Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica
2026, ol. 94, pp. 1–28
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Recei ed: / Gau a: 2026-02-14. Accep ed: / P iim a: 2026-06-04. 1
ON SOUTH ESTONIAN PLACENAMES IN LUDZA (LUTSI) REGION
IN EASTERN LATVIA (LATGALIA)
1
Dėl pie ų es ų ie o a džių Ludzos egione y ų La ijoje (La galoje)
SIMONAS NOREIKIS
Uni e si y o Helsinki
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-2895-5880
Fields o esea ch: Finno-Ug ic his o ical and compa a i e linguis ics, onomas ics.
h ps://doi.o g/10.35321/all94-07
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ANNOTATION
The a icle in es iga es Es onian oponyms in he Ludza a ea o La ia’s La gale egion. Lu si
Es onians we e a g oup o Es onians who mo ed o his a ea in he 17 h and 18 h cen u ies and we e ul ima ely
assimila ed in o he local popula ion in he 20 h cen u y. The sou ces o he ma e ial s udied include: oponyms
p esen ed in ea lie esea ch (5), he Es onian Language Ins i u e (EKI) oponym ca d index (54), he
book Ees i mu ded IX, which con ains samples o Lu si Es onian language (1), and he da abase o he La ian
Geospa ial In o ma ion Agency (LĢIA) (1). The in es iga ed oponyms a e compa ed p ima ily o hose om
he Sou h Es onian dialec a ea and oponyms in o he Finnic e i o ies. The Es onian e ymology o h ee
oponyms p esen ed in ea lie esea ch is ejec ed. Two oponyms can be conside ed Es onian because no
al e na i e e ymologies we e ound. The EKI ca d index con ains 98 ca ds. Some o hese a e anspa en
Finnic oponyms ha equi e no u he explana ion. A o al o 54 oponyms we e selec ed, o med om
speci ic Lu si Es onian appella i es o Sou h Es onian wo ds, while he o he s a e adap ed La ian o Sla ic
oponyms. Toponyms ound in Ees i mu ded IX and he LĢIA da abase can be explained as speci ic Sou h
Es onian oponyms. The as majo i y o he in es iga ed oponyms no longe exis , as he Lu si Es onians
we e mul ilingual and likely used di e en e sions o hese oponyms depending on he language spoken.
Following he ex inc ion o he Lu si Es onian language, he Es onian e sions o he oponyms also
disappea ed.
KEYWORDS: onomas ics, oponyms, La galia, Ludza, Sou h Es onian language islands.
ANOTACIJA
S aipsnis ski as es ų ie o a džių y imui Ludzos apylinkėse La galos egione La ijoje. Ludzos
es ai – XVII–XVIII a. a sikėlusi a ba a keldin a es ų g upė, kalbėjusi pie ų es ų a mėmis, i galu inai
asimiliuo a XX a. Ti iamos medžiagos šal iniai y a šie: anks esniuose y imuose ap a i ie o a džiai (5), Es ų
kalbos ins i u o (EKI) ie o a džių ka o eka (54), leidinys Ees i mu ded IX su Ludzos es ų a mių eks ais (1) i
La ijos geoe d inės in o macijos agen ū os (LĢIA) duomenų bazė (1). Ti iami ie o a džiai pi miausia
lyginami su pie ų es ų a mių a ealo ie o a džiais, aip pa su ki ų inų kalbų a ealų ie ų a dais.
Anks esniuose y imuose ap a ų ie o a džių es iškos kilmės galimybė a mes a, ačiau d iejų iš jų kilmė gali
bū i es iška, nes a gumen ų dėl ki okios e imologijos nė a. EKI ka o ekoje y a 98 ko elės. Dalyje iš jų už ašy i
aiškūs iniški ie o a džiai, ne eikalaujan ys papildomo paaiškinimo. Iš iso y imui pasi ink i 54 ie o a džiai,
1
The s udy has been inanced by Kone Founda ion (Koneen sää iö, Finland).
2
suda y i iš sa i ų Ludzos es ų a mės apelia y ų a pie ų es ų žodžių; ki i – adap uo i la ių a sla ų
ie o a džiai. Ees i mu ded IX i LĢIA as i ie o a džiai gali bū i aiškinami kaip sa i i pie ų es ų ie ų a dai.
Didžioji dalis i iamų es ų ie o a džių neišliko, kadangi Ludzos es ai bu o daugiakalbiai i ki os kalbos
a osenoje panaudoda o a i inkamą ie o a džio a ian ą ki a kalba. Sulig es ų kalbos išnykimu i iamame
plo e išnyko i ie o a džių a ian ai šia kalba.
ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: onomas ika, ie o a džiai, La gala, Ludza, pie ų es ų kalbų salos.
1. In oduc ion
1.1. Aim
This s udy ocuses on Sou h Es onian placenames in he Ludza (Lu si)
2
egion o
Eas e n La ia (La gale). The aim is o analyse hei e ymologies and s uc u es, compa ing
hem p ima ily o oponyms in he Sou h Es onian language.
1.2. His o ical Backg ound o La galia
La galia (L La gale, L g La gola) has a di e en his o ical backg ound om o he
pa s o La ia (see Zubko-Melne 2018). Du ing he pe iod when La galia was pa o he
Polish-Li huanian Commonweal h, he egion was e e ed o as Polish Li onia (Pl In lan y
Polskie). His o ian Gus aw Man eu el (1879: 21) begins he i s chap e o his magnum
opus, In lan y Polskie: “The ea ly his o y o Polish Li onia is sh ouded in da kness ha no
ligh has ye illumina ed. Whe he La ians we e he ea lies indigenous inhabi an s he e, o
whe he Finnic ibes displaced he local popula ion du ing he mig a ion o peoples,
emains un esol ed o his day.”
3
Since ha publica ion, a chaeologis s and linguis s ha e
been a emp ing o add ess his ques ion, hough many ela ed issues emain un esol ed.
