F. (965); Philipp Ruhig: Littauisch=Deutsches und Deutch=Littauisches Lexicon (RŽ), Hofmann bey der Pacht, ál=|| monas, ono, m. (208). LKŽe also records a citation from Metai by Kristijonas Donelaitis: „×álmonas (vok. dial. homann) sm. (1) [K]; R208 dvaro pienininkas: Ir kaip kiaulės álmono – tik gėda sakyti – kiauliškas dainas dainuot ir žvieg į užsimanė K. Donel“. Accordingly, in this case the interpretation of almonas, the derivational base of the name form Almonaitis, as an occupational surname should be preferred to the interpretation as a two-stem personal name, which LPŽ (I 89) considers possible (with a cross-reference here from Almonáitis→AÍmonas→AÍmanas). This is also supported by the fact that the occurrences of the surnames Álmonas and Almonáitis cited in LPŽ (I 89) relate primarily to places situated in the immediate vicinity of the historical Prussian-Lithuanian area, where the appellative almonas is attested.

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2. Food industry

Packawatsch (K 136) from Lithuanian pakvočius ‘baker’, Beckeris (K 30) from Lithuanian bėkėris ‘baker’, Meßeningkatis (K 166 et al.), patronymic from Lithuanian mėsininkas ‘butcher’, Bruweleit (K 68), patronymic from Lithuanian br(ī)uvėlė ‘brewer’, Piwor (K 122) from Lithuanian pyvōras ‘brewer’.

3. Metalworking

Kalwis (K 20 et al.) from Lithuanian kálvis ‘blacksmith’, Kawohl (K 146 et al.) from Lithuanian kavõlis ‘blacksmith’, Rupkalwis (K 139 et al.) from Lithuanian rùpkalvis ‘smith’, Schaltkalwis (K 140) from Lithuanian šáltkalvis ‘cold smith’, Kragenings (K 122 et al.) from Lithuanian krãginikas ‘pewterer’, Katillus (K 32 et al.) from Lithuanian katilius ‘pan-smith’, Skauradszus (K 14) from Lithuanian *skauradžius ‘pan-smith’, Geledzus (K 64) or Gelleszus (K 114) from geležius ‘blacksmith, ironmonger’.

4. Woodworking

Discheratis (K 27 et al.), patronymic from Lithuanian dišerė ‘carpenter’, Deyluaitis (K 105), patronymic from Lithuanian dailius ‘carpenter?’, Dilluwatis (K 77), patronymic from Lithuanian dielius ‘board cutter’, Geldszus (K 64 et al.) from Lithuanian *geldžius ‘trough maker’, Sketschus (K 37) from Lithuanian skiečius ‘maker of weaving combs’, Kubillus (K 95) from Lithuanian kubilius ‘cooper’; Butkkeraitis (K 8 et al.), patronymic from Lithuanian bùtkerė ‘cooper’, Radszus (K 32 et al.) from Lithuanian rãčius ‘wheelwright’, Stellmokatis (K 20), patronymic from Lithuanian stėl̃mokas ‘wheelwright’.

5. Leather production and processing

Schicksnus (K 108 et al.) from Lithuanian šikšnius ‘leatherworker’, Kaßenecks (K 90 et al.) from Lithuanian kažemėkas ‘tanner’, Kurpenings (K 37) from Lithuanian kùrpininkas ‘shoemaker’, Kurpius (K 59 et al.) from Lithuanian kùrpius ‘shoemaker’, Schustereit (K 33 et al.), patronymic from Lithuanian šiùsteris ‘shoemaker’, Sapagus (K 759) from Lithuanian *sopagius ‘bootmaker’, Bal(l)nus (K 30 et al.) from Lithuanian balnius ‘saddler’, DirsZus (K 32 et al.) from Lithuanian diržius ‘harness maker’.

6. Textile and fur trades

Schneid ereit (K 9 et al.) patronymic from Lithuanian šneideris ‘tailor’, Krautzuns (K 13 et al.) patronymic from Lithuanian kraučius ‘tailor’, Kepurnings (K 37) from kepùrininkas ‘hat maker’, Audeyus (K 14) from Lithuanian audėjas ‘weaver’, Kaylus (K 63 et al.) from Lithuanian kai̇lius ‘furrier’, Kuschnerus (K 85 et al.), Kurschnorus (K 119) from Lithuanian kušniėrius ‘furrier’.

