KALBŲ KONTAKTAI LIETUVOS TSR

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI XXIII (1983)

STASĖ KRINICKAITĖ

EXPERIENCE IN COMPILING A LITHUANIAN–RUSSIAN DICTIONARY OF TRANSITIVE VERBS

We understand the category of verbal transitivity as a lexico-grammatical category based on the opposition between verbs that can take a direct object and verbs that cannot combine with a direct object (Lietuvių kalbos gramatika, 1971, p. 179; Jakaitienė E., 1976, p. 109). In Lithuanian, which has a system of diathetic oppositions, the core of oppositions in transitivity consists of relations between verbs with different morphological structures. On the basis of an analysis of the morphological and derivational structures of the verbs recorded in the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian” (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, 1972), three main types of verbal oppositions are identified, corresponding to three historical strata: I — oppositions of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” (virsti “to topple” // versti “to topple something”), formally expressed by the opposition of root ablaut grades and the opposition of inflections; II — oppositions of the type “non-causative verb // causative verb,” whose formal features include oppositions of root ablaut grades and inflections, as well as the absence—presence of the derivational suffixes -(d)inti, -(d)ẏti (e.g., bügti “to be frightened” // bauginti “to frighten”); III — oppositions of the type “non-reflexive verb // reflexive verb,” characterized by the opposition between the absence and presence of the reflexive particle -si (e.g., rengti “to dress” // rengtis “to get dressed”) (Paulauskienė A., 1979, p. 26; Криницкайте С., 1980, p. 12).

All these oppositions denote the semantic opposition “state // action,” i.e., an opposition in terms of the relation of verbal action to its subject. This is associated, especially with verbs involving external and internal diathesis, with the opposition between inanimate and animate (more broadly, inactive and active) subjects (Степанов Ю. С., 1977, с. 135—152). Thus, transitivity in the strict sense—as the property of combining with a direct object—is merely an accompanying feature that specifies the verb’s core meaning.

Our dictionary presents the most frequently used oppositions between transitive and intransitive verbs listed in the “Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian.” We have laid out the verbal entries in oppositions on the basis of the correspondence between their morphological structures, with their individual meanings described in two columns so that the oppositional meanings can be compared. If a meaning of one verb has no corresponding opposite meaning in the other verb, a blank is left. Corresponding oppositional meanings are assigned the same serial number.

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on the basis of the correspondence between their morphological structures, with their individual meanings described in two columns so that the oppositional meanings can be compared. If a meaning of one verb has no corresponding opposite meaning in the other verb, a blank is left. Corresponding oppositional meanings are assigned the same serial number.

Parentheses without a label () indicate that the given verb is interpreted in the Dictionary non-oppositionally, as an independent word. Parentheses with the label (caus.) indicate that the given verb is interpreted in the Dictionary as belonging to the opposition “non-causative verb // causative verb.”

An asterisk above indicates that the illustrative example has either been expanded by us or taken from other sources. Such a mark by a verb means that the given verb is not included in the Dictionary at all, apparently because it is less common, more specialized, archaic, etc.

After the meanings of the verbs are described, a label indicates whether, in its transitive or intransitive meaning, the given verb more often combines with animate, active subjects (anim.) or with inanimate, inactive ones (inanim.). Finally, after the meanings of the verb pair are described, a list is given of other oppositions in which these verbs may also occur*

I. Oppositions of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” (virsti “to topple // versti “to topple something”)

birti

berti ()

1. to pour out, spill (of small things) Spaliai byra “The chaff is falling” Rudenį byra medžių lapai “In autumn, the leaves of trees fall”

1. to pour Kur bersim grūdus? “Where shall we pour the grain?” berti žodžius “to pour out words (lit. words), speak rapidly” 2. to sow Kur bėrė, ten augo “Where one sowed, there it grew” 3. to break out in (a rash) Jam veidą beria “He has pimples on his face” lit. “His face is drying out”

inanimate

anim. byrėti // birinti

dygti

diėgti ()