Cu en ly, he local language o he egion is La galian, whose s a us as a dialec o
a sepa a e language is s ill deba ed (see S a ecka 2025). In any case, La galian exhibi s
dis inc phonological ai s and speci ic ocabula y compa ed o s anda d La ian (e.g. L
aloda ~ L g olūda ‘language’, L peldē ies ~ L g mauduo īs ‘ o swim’) and due o hese
di e ences, hey a e no comple ely mu ually in elligible. Unlike o he pa s o La ia, whe e
Lu he anism p edomina es, Ca holicism is he dominan ai h in La galia. This egion has
been mul icul u al o cen u ies (Man eu el 2020: 243). In addi ion o La galians,
a signi ican Polish communi y is p esen . Due o he p oximi y o Russia and Bela us, he e
a e also Russian and Bela usian communi ies. Among he Russian-speaking inhabi an s,
communi ies o O hodox Old Belie e s exis , each wi h a di e en his o ical backg ound
om o he Russians. Fu he mo e, Li huanian communi ies ha e been loca ed in a ious
pa s o La galia, pa icula ly wi hin he Suba e-Tiskādi-Sa ja iangle (Ga š a 1989: 64).
The e was also a Sou h Es onian-speaking communi y ha was assimila ed in he 20 h
cen u y.
1.3. His o ical Backg ound o Lu si Es onians
Ludza (Es Lu si) Es onians li ed in he a ea a ound he own o Ludza. Thei
language was a a ia ion o Sou h Es onian (A is e 1963: 177). Besides Lu si, Sou h
Es onian includes Võ o, Se o, and Lei u a ia ions (Kallio 2018). The o igin and iming o
he a i al o Lu si Es onians emain unclea . La ian esea che Saul edis Cime manis
(2017: 9) men ions h ee di e en hypo heses:
1. They a e descendan s o he egion’s ancien Finno-Ug ic inhabi an s, who a e
e hnically mixed and p ese ed hei language o an ex ended pe iod.
2
Fo he own name he e, he La ian o m Ludza will be used, whe eas o he Es onian dialec , he o m
Lu si will be used.
3
T ansla ed om Polish by he au ho .
3
2. They we e newcome s om Es onia who, leeing he opp ession o Ge man
nobili y and se dom, ound e uge in Polish-conque ed La galia a e he 1629 A mis ice o
Al ma k; howe e , e u ning o Es onia was no easy.
3. They we e Es onian peasan s bough o exchanged o o he goods by Polish o
Ge man noblemen, and la e se led in hei La gale mano s.
In addi ion o hese hypo heses, i is belie ed ha Es onians a i ed in he Ludza
egion a he beginning o he 18 h cen u y du ing he No he n Wa (Ojansuu 1912: 23).
Mul iple wa es o mig a ion b ough Es onians o La galia, which explains he a ia ion in
hei subdialec s (Balodis 2022: 45). Acco ding o Pe i Kallio, Es onians could no ha e
se led in Ludza be o e he i s hal o he 17 h cen u y, as sound changes occu ing in Lu si
Es onian align wi h hose in Sou h Es onian by he mid-17 h cen u y (e.g. plu al ending -d >
-q, Kallio 2018: 113).
Map 1. Mo emen o Es onians o Ludza acco ding o Heikki Ojansuu (1912: 21) (map made by
Da ya Donskaya)
Recen esea ch sugges s ha he e may ha e also been Es onian se lemen s in he
Rēzekne egion (Balodis 2023).
2. Ea lie Resea ch on he Finnic Toponyms o La galia and S a ing Poin s
o he S udy
In his book Lu si maa ah as, Oska Kallas (1894: 31–33) dedica ed a pa ag aph o
placenames. He asse ed ha an Es onian illage has h ee names (see Appendix 2):
4
1) he o iginal Es onian name;
2) a La ian o Russian name ha is ei he a) a di ec ansla ion, b) an adap a ion, o
c) an un ela ed o iginal name;
3) a seconda y Es onian o m de i ed om he La ian o Russian name.
H. Ojansuu (1912: 21–22) ound pa allels (see Appendix 1) be ween oponyms in he
Ludza and Vas seliina egions, indica ing his o ical and linguis ic connec ions, and p oposed
ha Lu si Es onians o iginally mig a ed om he Vas seliina a ea. The oponyms he
men ioned a e la gely he same as hose no ed by O. Kallas. In addi ion o compa ing hese
oponyms o hose in he Vas seliina egion, he also commen ed on O. Kallas’s o iginal
p oposals.
La e in es iga ions did no s ic ly ocus on he Ludza egion; a he , hey
encompassed all o La ia, o a leas La galia. In he 1920s, Li huanian linguis Kazimie as
Būga sough o ind pa allels be ween La ian and Finnic oponyms, and his e ymological
p oposals we e ci ed in subsequen esea ch. In 1968, Ma a Rudzī e w o e an a icle
i led Somug iskie hid onīmi La ijas e i o ijā, ci ing 247 oponyms om ac oss La ia, wi h
15 loca ed in La galia and only 3 in he Ludza egion.
In he 1970s and 1980s, An ons B eidaks conduc ed ex ensi e esea ch in o he
oponyms o La galia (e.g., Влияние прибалтийско-финских языков на латгальские говоры
Лудзенского района Латвийской ССР (En: The In luence o he Bal ic-Finnic Languages on
he La galian Dialec s o he Ludza Region o he La ian SSR, 1970), Прибалтийско-
финские названия рек в Латгалии (En: Bal ic-Finnic Names o Ri e s in La gale, 1973a),
Славянские названия рек в Латгалии (En: Sla ic Names o Ri e s in La gale, 1973b), Eze a
nosaukuma S'i 'e s' e imoloģija (En: E ymology o The Lake Name S'i 'e s', 1983), Bal ijas
somu izcelsmes hid onīmi La galē (En: Hyd onyms o Bal ic-Finnic O igin in La gale, 1989)),
alongside Ame ican La ian esea che Valdis J. Zeps (e.g., A c i ique o p oposed Finnic
hyd onyms in La gola (1977) and P e-La galian hyd onyms in Eas La ia (Zeps, Rosenshield
1995). Howe e , mos o he esea ch weigh has leaned owa d possible Finnic oponyms
ha likely p eda ed he mig a ion o Es onians and e en he Bal ic se lemen . A obus
deba e ensued, e iden in V. J. Zeps’s 1977 a icle, whe e he c i iqued he e ymologies
p oposed by M. Rudzī e (1968) and A. B eidaks (1970; 1973a), and in A. B eidaks’s 1989
ollow-up whe e he coun e ed V. J. Zeps’s (1977) ema ks. Some o he e ymologies
p oposed by M. Rudzī e, A. B eidaks, and V. J. Zeps we e subsequen ly commen ed on by
Bušs and Balode in he 2000s (e.g., Bušs, Balode-Anelauskai e 2005; Balode 2007; Balode,
Bušs 2009). Finnic e ymological sugges ions a e also eco ded in he La ian oponym
dic iona y (LVV) olumes.