7. Construction

Muren ingk (K 157) from Lithuanian mūrininkas ‘mason’, Zimmermons (K 123) from Lithuanian cìmermonas ‘carpenter’, Zimmernings (K 10) from Lithuanian cìmerininkas ‘carpenter’, Kalkenings (K 116 et al.) from Lithuanian kálkininkas ‘lime burner’, Plitzus (K 90) from Lithuanian plyčius ‘brick maker, bricklayer’ and Plietenings (K 117) from Lithuanian plytininkas ‘brick maker, bricklayer’, Stegus (K 58) from Lithuanian stiėgius ‘roofer’, Sticklus (K 150 et al.) from Lithuanian stiklius ‘glazier’, Stiglorus (K 97) from Lithuanian stikliórius ‘glazier’.

8. Other manufacturing trades

Bludszus (K 84 et al.) from Lithuanian bliūdžius ‘dish maker’, Bludenings (K 20) from Lithuanian bliūdininkas ‘dish maker’, Podszus (K 30 et al.) from Lithuanian puõdžius ‘potter’, Girnus (K 20 et al.) from Lithuanian gìrnius ‘millstone mason’, Rötzus (K 158), Retschus (K 162) from Lithuanian rėčius ‘sieve maker’

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9. Services

Kartzaunings (K 113) from Lithuanian karčiauniṅkas ‘tavern keeper’, Kraule(y)dies (K 43 et al.) from Lithuanian kraujaleidýs ‘bloodletter, cupping practitioner’, Waßenings (K 126) from Lithuanian važininkas ‘carter’, Maynus (K 123 et al.) from Lithuanian mai̇nius ‘deceiver, trader’, Kuptschus (K 157), Kubzus (K 57) from Lithuanian kūpčius ‘merchant’.

10. Offices

Bormeistratis (K 25) patronymic from Lithuanian bormeistras / burmistras ‘mayor’, Golmisteras (K 154) from German Garnmeister ‘assistant official to the fishery master’ (Wenskus 1990, 48), Patabuleit (K 53) probably a patronymic from Lithuanian patóbelis ‘Potabel, church attendant’, Starrost (K 139 et al.) from Lithuanian stórasta ‘(locality) head’, Lautzas (K 108 et al.) from Lithuanian laũčas ‘gamekeeper’, Packmoratis (K 30) patronymic from Lithuanian pakamórė ‘estate overseer’, Waßna (K 120 et al.) apparently from Lithuanian važnas ‘messenger, herald’.

11. Military

Scherwenings (K 186) from Lithuanian šárūniṅkas ‘ordnance officer’, Straltzuhns (K 49) patronymic from Lithuanian strėlčius, strielčius ‘sharpshooter’.

12. Other

Schipporus (K 104) from Lithuanian šiporius ‘boatman’, Bugeningk (K 97 et al.) probably from Lithuanian būgnininkas ‘drummer’, Skambraks (K 31 et al.) from Lithuanian skámbrakas ‘minstrel’, Birbindschus (K 128 et al.) from Lithuanian birbinčius ‘shawm player’.

4. FREQUENCY: TOP 10 DIRECT OCCUPATIONAL SURNAMES OF PRUSSIAN LITHUANIA

Quantifying direct occupational surnames proves extremely difficult because of their varying spellings. Moreover, many occupational surnames can only be traced through the corresponding patronymic formations. Therefore, it seems appropriate here to consider not only direct occupational surnames but also the patronymics and pentheronymics¹⁹ derived from them, since this is the only way to determine the name-forming potential of the corresponding appellative. Taking into account all spellings of a direct occupational surname and all its immediate patronymic and pentheronymic derivatives, the following picture emerges.

As the table shows, apart from occupational surnames meaning ‘smith’, ‘tailor’ and ‘wagoner’, there are scarcely any parallels with German family names in terms of frequency. Rather, the frequency pattern established here reflects the rural settlement structure of Prussian Lithuania, with its predominance of specific occupational fields.

¹⁹Pentheronymics are names derived from the name forms of the father-in-law and used to designate the son-in-law.

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TABLE 1: The most frequent direct occupational surnames and their derivatives

Overall | Number of name bearers | Number of bearers of patronymic and pentheronymic derivatives formed from the occupational surname 1. | KALVIS ‘smith’ | 74 | 11 | 63 2. | ŠNEIDERIS ‘tailor’ | 45 | 11 | 34 3. | PUODŽIUS ‘potter’ | 39 | 17 | 22 4. | BUTKERĖ ‘cooper’ | 28 | 0 | 28 5. | BALNIUS ‘saddler’ | 21 | 19 | 3 6. | RAČIUS ‘wheelwright, wagoner’ | 19 | 6 | 13 7. | KURPIUS ‘shoemaker’ | 15 | 3 | 12 8. | KAŽEMĖKAS ‘tanner’ | 15 | 13 | 2 9. | DIŠERĖ ‘carpenter’ | 11 | 1 | 10 10. | KUBILIUS ‘cooper’ | 10 | 7 | 3 11. | KUMETIS ‘servant’ | 10 | 3 | 7