1. to sprout, grow Grybai dygsta “Mushrooms are growing”

1. to plant, sow Laikas svogūnus diegti “It is time to plant onions”

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The child is teething

“The child’s teeth are growing (coming through)”

2. to appear (figuratively)

The stars in the sky appeared ever more densely

literally: “The stars in the sky appeared ever more densely”

inanimate

to fall

1. to fall, to flow

The dough is falling off the bread peel

“The dough is falling off the bread peel”

Drool is dripping

“Drool is dripping”

The child fell off the bench

“The child fell off the bench”

It snowed all day

“It snowed all day (literally, ‘fell’)”

2. to soften, to become limp

You begin to sag from the heat

“You start to go limp from the heat”

inanim.

driksti

1. to tear, to rip, to be torn

The cuffs are already fraying

“The cuffs have already torn”

The jacket is becoming threadbare

“The jacket is completely torn”

12. 949

2. to implement

to introduce new methods

“to implement new methods”

3.

4. to ache, to stab

Man šoną diegia

“I have a stabbing pain in my side”

Cold, so much that it even stings

“So cold that it just makes you wince”

animate

to sting // to sprout (caus.)

drėbti ()

1. to slap down, to plop

To splash with mud

“to splash (splash) with mud”

2. to mold

We’ll soon be building the barn

“Soon we’ll be molding the barn (out of clay)”

3. to fall heavily (of wet snow)

It’s snowing heavily all day

“Wet snow has been falling heavily all day” (literally, falling)

4. to throw carelessly

Having come home, he tossed his shoes under the bench

“Returning, he threw his boots under the bench”

5. (colloq.) to hit, strike

Kad drėbė jė į žemę

“He threw him to the ground”

6. (figurative) to speak rudely

Tells the truth to your face

“He rubs the truth in your face”

anim.

drėbti // drėbtis

dribti // drabstyti

drėksti ()

1. to tear, rip

Tear the kerchief in half

„Tear the kerchief into two parts“

2. to scratch, tear

The cat scratches with its claws

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inanim.

„The cat is scratching with its claws“ The feather drėskia “The feather scratches” 3. to light drėksti degtuką “to light a match” anim. driksti // draskyti

to break

1. to break, to shatter Stiklas greit dūžta “The glass breaks easily” 2. to become perforated, to wear through Švarkas dūžta “The jacket has worn through” inanim.

to hit, to strike ()

1. to strike in order to break Daužk akmenį su kūju “Strike the stone with a hammer” 3. to strike, to hit daužti per žandą “to slap someone” anim. daužtis // daužti dužti // daužyti

to dry, to wither

1. to dry, to dry out Kelias džiūsta nuo saulės “The road is drying out in the sun” Skalbiniai džiūsta “The laundry is drying” 2. to wilt, to wither Javai, medeliai džiūsta, kad nėra lietaus “The crops and little trees are drying up because there is no rain” 3. to waste away, to grow thin Jis džiūsta iš rūpesčių “He is wasting away from worry” inanim.

to hang up to dry ()

1. to hang up to dry Išskalbtus drabužius džiauna ant karties “The washed clothes are hung on a pole” anim. džiūti // džiovinti (caus.)

glusti

1. to cling, press close Gluskime prie žemės “Let us press close to the ground” Marškiniai glunda prie kūno

glausti ()

1. to press close Glausk nugarą prie krosnies “Press your back against the stove” 2. to give shelter, take in

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“The shirt clings to the body”

inanim.

gniužti

1. to contract, bend, sink Žmogus gniūžta, kad nebegali panešti naštos “A person bends under the weight of the load and can no longer carry it” Sniegas nuo saulės ima gniūžti “The snow begins to contract (melt) in the sun” inanim.