3. Me hods and Ma e ials
In his s udy, his o ical-geog aphical, subs a e onomas ic, and e ymological me hods
a e used.
Gi en ha he hypo hesis o Lu si Es onians as a eloca ed popula ion is he mos
widely accep ed, i is necessa y o apply se lemen -his o ical onomas ic me hods.
Denis V. Kuzmin (2014: 28) summa ises ha he main idea o se lemen -his o ical
onomas ics is ha a mig a ing popula ion ca ies new oponyms o hei new se lemen
a ea, using he same cons uc ional, ocabula y, and seman ic models o oponyms om
hei p e ious home. This concep is based on he wo ks o Ee o Ki iniemi (1977; 1978).
Consequen ly, a compa a i e s udy o he s uc u al and seman ic ypology o oponyms in
subs a e languages o languages ela ed o hem will be applied, aiming o iden i y sha ed
naming models and mo i a ions (Saa iki i 2007: 58). He e, he e m “subs a e language”
e e s o he Lu si Es onian dialec , while ela ed languages p ima ily include o he Sou h
Es onian dialec s and o he Finnic languages. Finally, as pa s o he in es iga ed oponyms
do no ha e anspa en meaning, i is necessa y o ind hei e ymology and sou ce
5
language by compa ing hem o appella i es and p ope names in he ela ed languages
(o he Finnic languages) as well as o he languages spoken in he a ea o in es iga ion
(La ian, Li huanian, Russian, Polish, Bela usian).
As he s udy ocuses on oponyms in a mino i y language su ounded by o he
languages (Bal ic and Sla ic), i is also essen ial o in es iga e he po en ial in luence o he
dominan languages on he oponyms o he mino i y language. The e o e, a con ac
onomas ics me hod will be employed. Be i Sandnes (2016) desc ibes he phenomena o
name adap a ion (e.g., phonological, mo phological, seman ic, and lexical) and ansla ion
ha occu when a p ope name is ans e ed om one language o ano he . The
cons uc ions o Lu si Es onian oponyms a e analysed by compa ing hem o o he Finnic
oponyms (Finnish and Es onian), using wo ks by E. Ki iniemi (1971; 1975; 1977; 1978),
which desc ibe Finnish oponymy, and Ees i mu ded ja kohanimed (EMjK) o Es onian
oponyms.
Ma e ial o his s udy comes om a ious sou ces. The i s sou ce is ea lie esea ch
li e a u e ha iden i ies possible Finnic oponyms in he Ludza egion, wi h e ymological
p oposals b ie ly e iewed. The p ima y esou ce o his s udy is he oponym ca d index o
he Es onian Language Ins i u e (EKI kohanimeka o eek), which con ains 98 ca ds o Lu si
Es onian oponyms. Addi ionally, one p ope name will be aken om Ees i mu ded IX,
which includes ansc ip ions o Lu si and Lei u Es onian eco dings. This oponym was
chosen because i was no men ioned in ea lie esea ch o in he ca d index. In his s udy,
oponyms om he EKI ca d index and o he sou ces will be compa ed o oponyms om
he his o ical Võ umaa egion based on he ollowing li e a u e and sou ces:
a) he PhD disse a ion by E a Saa , Võ umaa kohanimede analüüs enamle inud
nimeosade põhjal ja adi sioonilise kogukonna nimesüs eem (En: An Analysis o Place Names in
Võ umaa on he Basis o he Mos Common Name Elemen s, 2008), p o ides he mos
common name o man s in he Võ umaa naming sys em, which helps o iden i y simila
o man s in names p esen ed in he EKI ca d index,
b) he Kohanimeandmebaas (KNAB) Es onian placename da abase allows o he
sea ch o oponyms and p o ides hei exac loca ions in Es onia,
c) he Ees i kohanime aama (EKNR) Es onian oponym book p esen s Es onian
oponyms along wi h hei e ymological explana ions,
d) he Ees i mu e e sõna aama (EMS) and Väike mu desõnas ik (VMS) Es onian
dialec dic iona ies explain he meanings o oponyms o med om speci ic dialec al Sou h
Es onian appella i es.
e) he Ajaloolise Võ umaa kohanimede andmebaas (AVKA) placename da abase o he
his o ical Võ umaa which documen s e nacula Võ o-language place name usage as
eco ded om local inhabi an s du ing ieldwo k in he 1990s–2000s.
Gi en ha he s udy a ea is loca ed in La ia, ele an La ian esou ces will also be
used. The key La ian sou ces include:
a) he Toponym Da abase o he La ian Geospa ial In o ma ion Agency (LĢIA),
which allows use s o sea ch o oponyms and ind hei exac loca ions on maps o La ia.
Un o una ely, i has he d awback ha while names can be sea ched, i is no possible o
selec a speci ic loca ion on he map o display he name o he chosen place,
b) he eigh - olume LVV, which p o ides La ian oponyms along wi h possible
e ymological p oposals,
c) he da abase o La ian su names (LU) o e s insigh s in o possible e ymologies o
su names ha may ha e in luenced he o ma ion o oponyms. The e ymology o su names
can signi ican ly al e he meaning o oponyms,
d) he La ian oponym ca d index om he La ian Language Ins i u e,
e) 18 h and 19 h cen u y maps o La ia, which can be iewed in es u e dodies.l .

6
4. Analysis
4.1. Some E ymologies om Ea lie Resea ch
4.1.1. Auneja ( i e ), Aunejis aza s (lake)
A. B eidaks (2007 [1989]: 385) compa es Auneja and Aunejis aza s wi h Finnish
Ounasjoki and Ounasjä i, loca ed in no he n Lapland. Te ho I. I konen (1920: 49) eco ds
he Sámi o m a´ dnesjohka and ela es i o Aunus (Rus Олонец), al hough Jalo Kalima
(1942: 161–163) poin s ou ha he e ymology o Aunus is p oblema ic. While hyd onyms
beginning wi h Aun- a e ela i ely common in No h Finnic, hey a e no a es ed in he
Sou h Finnic a ea, including Es onia. F om an a eal- ypological pe spec i e, his weakens
he compa ison be ween Auneja and Finnic Aun- oponyms. A p opos, Aunus (Li i
Ka elian Anus, Rus Олонец
4
) ini ially p obably had *Aln- oo , which changed o Aun-
unde he in luence o Vepsian (l > u shi , e.g. Fi pel o ~ Veps pöud ‘ ield’).