5. PROBLEMS

A. Problems of demarcation

Not all surnames that appear to be direct occupational surnames are motivated as such. Connections exist both with indirect occupational surnames and with nicknames. For example, the practice of a clerical office cannot be considered as the occupation of the ancestor of the bearers of the family name Klebons (K 154); cf. Lithuanian klebõnas ‘parish priest’. As a rule, parish priests came from privileged, mostly German-speaking strata that had acquired hereditary family names at an early date. Their occupation could therefore no longer influence the formation of family names. Accordingly, the name Klebons can only be interpreted as an indirect occupational surname, for example for a potabel, that is, a church servant, or as a nickname; in the latter case, the naming motivation might be, for example, the name bearer’s deep religiousness.

It is equally problematic to subsume under direct occupational surnames family names that supposedly express social status. It is obvious that the bearers of the family name Karalus (K 43 et al.) (cf. Lithuanian karãlius ‘king’) did not hold the office of king. Rather, it is to be assumed that

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to assume that Karalus was a nickname that characterized its bearer according to certain social qualities. By contrast, in the case of the surname Bajohr (K 109), from Lithuanian bajōras ‘nobleman’, given that this byname was already clearly used in the 16th century to indicate the social status of the name bearer,²⁰ a corresponding relationship can be assumed. Here, too, however, it must be taken into account that the byname in question could also be used with the opposite meaning, i.e. to designate a particularly poor person.²¹ This connection also seems to apply to some bearers of variants of the surname Didžiūnas ‘nobleman, large landowner’. For example, Albas Dizuns farms only 0.15 g (Hufen), by far the smallest area in the village.²² The possibility of antonymic use places surnames reflecting social status close to nicknames and argues against subsuming them under direct occupational surnames.

B. The problem of tailoring

It has so far been assumed that Schneiderei is a Lithuanian patronymic formation based on an originally German surname.²³ However, this is contradicted by the fact that, among surnames of Prussian-Lithuanian provenance in Germany, this name ranks fifth with 741 bearers, after Naujoks (1432), Kalweit (915), Rudat (751), and Petereit (742),²⁴ while other Lithuanian patronymic formations based on a German occupational designation are far less frequent. Admittedly, the name Schneider also occurs 108,291 times in the German naming system²⁵

²⁰ In Diehlmann (2006: 237) wird die Sozialstruktur des Ortes Wittgirren (Kreis Tilsit) wie folgt beschrieben: „Zu Widdigire seint ein bayor, ein halbzinsner vnd 6 scharwergker“. Der „bayor“ wird mit dem entsprechenden Beinamen als Jacubel Baior angeführt.

²¹ Diese Verwendung von lit. Bajoras dokumentiert Butkus (2005: 155) ‘7. neturtingas’.

²² K 25 lists the following inhabitants of Wandlauszen (Dinglaucken district) and the Hufen they farmed: “Pritzck. Aredatis 2 g, Jurg Kundrugs 1 g, Ensk. Waschkuns 1,15 g. Hans Polluckatis 1 g, Albas Dizuns 0,15 g”.

²³ Vgl. Vanagas (1989: 964) „Šneideraitis [...] Šneideráitis [...] – žr. Šneideris“, „Šneideris [...]. Plg. Šneidaris, Šneider ys (žr.). Iš vok. Schneider, Schneiders (M. Gottschald, 1954, p. 521; H. Bahlow, 1967, p. 464)“. Kohlheim/Kohlheim (2005: 542) „Schneiderei: ursprünglich in Ostpreußen verbreitete patronymische Bildung zu →Schneider mit dem litauischen Suffix –eit.“ Ebenso auch Schiller (2008: 40).

²⁴ Source: TopNames5000. See also Schiller (2008: 40).

²⁵ Source: TopNames5000.

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the third most frequent name; however, Lithuanian patronymic formations are unattested, or only sparsely attested, for surnames with frequencies immediately adjacent to it, such as Müller (1st), Schmidt (2nd), Fischer (4th), and Weber (5th); see Schmittat (57), Fischereit (7).²⁶ Accordingly, it must be assumed that the basis of the patronymic formation Schneidereit was generally not the German surname Schneider but rather the occupational designation Šneideris borrowed from German, and the Lithuanian surname formed from it. Given that surname endings were often deleted, the name form Schneider attested in the corpus must be regarded as a rendering of Lithuanian šneideris, especially when it is associated with a clearly Lithuanian given name.