to collapse

1. to collapse, crumble, cave in Pilis griūva “The castle is crumbling” Tiltas griuvo “The bridge collapsed” (figuratively) Griūva reakcijos stovykla “The camp of reaction is disintegrating” 2. to topple, fall down, fall Pakirstas medis griūva “The felled tree topples” 3. to tumble Žmonės griūva pro duris “People are tumbling through the door” 4. to lie down, fall Griūti į lovą “To throw oneself (literally, to collapse) onto the bed” inanimate, animate.

to return

1. to return Negrįš jaunos dienelės (folk song) “The young days will not return”

Glausk savo tėvus “Shelter your parents”

animate: glaustis // glausti

to clench ()

1. to squeeze, clench, hold tightly in one’s hand Jis gniaužia kumštį “He is clenching his fist” 2. figuratively, to constrict, press down Šalo, net kvapą gniaužė “It was so cold that it was hard to breathe (literally, the breath was constricted)” animate: gniaužti // gniaužyti (iterative).

to demolish

1. to fell Vėtra medžius griauna “The wind fells trees” 2. to demolish namus griauti “to demolish houses” 3. to transport by the load Medžius griauname iš miško “We are hauling (in large quantities) trees from the forest” 4. (fig.) to destroy, to violate drausmę pažeisti “to violate discipline”

anim.

to turn; to drill

1. to turn (back) Gręžk arklių atgal “Turn the horse back” 2. to drill Gręžti lentą “to drill a board” 3. to squeeze out, to wring out

12*

179

inanim., anim.

gręžti skalbinius “to wring out (squeeze) laundry” anim. grįžti // grąžinti (caus.) gręžti // gražyti (iter.) gręžti // gręžtis

to scatter; to fall apart

1. to disperse, to scatter Visi kriko į namus “Everyone dispersed to their homes” 2. to become upset; to deteriorate, to weaken Jo nervai krinka “His nerves are fraying” Šeima krinka “The family is breaking apart” inanim.

kreikti ()

1. to strew Reikia tvartą kreikti “The barn needs to be strewn (with straw)” 1a) to litter *Vaikai kreikia pirkią “The children are littering the house” anim.

kristi

1. to fall Akmuo krinta žemyn “The stone falls down” Lapai krinta nuo medžių “Leaves fall from trees” Rasa krinta “Dew falls” 2. to fall out Dantys krinta “Teeth fall out” 3. to fall, perish Arklys greitai kris “The horse will soon fall (perish)” 4. to suddenly lie down, sit down Krito į lovą ir jau miega “He fell onto the bed and is already asleep” 5. to fall, decrease, decline Vanduo upėje krinta “The water in the river is falling” Kainos krinta “Prices are falling” inanim.

krėsti ()

1. to shake, shake up obuolius krėsti “to shake apples” Vyrai kūlius krečia “The men are threshing (literally, shaking the sheaves)” 2. Mane šaltis krečia “I am shivering with fever” 3. to mold, form Jis tvartą iš molio krečia “He is molding a barn out of clay” 4. to clean kaminus krėsti “to clean chimneys” anim. krėsti // kratyti

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krypti

1. to lean, slant, become crooked, skew, turn

The cart is leaning to one side

“The cart has tilted onto its side”

2. to head toward, turn

The sun was moving toward the west

“The sun was inclining toward the west”

His gaze was turning toward the birds

“His gaze was directed toward the birds”

to stray from the path of truth

“to turn away from the right path”

3. (figurative) to deteriorate, become worse

Sveikata krypsta

“Health is weakening”

inanim.

kreipti ()

1. to direct, aim, incline

Į kur kreipsime valt ele?

“Where shall we steer the little boat?”