In LVV (I 54–55), nume ous Aun- oponyms a e lis ed in di e en pa s o La ia
(Cou land and Vidzeme), ela ed o he La ian appella i e auns ‘ am’. A i s glance, his
explana ion seems less con incing o La galia, whe e he co esponding wo d is ucyns. Fo
his eason, Auneja canno be s aigh o wa dly associa ed wi h he Aun- oponymic g oup.
Howe e , he p esence o place names such as Auni ( a m) and Aunāji ( o es ange s a ion)
in La galia (Zeps 1984: 28) indica es ha he Aun- oo is no en i ely absen om he
egion. A. B eidaks’ a emp o p opose a Finno-Ug ic e ymology o Auneja may ha e been
mo i a ed by his dialec al disc epancy ( ucyns s. auns). Ne e heless, he p oposed
compa ison emains uncon incing. The aim o he p esen s udy is o sc u inise he Finno-
Ug ic e ymology, and his hypo hesis mus be ega ded as unlikely. Fo mula ing an
al e na i e e ymology would equi e a mo e de ailed analysis and hus alls ou side he scope
o his s udy. The o igin o Auneja and i s possible connec ion wi h Auni and Aunāji should
be add essed in a sepa a e in es iga ion, conside ing his o ical o ms such as Ауйни ( illage)
and Ауиня ( i e ) documen ed in Tsa Russian maps (dodies.l ).
4.1.2. Ņukšu ups’ ( i e ), Ņukši ( illage)
A. B eidaks (2007 [1989]: 380) compa es Ņukšu ups’ o Sámi njukča ‘swan’, which a
i s glance may seem logical bo h phonologically and seman ically. Howe e , his
compa ison is inco ec because he cogna es o he Sámi appella i e begin wi h j (SES;
UEW) (c . Finnish jou sen, Komi, and Udmu joś). The Sámi o m is a he an excep ion; in
o he Finno-Ug ic wo ds wi h an ini ial j, he Sámi cogna es also e ain he j (e.g., Finnish
jää ~ Sámi jiekŋa). Thus, he compa ison wi h Sámi njukča is unjus i ied. Ne e heless, he
oponym Ņukši s ill wa an s conside a ion as Finno-Ug ic despi e A. B eidaks’ aul y
compa ison. No ably, Nukš- oponyms a e ound in o he Finnic a eas o La ia, speci ically
in he K e inian and Li onian egions (see Map 3). Be o e analysing and compa ing hese
names u he , i is impo an o e iew he his o ical o ms o Ņukši and de e mine whe he
he i e name o he illage name is p ima y.
Ņukšu ups’ appea s o be a seconda y name de i ed om he illage name. I
designa es a segmen o he Pilda Ri e be ween Lake Pilda (Pildas eze s) and he G ea Lake
o Ludza (Lielais Ludzas Eze s). This segmen is also documen ed as Pilda, Nukša, Iļža, and
Isnauda (LĢIA), wi h he las name ela ed o a illage o he same name. The e o e, he
p ima y name in his case is he illage name Ņukši, which, on some maps, is ma ked as
Nukši (Zeps 1984). *Nukš-/Ņukš- oponyms can be compa ed o he Es onian nugis
‘ma en’ o Finnish *Nois-/Noki-, which is encoun e ed in Finnish oponymy bu no
p ese ed as an appella i e (SES s. . nokko; EES s. . nugis). Ano he La ian appella i e o
compa ison is *nuka/*ņuka/nuks (ME), which means ‘a la ge, wedge-shaped piece o b ead;
4
On he e ymology o Олонец see also D. V. Kuzmin (2021: 52), who p oposes a Sámi o igin (*ōlō ‘ lood
wa e s’ + su ix -nčē → *ōlōnčē → Олонец), which would make a Finnic e ymology o Auneja e en less ce ain.
7
also a piece o cheese o bu e ; a lump’ and has an equi alen in Li onian nukā, Es onian
nukk ‘id.; op, end’. V. J. Zeps (1962: 157–159) ma ked i as a Finnic loanwo d in La ian.
Howe e , i is limi ed o he Vidzeme, Cou land, and Semigalia egions and is no
encoun e ed in La galia a all. The appella i e nukk is used in all Es onian dialec s (VMS),
bu in oponyms i appea s only as a gene ic pa o compound place names (e.g.,
Mõ sa-nukk). The e o e, i a Finnic e ymology is o be p oposed, a mo e sui able appella i e
would be nugis, which has a ian s nukas, nugus, and nukus in Sou h Es onian dialec s.
Addi ionally, in ano he Es onian-language island (K aasna), he e is a illage named
Ночево, which p e iously had ano he name, Нюкши (SnpRI 2016). In summa y, while he
compa ison wi h Sámi njukča is lawed, he possibili y o a Finnic e ymology emains wo h
conside ing, aking in o accoun he appella i e nugis and he oponym Нюкши in he
K aasna language island.
Map 2. *Nukš-/Ņukš- oponyms in Finnic a eas o La ia (map made by D. Donskaya)
4.1.3. Pilda, Pylda (mano , i e , and lake)
La ian linguis s M. Rudzī e (1968: 189) and A. B eidaks (1970: 162; 1973a: 100)
conside he name o his lake o be a bo owing om Es onian. A. B eidaks sugges ed ha
he oikonym Pilda muiža is de i ed om Es onian põldemõis (< Es põld ‘ ield’ + mõis
‘es a e’). This explana ion seems plausible om a seman ic pe spec i e. The connec ion
be ween Pylda and põld can be logically subs an ia ed, as he owel õ in Lu si Es onian is
p onounced as y, which is also p esen in La galian, sugges ing ha he e m was bo owed
om Lu si Es onian. Howe e , V. J. Zeps (1977: 432–433) no ed ha he es a e o Pilda
exis ed be o e he 18 h cen u y, as G. Man eu el (1879: 154) men ioned ha he es a e was
unde ule in 1572. V. J. Zeps p oposed wo possibili ies: (a) he name p eda es he a i al
o he Es onians, o (b) Es onians we e p esen in he 16 h cen u y ( he same issue applies o
he a o emen ioned name Ņukši, Zeps 1977: 431). Acco ding o O. Kallas (1894: 32), he
name Pylda was no o iginally used by Es onians bu was la e adop ed in o Es onian use
wi hou u he explana ion.