Accordingly, other name forms initially identified as German surnames may also be assigned to the group of Prussian-Lithuanian occupational surnames when they clearly refer to Lithuanian name bearers. This should be considered, among others, for the name forms Kleinschmidt (cf. Crisas Kleinschmidt, K 25) and Schuster (cf. Johnis Schuster), K 132), whose Lithuanian surname endings were apparently not recorded, making their degree of integration impossible to discern. These names provide information about the occupation of the person so designated and thus bear a direct relationship to the name bearer or their immediate ancestors.

By contrast, German occupational surnames whose spread in Prussian Lithuania resulted from the later immigration of German name bearers, as recorded, among other places, in the corpus of Urbonavičiūtė (2005), cannot be interpreted in this sense. To take just one example, the surname Bergmann has no connection to the historical world of work in Prussian Lithuania.

c. Patronymics of direct occupational surnames

As the list of the most common occupational surnames shows, many occupational surnames can be identified only through the patronymics derived from them. This observation can be interpreted in two ways. One possibility is that the formation and consolidation of names had already largely been completed by the time the data were collected, in 1736, and that the family names had been transmitted only through the corresponding patronymics. However, not all the family names examined here show the same relationship between occupational surnames and the patronymic forms derived from them. In addition, a second aspect must not be lost from sight

²⁶ Source: http://christoph.stoepel.net/geogen/v3/Default.aspx

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that the formation of names generally took place before the person began practicing a profession. Consequently, the profession pursued later apparently played only a minor role in naming, provided the person was an established member of the village community rather than a newcomer. The profession practiced by the father was more relevant to the naming of children. In forming the corresponding patronymics, the relevant occupational designation and the occupational surname derived from it competed with primary patronymics, i.e., those derived from the father’s given name, and patronymics derived from the father’s byname. This competition among the individual patronymic forms is illustrated, for example, by the following attestation: Tumschas Jäckstait or Schneiderait (K 123); here, the patronymic form derived from the occupational surname was recorded as an alias.

SUMMARY

As this study shows, Lithuanian occupational surnames merit greater attention from onomastic research. Since, as demonstrated here, occupational surnames were generally used non-metaphorically and non-metonymically, their classification as bynames, as is customary in Lithuanian research, needs to be revised. Rather, as in German-language research, occupational surnames should also be treated as a distinct name class.

Because of their close connection with the corresponding common nouns, occupational surnames can be identified relatively easily. On the basis of the known formation patterns of occupational designations, which are examined here once again, some of the occupational surnames compiled here can be traced back to occupational designations not yet recorded in the LKŽ. This points to the potential that a systematic documentation of the Prussian Lithuanian stock of names could hold for Lithuanian lexicology.

Furthermore, Lithuanian occupational surnames allow conclusions to be drawn about the occupational fields in which Lithuanians worked. Not all occupational designations transmitted in Prussian Lithuanian dictionaries are also attested in the stock of names. Occupational surnames pointing to typically urban professions, such as aukskalis ‘goldsmith’ or ziegor(i)ninkas ‘watchmaker’, could not be identified in the present corpus. Rather, the frequency of certain trades represented among the occupational surnames reveals the rural character of the settlement structure of Prussian Lithuania.

Although conclusions about the social structure of Prussian Lithuanian communities can at least in part also be drawn from the listing of occupational designations in the

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Although tax lists, church register entries, etc. make this possible, the picture of occupational fields conveyed by them is nevertheless incomplete, since such records generally state only a person’s main occupation. A multitude of areas of activity pursued as secondary employment thus remain unaccounted for. These are reflected in Familiennamen and therefore document further aspects of the division of labor in villages.

Research into not only Prussian-Lithuanian occupational names thus opens up a variety of perspectives.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Butkus Alvydas 1995: Lietuvių pravardės. Kaunas: Æsti.

CIG – CLAVIS GERMANICO-LITHVANA; LMAB RS: f. 137 13–14. – Clavis Germanico-Lithvana. Rankraštinis XVII amžiaus vokiečių–lietuvių kalbų žodynas 1–2, edited by Vincentas Drotvinas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1995–1997; 3–4. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas (Part I in volumes 1 and 2; Part II in volumes 3 and 4; Addenda [= IIA] in volume 4, pp. 1135–1184).

Diehlmann Hans Heinrich 2006: Die Türkensteuer im Herzogtum Preußen 1540. Memel–Tilsit (Sonderschriften des Vereins für Familienforschung in Ost- und Westpreußen e. V. 88/2). Hamburg: Selbstverlag des Vereins.

EWD – Pfeifer Wolfgang 1989: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. Berlin: Akademieverlag.