2. to attract attention

akis kreipti į save

“to draw attention to oneself”

anim.

kreipti // kreiptis

krypti // kraipyti

kvipti

1. to give off a smell, to begin to smell

The flower smells pleasant

“The flower smells pleasant”

inanim.

kvėpti ()

1. to inhale (or exhale)

to inhale a pleasant scent

“to inhale a pleasant scent”

2. figuratively, to inspire, to instill

to inspire love in someone

“to inspire love in someone”

anim.

kvėpti // kvėpinti

to scent // to scent oneself

kvėpti // kvapinti

to rain

1. to rain

Lietus lyja

“It is raining”

2. to wet with rain, to soak

Visi lietūs jį lijo

“All the rains soaked him”

3. to get wet in the rain

Šienas lyja

“The hay is getting wet in the rain”

(got caught in the rain)

lieti ()

1. to pour, to pour out, to spill

Where one drinks, one pours

“Where they drink, there they pour” (proverb)

2. to water

Reikia daržą lieti

“The garden needs to be watered”

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4. (fig.) to fall in abundance Žvaigždėm lijo “It rained (lit. poured) stars” inanim.

anim. to rain // to water; to pour // to spill

migzti

megzti ()

1. to get tangled, to become intertwined Siūlai myzga “The threads got tangled” inanim.

1. to tie a knot Mezga, mezga ir niekaip nesumezga “He keeps knitting, but just can’t tie a knot” 2. to knit megzti pirštines “to knit mittens” 3. to set fruit Agurkai mezga “The cucumbers are setting fruit” anim. megzti // megztis migzti // mazgyti

ižti

iežti ()

1. to crack Ledas pavasarį vyžta “The ice cracks in spring” 2. to shell Žirniai išnokę po lietaus vyžta “Ripe peas shell themselves after the rain” inanim.

2. to shell Pasiskink žirnių ankščių ir iežk “Pick some pea pods and shell them” anim. ižti // aižyti

to rise

to raise ()

1. to rise, get up Dūmai kyla aukštyn “The smoke rises upward” 2. to arise, break out Kilo gaisras “A fire broke out” 3. to originate, come from (Ji) kilusi iš Kauno “She is from (lit. originated from) Kaunas”

1. to raise *Vėjas kelia dulkes “The wind raises dust” Jie vaikus kelia anksti “They wake the children early” 2. to hold, organize Jie dažnai vaišes kelia “They often hold feasts” 4. to ferry across, move kelti per upę “to ferry across the river”

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inanimate

to change

1. to change, alter

Everything in nature is constantly changing

“Everything in nature changes constantly”

Oras kinta

“The weather is changing”

Žmonių sąmonė kinta

“People’s consciousness is changing”

inanimate

to bend

1. to bend, to bow, to incline

The branches are bending under the weight of the apples.

“The branches are bending under the weight of the apples.”

2. to bend

The pole is bending.

“The pole is bending.”

3. to sag, to settle

The floor sagged under the weight.

“The floor sagged under the weight.”

4. to be inclined, to lean toward something

He is not inclined toward scholarship.

“He has no inclination toward science.”

5. to provoke, to cause

Tobacco causes coughing.

“Tobacco causes a cough.”

animate

lift // lift oneself

rise // raise

raise // have raised

change ()

1. (2) change, alter

The river changes direction

“The river changes direction”

Hair changes color

“Hair changes color”

(figurative) change one's opinion

“change one's opinion”

2. (2) barter, exchange

exchange, change

change the linen

“change the linen”

change jobs

“to change jobs”

exchange money

“to break money”

animate

to stick // to change

to change // to change oneself

bend (caus.)

1. to bend, to incline

The apples bent the branches of the apple trees

“The apples bent the branches of the apple trees”

Bend the tree while it is young

“Bend the tree while it is young”

2. to bend

to bend a bow

“to bend a bow”

3. to incline

The load bends the cart

“The load bends the cart”

4. to go around, bypass, avoid

Everyone avoids him from afar

“Everyone avoids him from afar”

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inanim.

to break

1. to break, to break through Ne tas medis lūžta, kuris girgžda “Not the tree that creaks breaks” 2. to be refracted Saulės spinduliai atmosferoje lūžta “The sun's rays are refracted in the atmosphere” 3. to be overloaded, to be weighed down Medžių šakos obuoliais lūžta “The branches of the trees are weighed down with apples”

inanim.

anim. to bend // to bend oneself to incline // to bend (iterative) to bend // to bend oneself

to break (caus.)