8
As p e iously men ioned, he connec ion be ween Pylda and põld seems logically
g ounded. Howe e , seman ic objec ions a ise. P e ious esea ch ailed o conside ha in
Sou h Es onian, he na i e Finnic wo d nu m is mo e commonly used o ‘ ield’ han he
Ge manic loanwo d põld (in Li onian, only nuŗm is used, and a cogna e o Finnic *pel o is
absen ). Compa ing he e ms o ‘g ey pa idge (Pe dix)’ in No h Es onian and Sou h
Es onian e eals his di e ence. The No h Es onian o m põldpüü uses põld, while Sou h
Es onian employs nu m o o m he equi alen e m nu mpü i. Thus, i he names o he
lake, i e , o es a e we e bes owed by Sou h Es onian speake s, hey would likely ha e been
o med wi h he appella i e nu m. This obse a ion may easonably suppo O. Kallas’s
(1894: 32) con en ion ha Pylda was no named by Es onians and sugges s ha possibili y
(a) om V. J. Zeps (1977: 433) is mo e p obable. E en i he Es onians a i ed ea lie , he
oponym would likely ha e been c ea ed using he appella i e nu m. This implies ha i he
name p eda es he a i al o Es onians, i would ha e an al e na i e e ymology. Bal ic
e ymology should no be dismissed, especially since Augus J. Bielens ein (1892: 17)
men ions Pylda wi hou a gumen a ion as a La ian p ope name. A i s glance, i could be
associa ed wi h L pil i (‘ o pou ’), L pilē (‘ o d ip’), and he Bal ic oo s *pilnas (‘ ull’),
*pild- (‘ o ill’). Howe e , his compa ison appea s p oblema ic, as he e a e no hyd onyms
in Bal ic oponymy wi h he s em pild-. I he s em was pil- meaning ‘ o pou , d ip’, he
meaning o he su ix -da emains unclea , as i is no p oduc i e in Bal ic oponymy.
No ably, in he Lei u egion, he e is a i e named Pilupe, which in Lei u is known as
Põllupi. Daina Zemza e (1940: 80) sugges s he elemen pil- esul s om he assimila ion o
ln > ll in local La galian dialec (e.g., piln- > pill- > pil-), as in L pilns ‘ ull’ and L g pylns.
The Lei u e sion, Põllupi, may ha e been adap ed due o i s phone ic simila i y o Es põld
~ põllu. Thus, Pilda migh also be linked o L pilns ‘ ull’ o L pildī ‘ ill’. In La ia, he
su name Pilda s is ound in Vidzeme, hough i s o igin emains unexplained (LU). Finally,
in Rõuge pa ish, he e is a lake named Põldalo so jä (KNAB), which has o he No h
Es onian o ms such as Põldalane o Põldealane (KNR). The la e seems o be a ull o m,
while he o he s appea ellip ic. Põldealane combines he elemen s põlde ‘ ield (pl. GEN)’ +
NEs alane / SEs alanõ ‘a place, a ea, o space loca ed unde o nea some hing’. Thus,
while nu m is mo e widely used, põld emains a p oduc i e appella i e in Sou h Es onian.
Rega ding i s po en ial connec ion o Pilda, i migh be pos ula ed ha i ep esen s an
ellip ic o m o a oponym con aining he elemen s Põlde- and ano he beginning elemen
ha was la e los .
In any case, he associa ion o Pilda wi h he oo põlde- ep esen s he bes a ailable
e ymological explana ion, as no o he well-g ounded e ymology can be ound. Fu he
in es iga ion in o he e ymology o Pilda could help de e mine which o V. J. Zeps’s (1977:
433) possibili ies is mo e p obable: (a) ha he name p eda es he a i al o he Es onians, o
(b) ha he Es onians we e al eady p esen in he 16 h cen u y. S ong a gumen s o he
Sou h Es onian e ymology, coupled wi h weak a gumen s o he Bal ic o igin, sugges
a highe p obabili y o (b). Howe e , cla i ying he iming o Es onians’ a i al in he Ludza
egion wa an s a sepa a e s udy o explo e his issue u he . I p opose a possibili y (c): ha
Pilda migh ha e had a di e en name p io o he a i al in he 18 h cen u y, al hough his,
oo, equi es u he in es iga ion.
4.1.4. Rauzu aza s (lake), Rauzi ( illage)
Finnic e ymology o Rauzi (as well as he i e name Rauza in Vidzeme) was
sugges ed by K. Būga (1961: 562), compa ing i o an Es onian appella i e õusk (gen. sg.
õusa) and õuzane, auzane, auskane meaning ‘lumpy ozen g ound, b oken and piled-up
hummocky ice’. K. Būga’s p oposal was suppo ed by A. B eidaks (1970: 162; 1977: 29;
1989) bu c i icised by V. J. Zeps (1977: 434). La e , Beni a Laumane (1996: 216)
suppo ed he p oposal o a Finnic e ymology o he oponyms in Vidzeme while also
9
sugges ing a Bal ic e ymology (c . L auzis ‘dug land’, e c.). These sugges ions we e
summa ised in LVV (VI 122).
I is c ucial o ema k on he compa ison wi h Es onian õusk, õusane, e c. These a e
dialec al o ms (EKSS) used in he Wes e n dialec o No h Es onian (EMS; VMS), while
he oponyms Rõusa and Rõus e a e ound in he Pä numaa egion associa ed wi h he
a o emen ioned dialec . The Ludza and Vidzeme egions p edominan ly spoke Sou h
Es onian. The e o e, he compa ison wi h õusk is inadequa e om an a eal- ypological
pe spec i e. A Bal ic e ymology appea s mo e con incing. In he La ian da abase (LU), he
illage o Rauzu ciems (Rauzi) is compa ed wi h he Li huanian su name Rauza (< auza
‘c ying, weeping pe son’).
4.1.5. Soidu eze s (lake), Soidi ( illage)
M. Rudzī e (1968: 191) compa es Soidu eze s o Сойда in Ka elia, which, acco ding
o Max Vasme (1934: 56), is o Finnic o igin and ela ed o he hypo he ical Soi ojoki.