Fleischer Wolfgang 1964: Die deutschen Personennamen. Berlin: Akademieverlag.

K – Kenkel Horst. Manor peasants and Kölmer in northern East Prussia around 1736 (Special Publications of the Association for Family Research in East and West Prussia e. V. 9). Hamburg: Self-published by the Association, 1972.

Kohlheim Rosa, Kohlheim Volker 2005: Duden. Familiennamen. Herkunft und Bedeutung von über 20 000 Nachnamen. Mannheim, Leipzig et al.: Dudenverlag.

Kunze Konrad 1998: dtv-Atlas Namenkunde. Vor- und Familiennamen im deutschen Sprachgebiet. München: Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag.

Linde V – Linde Samuel Bogumił. Dictionary of the Polish Language 5. Lwów: Ossoliński National Institute, 1859.

LKG I – Lietuvių kalbos gramatika 1. Vilnius: Mintis, 1965.

LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, electronic version, editorial board: Gertrūda Naktinienė (editor-in-chief), Jonas Paulauskas, Ritutė Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008. www.lkz.lt.

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LPŽ I–II – Dictionary of Lithuanian Surnames 1–2, ed. Aleksandras Vanagas. Vilnius: Mokslas, 1985–1989.

RŽ – Littauifch=Deutfches und Deutfch=Littauifches Lexicon [...] by Philipp Ruhig, pastor and senior at Walterkehmen, in the Insterburg chief administrative district. Königsberg, printed and published by I. H. Hartung, 1747.

S c h i l l e r C h r i s t i a n e 2008: Surnames of Prussian-Lithuanian provenance in the Federal Republic. – Zunamen 3.1, 38–58.

S k a r d ž i u s P r a n a s 1998 [1931]: Die slavischen Lehnwörter im AltLitauischen. – Pranas Skardžius. Rinktiniai raštai 4. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1998.

S k a r d ž i u s P r a n a s 1996 [1943]: Lietuvių kalbos žodžių daryba. – Pranas Skardžius. Rinktiniai raštai 1. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1996.

S t u n d ž i a B o n i f a c a s 2009: Accentology of Standard Lithuanian. Vilnius: University Press.

TopNames5000. Online at: http://christoph.stoepel.net/geogen/v3/Software.aspx (19.03.2012).

U r b o n a v i č i ū t ė A s t a 2005: Klaipėdos krašto lietuviškos ir vokiškos profesinės kilmės pavardės etnolingvistiniu požiūriu. – Filologija 10, 84–88.

V a n a g a s A l e k s a n d r a s 1999: Pavardės. – Lietuvių kalbos enciklopedija, red. Vytautas Ambrazas. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 466–472.

W e n s k u s R e i n h a r d 1990: Namengebung und Namenwechsel im nordöstlichen Ostpreußen in der frühen Neuzeit. – Altpreußische Geschlechterkunde, Neue Folge 20, 27–142.

Z i n k e v i č i u s Z i g m a s 1977: Lithuanian personal names in Vilnius at the beginning of the 17th century. Vilnius: Mokslas.

Z i n k e v i č i u s Z i g m a s 2008: Lithuanian personal names. Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language.

Personal names related to occupations in Prussian Lithuanian

S U M M A R Y

As this study shows, personal names related to occupations also constitute a separate class of personal names in Prussian Lithuanian. Their direct, i.e., non-metonymic and non-metaphorical, use precludes their assignment to the class of nicknames. Personal names directly related to occupations derive from appellatives denoting occupations and illustrate the word-formation characteristic of this lexical class, cf. derivatives formed with the derivational affixes –ius, –ininkas, and –ėjas, as well as compounds. Another group of personal names related to occupations deri-

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ves from Slavic (Polish and Belarusian) languages and from occupational terms borrowed from German at various periods.

The twelve-level classification of personal names related to occupations proposed in the article makes it possible to differentiate them according to the relevant occupational field. Statistical analysis showed that personal names related to occupations denoting occupations in craft production (e.g., Schmied ‘blacksmith’, Schneider ‘tailor’, Töpfer ‘potter’, Böttcher ‘cooper’, Sattler ‘saddler’, Radmacher ‘wheelwright’, Schumacher ‘shoemaker’, Gerber ‘tanner’, and Tischler ‘carpenter’), are particularly frequent.

Not all surnames that can be derived from occupational and service terms should be interpreted as personal names directly related to occupations. In some cases, they may be explained as nicknames.

Received on January 7, 2012.

CHRISTIANE SCHILLER

Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

Institute for German Language and Linguistics

Unter den Linden 6, D-10099 Berlin, Deutschland

[email protected]

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