A. B eidaks (1970: 162; 1977: 29) suppo ed his p oposal. V. J. Zeps (1977: 434) had no
objec ions bu no ed ha he lake name is seconda y o he illage name Soidi. A. B eidaks
(2007 [1989]: 386–387) did no ejec his possibili y.
Howe e , he compa ison wi h Сойда and he hypo he ical Soi ojoki is doub ul. As
o Сойда, i may be Finnic bu phone ically modi ied (ou > oi, c . Лойга < Louhi) and
connec ed o Ka elian hyd onyms such as Совдозеро and Совда (< Finnic sou - ‘ o ow’)
(pe sonal co espondence wi h Ka elian oponym esea che I ma Mullonen).
In LVV (VII 10) he e was a compa ison o Sou h Es onian soine ‘ma shy’ (geni i e
soidsõ) (c . Soi sejä nea Ta u), bu i does no look plausible as a La ian e sion in his
case should be *Soicu ez. o *Soici.
Ul ima ely, he lake name Soidu eze s likely de i es om he illage name Soidi,
which in u n may ha e been named a e an an h oponym (Zeps 1984: 468). The su name
Soida is ela i ely common in he a ea unde in es iga ion and is compa able o he
Li huanian su name Saidys (LU).
4.2. EKI Ca d Index
The ca d index o he Es onian Language Ins i u e (Ees i keele ins i uu , EKI)
con ains 98 ca ds ea u ing Lu si oponyms in Es onian (some ca ds a e epea ed; see
Appendix 3). A signi ican pa o hese ca ds a e anspa en , meaning he meanings o
hei gene ic and speci ic pa s a e clea , e lec ing ypical Finnic oponymy (c . Ki iniemi
1975; EMjK). Some en ies include dis inc ly Sou h Es onian elemen s. The oponyms om
he ca d index include he ollowing gene ic elemen s:
• jä ‘lake’ (3)
• jõgi ‘ i e ’ (1)
• külä ‘ illage’ (15)
• ke k ‘chu ch’ (1)
• ki i ‘s one, boulde ’ (2)
• k aa ‘di ch, canal’ (1)
• la e ‘sp ing, sou ce’ (3)
• lump ‘small pond, dep ession’ (1)
• mäe ‘hill (gen), mound (gen)’ (3)
• mägi ‘hill, mound’ (10)
• mõ s ‘ o es ’ (2)
• mõiza ‘mano ’ (1)
• nii ‘meadow’ (8)
• o s ‘end, ip’ (2)
16
4.2.38. Sk iini (#77)
The La ian o m is Sk ini (wi h a sho i). LU eco ds he su name Sk ins in
Vidzeme, bu no e ymological explana ion is p o ided; he a ian Sk īns is also a es ed
wi hou loca ion o in e p e a ion. His o ical Russian map o ms include Скрыни (18 h
cen u y) and Скрины (19 h cen u y), sugges ing a ia ion in owel ep esen a ion. The Lu si
o m may de i e om an ea lie Russian naming o m wi h ini ial-syllable s ess, which
likely in luenced owel educ ion and adap a ion in he local phonological sys em. In his
case, he Lu si oponym would ep esen a con inua ion o he Russian name base a he
han an independen La ian de elopmen .
4.2.39. Sli a mägi (#78)
Simila o L g šli a (c . L plūme), Polish śliwa, and Russian слива ‘plum’. In
Es onian (including Sou h Es onian), o ms o he Ge manic loanwo d ploom/loom a e used,
whe eas in Lu si Es onian, i may be eplaced wi h sli a, which is also p e alen in o he
languages in he a ea. Seman ically, his aligns well, as i could e e o a hill whe e a plum
ee g ew.
4.2.40. Säzemäe (#86)
The in e p e a ion o Säzemäe emains unce ain. A compa ison wi h sääsk
‘mosqui o’ is p oblema ic lexically and phonologically. In Sou h Es onian, including Lu si,
he expec ed e m o ‘mosqui o’ is kihulanõ (EMS), making a di ec lexical de i a ion
unlikely. Addi ionally, he phonological s uc u e o Säze- (wi h a sho ä and
in e ocalic -z-) does no co espond well o Sou h Es onian sääse- o ms. B oade
compa isons may be d awn wi h Sou h Es onian and Võ umaa oponyms such as Sääsämägi,
Sääskmägi, Sääseo g, Sääskeo g, and Säässaa e (AVKA), hough hese pa allels mainly
e lec a ia ion wi hin a b oade naming pa e n a he han p o iding a di ec e ymology
o Säzemäe. Cu en ly, no secu e lexical explana ion can be p oposed.
4.2.41. Ta i (#88)
Po en ially linked o a ‘Bole us’ (Balodis 2020: 201). In s anda d Es onian, a
means ‘nasal sec e ion’; howe e , in Sou h Es onian, i e e s o Bole us o is o en used in
mush oom names (e.g., kikka a ‘chan e elle’) (VMS).
4.2.42. Tulba ükk
This ield name can be compa ed wi h he appella i e ulp: ulba ‘hinging pos ,
on ie pos ’, as well as wi h he illage and a m names Tulba (Rõuge Kasa i sa, Rõuge
Veclaicene (Es onian side), Tulbasuu (Rõuge Haanja Jaanimäe), Tulba jä (Rõuge),
Tulbamäe (Rõuge) (KNAB). This sugges s ha Tulba could ep esen a anished byname
(EKNR) o a amily ha mig a ed.
4.2.43. Tundu i’ (#91)
Likely de i ed om dundu / undu ‘1. ho se ly; 2. unin i ed gues ’, a e m
documen ed only in Lei u (meaning 1) and Lu si Es onian (meaning 2) (EMS) < L
dundu s ‘ho se ly’ ( his appella i e may also ha e inspi ed he popula La ian su name
Dundu s (LU)). The La ian name o he illage is Ab icki. The ca d no es ha he illage
name is Es onian, implying ha i was bes owed by Es onians.

17
4.2.44. Vaa kali (#93)
Al hough H. Ojansuu (1912: 21) also ound his name in Vas seliina, i has a La ian
o igin (EKNR). C . La ian ā kalis/ a kalis ‘b onze smi h’.
4.2.45. Vaaska nii (#94)
Likely ela ed o a Russian diminu i e o he pe sonal name Васька (< Василий).
Lu si Es onians also used Russian pe sonal names.
4.2.46. Vas alo (#95)
This is likely an ellipsis om Sou h Es onian as ne ‘new’ + alo ‘house’.
4.2.47. Ve ema suu (#96)
Possibly a o m o he Eas Sla ic pe sonal name Верема (< Иеремия, ‘Je emias’).
4.2.48. Väha (#97) (#98)
Likely de i ed om ähk ‘c ab’. O. Kallas (1894: 31) no ed ha he o iginal o m
was Vähä külä, which was ansla ed in o Веженки and adap ed in o Es onian as Vezenki.
H. Ojansuu (1912: 21) had ano he opinion: while Vähä illage exis s in he Vas seliina
egion, Vähä külä in he Ludza egion is a ansla ion “ om La ian.”
4.3. Ees i mu ded IX
4.3.1. Vana aha suu
In Ees i mu ded IX (221), in o man Ossip Jakimenko desc ibed he na u al
su oundings o Šķi pāni illage in 1960, men ioning se e al lakes, p ima ily in hei
La galian o ms, as well as a bog called Vana aha suu. This name has no been documen ed
in ea lie esea ch, so i will be examined he e.
To begin, I a emp ed o iden i y his bog using a ious maps and loca ed a ma ked
bog nea Šķi pāni; un o una ely, i s name was no p o ided. The name Vana aha suu
appea s o be a compound: ana ‘old’ + aha-suu (whe e aha is a weak g ade o m o ahk,
c . Fi ahkasuo ‘sphagnum bog, pea bog’). This sugges s ha Vana aha suu can be
in e p e ed as “Old Sphagnum Bog” o “Old Pea Bog,” e lec ing he na u al cha ac e is ics
o he a ea.
4.4. LĢIA
4.4.1. Ku ma, Kū mas eze s
Ku ma and Kū mas eze s we e no men ioned as possible Finnic oponyms in ea lie
esea ch. They we e chosen o analysis because hey a e loca ed nea o he Lu si Es onian
illages. This case is con using, as he illage name con ains a sho u, while he lake name,
Kū mas eze s, ea u es a long ū. These o ms a e eco ded in he LĢIA da abase, bu he
ques ion emains as o which o m is p ima y.
In LVV (II 180), Ku ma is men ioned (wi hou an e ymology p oposal), while he
lake name is no lis ed. Acco ding o he La ian Language Ins i u e ca d index, Kū mas
eze s was p e iously known as Ku mas eze s, bu he name changed a e an expedi ion
eco ded he cu en o m. This indica es ha he p ima y o m was likely Ku mas, which
may ha e been dis o ed by an in o man .
In Sou h Es onian, he e m ku m means ‘isola ed piece o land; muck; co ne ’
(EKNR) o ‘is hmus’ (EMS). This is pa icula ly ele an in he Põl a egion, whe e names
like Loko-ku m (EKNR) and Kah u-ku mu, Paju-ku mu (KNAB) a e ound. This Sou h
18
Es onian dialec al appella i e is i ing, as he illage is si ua ed on an is hmus be ween wo
lakes (Lielais and Mazais Kū mas eze s).
G aphic. Ku ma lakes and illage (g aphic by D. Donskaya)
5. Resul s
In his pa , he esul s o he in es iga ion o he oponyms o he Ludza egion a e
summa ised: 1) e ymological p oposals in ea lie esea ch; 2) analysis o he EKI ca d index
and Ees i mu ded IX; 3) new indings.
5.1. E ymology p oposals in ea lie esea ch
A. B eidaks (2007 [1989]: 386–387) p esen ed 31 oponyms as Finno-Ug ic in he
his o ical egion o La galia and pa ially Vidzeme. Only 5 oponyms we e aken in o
conside a ion, all ound in he s udy’s a ea o in es iga ion. 3 o hem (Auneja, Rauzi and
Soidi) ha e a weak Finno-Ug ic explana ion and a e a he Bal ic.
19
Conce ning Pylda, he Finnic e ymology p oposal is he bes explana ion despi e
objec ions, because i canno be explained as Bal ic, Ge manic, o Sla ic due o he lack o
simila oponyms in hose p ope name sys ems.
The Finno-Ug ic e ymology p oposal o Ņukši in ea lie esea ch was e oneous
(a compa ison wi h a Saami appella i e), bu i can be explained in ano he way
(compa ison o Es onian and Finish appella i es and oponyms). In his s udy, a new s a ing
poin was ound o u he in es iga ion o his oponym in ano he , sepa a e, deepe
esea ch wo k.
5.2. EKI ca d index and Ees i mu ded IX
The EKI ca d index con ains 98 ca ds (wi h some epea ing en ies), and in his
s udy, 54 en ies (55%) we e chosen o analyse. The es o he en ies did no need deep
analysis due o hei clea meaning and ypical Finnic s uc u e.
The es o he en ies can be di ided in o 3 g oups: 1) speci ic Lu si Es onian
names; 2) speci ic Sou h Es onian names; 3) La ian o Russian names adap ed o he local
Es onian a ia ion.
The i s g oup consis s o appella i es documen ed only in he Lu si Es onian
a ie y.
Gene ally speaking, he ca d index con ains mic o oponyms cha ac e is ic o he
Lu si Es onian linguis ic en i onmen . Many o hese place names p obably coexis ed wi h
co esponding La ian o Sla ic a ian s, and Lu si Es onian speake s likely used di e en
o ms depending on he language used in a pa icula communica i e con ex .
In Ees i mu ded IX, a bog name Vana aha suu was men ioned, which had a ela i ely
anspa en e ymology and was no e y ha d o explain. I was aken in o conside a ion
because in Ees i mu ded IX, despi e a la ge amoun o co pus, he e we e men ioned jus
a ew oponyms. Un o una ely, despi e he qui e p ecise desc ip ion o he loca ion by he
in o man , i was impossible o iden i y i on he LĢIA map because he e was no op ion o
iew he objec ’s name.
5.3. New indings
A new inding was he lake name and he illage and lake name Ku ma, which was
no men ioned in any p ima y (EKI ca d index) o seconda y (ea lie esea ch li e a u e)
sou ces as a possible Finnic oponym. The idea ha i migh be Finnic came om he ac
ha i has no e ymology p oposal (LVV) and i is loca ed nea a place wi h a high
concen a ion o Lu si Es onian speake s. Finnic e ymology sugges ion seems o be plausible
due o he co ela ion o he meaning o he dialec al appella i e ku m ‘is hmus’ and he
loca ion o he illage on an is hmus.
6. Conclusion
In his a icle, he oponyms o he his o ical Lu si Es onian-speaking a ea in eas e n
La ia we e in es iga ed. The s udy ocused on he e ymology, s uc u e, and linguis ic
backg ound o place names eco ded in bo h ea lie esea ch and p ima y a chi al sou ces.
The analysis o he oponyms discussed in ea lie esea ch demons a ed ha
phonological simila i y alone is insu icien o es ablishing Finnic e ymology. In se e al
cases, p e iously p oposed Finnic explana ions appea weak om seman ic and a eal-
ypological pe spec i es. A he same ime, some oponyms s ill admi plausible Finnic
in e p e a ions, al hough he ques ion o whe he hese names o igina ed be o e o a e he
a i al o Sou h Es onian speake s in he Ludza egion emains un esol ed. Cla i ying his
issue would equi e a sepa a e in es iga ion based on his o ical maps, a chi al eco ds, and
b oade compa a i e ma e ial.
The analysis o he EKI ca d index and he ma e ial om Ees i mu ded IX showed
ha he Lu si Es onian oponymic sys em consis ed o se e al di e en ypes: 1) ypical
20
Finnic o ma ions; 2) speci ically Sou h Es onian oponyms; 3) names con aining dis inc i e
Lu si Es onian dialec elemen s; 4) phonologically o lexically adap ed La ian and Sla ic
names. Some names ne e heless emain unexplained, demons a ing he agmen a y
cha ac e o he p ese ed ma e ial and he complexi y o he mul ilingual con ac si ua ion
in he egion.
The s udy also iden i ied a p e iously unin es iga ed oponym ha had no been
men ioned in ei he ea lie esea ch o he EKI ca d index. Al hough i s Finnic o igin was
no immedia ely ob ious, compa ison wi h Sou h Es onian ma e ial made i possible o
p opose a new di ec ion o in e p e a ion.
Today, he Lu si Es onian language is ex inc , and he place names eco ded in he
a chi al sou ces a e no longe used in e e yday communica ion. These ma e ials, he e o e,
ep esen impo an es imony o he his o ical naming p ac ices and mul ilingual landscape
o he Ludza egion.
Fu he esea ch should con inue in es iga ing hose oponyms wi h plausible Finnic
e ymologies, while also seeking o cla i y he o igins o names ha emain unexplained. In
addi ion, ieldwo k among descendan s o Lu si Es onian speake s may s ill p o ide aluable
in o ma ion abou o go en place names and hei loca ions. As mos emaining in o man s
a e elde ly, such documen a ion would be pa icula ly u gen .
ABBREVIATIONS
Es – Es onian; Fi – Finnish; L – Li huanian; L – La ian; NEs – No h Es onian;
Pl – Polish; Rus – Russian; SEs – Sou h Es onian; Veps – Vepsian
DATA SOURCES
AVKA: Ajaloolise Võ umaa kohanimede andmebaas [Placename Da abase o he His o ical
Võ umaa]. In e ne Access: h ps://wi.ee/e /kohanimed/.
dodies.l : His o ical Maps o La ia. In e ne Access: h ps:// es u e.dodies.l /.
EES: Ees i e ümoloogia sõna aama [Es onian E ymological Dic iona y]. In e ne Access:
h ps://a hii .eki.ee/dic /e y/.
EKI: Ees i keele ins i uudi kohamnimeka o eek [Placename Ca d Index o he Ins i u e o he
Es onian Language]. In e ne Access: h ps://a hii .eki.ee/kohanimed/.
EKNR: Ees i kohanime aama [Es ionan Placenamebook]. In e ne Access:
h ps://a hii .eki.ee/dic /kn /.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Pa allels be ween Lu si Es onian and he Vas seliina egion oponyms by H. Ojansuu
(1912: 21–22)
No.
La ian/Russian
Lu si
Vas seliina
1.
Воркали (Vo kali)
Va kali/Vaa kali
Va kali
2.
Цяпищи (Tjapši)
Tsäpsi
Tsäpsi
Jaanikülä
Jaanimäe
3.
Шкирпаны (Šķi pāni)
Ki bu (küla)
Ki bu
4.
Кукуево (Kukuje a)
Kukli külä
Kuklais e
5.
Веженки (Veženki)
Vähä külä
Vähä külä
6.
Путыново (Pu ino a)
Tsi gu külä
7.
Райбакозы (Raibakozi)
Ki i aki se külä
8.
Гярмы (Ge mi)
Mõ sa külä
Mõ samäe
9.
Боровушки (Bo o uška)
Palokõ dzi küla
Palo e e, Palo-o sa
10.
Малые Пиковы (Mazā Pīko a)
Mäeküla
Mäe
11.
Большие Пиковы (Liela Pīko a)
Alakülä
Alamäe
Appendix 2. Toponym able based on he lis by O. Kallas (1894: 31–32) wi h possible commen s
and compa isons o Vas seliina egion oponyms by H. Ojansuu (1912: 21–22)
O iginal Es onian
name
La ian5/Russian
( ansla ion om
Es onian)
Es onian adap a ion
o he La ian /
Russian e sion
Possible compa ison and/o ema k
by H. Ojansuu (1912)
Ki i ä-kidze
Райбакозы
Räbakoza
The La ian e sion is he o iginal
one
Vähä külä
Веженки
Vezenki
Vähä; he La ian e sion is a he
he o iginal one
Vah sene kulä
Новая Деревня
No a d’e e na
Ki bu külä
Шкирпаны
Ki bani
Ki bu
Loodi külä
Лоциши
Kukli külä
Кукуево
Kuklais e
La ian/Russian
(o iginal)
Pa ke külä
Боровая
Ba a a
Mõ sa külä
Гермы
Mõ samäe
Mägize külä
Барисы
Ta i külä
Счастливые
Mäe külä
Малые Пиковы
Väiku Piiko a
Ala külä
Большие Пиковы
Suu e Piiko a
Jaani külä
Большие Цяпши
Suu e Tsäpsi
Jaanikülä, Jaanimäe; Tsäpsi
Ki i külä
Райполь
Raiba
Vah salo
Сальники
Sal’nigi
Шалаи
Salai
Рузары
Ruuzino a
Барановка
Ba ano a
5
O. Kallas p esen s he oponyms as La ian and w i es hem in Cy illic o hog aphy.