1. to break Vėjas žalią medį laužia “The wind breaks a green tree” 2. to change direction Vanduo šviesos spindulius laužia “Water refracts rays of light” 3. to weigh down, oppress Sunkūs darbeliai rankeles laužia “Hard work makes the hands ache”

anim. to break // to keep breaking (iter.)

to spread

1. to spread Nuo gėlių plito malonus kvapas “A pleasant fragrance came from the flowers” Geros žinios kaime greitai plinta “Good news spreads quickly in the village” 2. to widen Batai plinta “The boots are stretching out”

inanim.

to expand (caus.)

1. to widen gatvę plėsti “to widen a street” (figurative) plėsti akiratį “to broaden one’s horizons” 2. to disseminate, to make something known plėsti patyrimą “to disseminate experience”

anim. to expand // to expand oneself to widen // to distribute (caus.)

II. Oppositions of the type “non-causative verb // causative verb” (gerti “to drink” // girdyti “to give to drink”)

aiškėti

1. to become clearer, brighter Palengva akys priprato prie aštrios šviesos, ėmė aiškėti atskiri daiktai

aiškinti ()

1. to explain, clarify, comment on Vieni vienaip, kiti kitaip tuos pačius dalykus aiškina

184

“Gradually, the eyes got used to the bright light, and individual objects began to stand out.”

Oras aiškėja

“The weather is clearing up.”

2. to become clearer

The question is beginning to become clearer

“The question is becoming clearer.”

inanim.

to grow

1. to grow, become bigger

After the rain, the grass grows by handspans

“After the rain, the grass grows well”

2. to become larger (in size)

The city is growing

“The city is growing”

3. to develop, improve

The personnel are growing

“The personnel are growing”

inanimate, animate

to grow

1. to grow, to become large

After the rain, the grass grows by handspans.

“After the rain, the grass grows quickly”

2. to become larger (in size)

The city is growing

“The city is growing”

3. to develop, to improve

Staff are growing

“The staff (literally) are growing” (meaning—they are getting better)

animate, inanimate

“Some explain the same phenomena one way, and others another way”

One explains—the others listen

“One explains, the others listen”

animate

to explain // to clarify

auginti (causative)

1. to grow

to raise a little bunch of children

“to raise a bunch of children”

2. to increase

Yeast makes cakes rise

“The cake rises because of the yeast”

anim.

to grow // to develop

ugdyti ()

1. to raise

(Jie) du sūnus ugdo

“They have two sons”

ugdyti mišką

“to grow a forest”

2. to bring up

to bring up children, young people

“to bring up children, young people”

3. to develop, unfold

jėgas ugdyti

“to develop strength”

to develop literary language

“to develop literary language”

4. (figuratively) to arouse

to cultivate love of country, hope

“to arouse love for the homeland, hope”

animate

grow // grow (caus.)

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balti

1. to turn white, become white

Rugiai bala

“The rye is beginning to turn white”

Plaukai bala

“Hair is turning gray”

inanimate

to shine

1. to shine

The ring shines

“The ring shines”

Gold shines even in the ashes

“Gold shines even in ashes” (proverb)

inanimate

to fade

1. to fade, to lose color

The garment fades in the sun

“The clothing fades (literally, grows pale) in the sun”

inanimate

to become more expensive

1. to become more expensive

Rye keeps getting more and more expensive

“Rye keeps getting more and more expensive” (becomes increasingly dear)

inanim.

to ripen

1. to ripen

The straw yellows, the grain ripens

“The straw yellows, the grain ripens”

2. to develop, become wiser

You grow, but you do not mature

“You grow, but you don’t get any wiser”

inanim.

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balinti ()

1. to bleach, to whiten

drobė balinti

“to whiten linen”

intransitive

balti // baltinti

blizginti ()

1. to polish, to burnish

blizginti batus

“to shine the boots”

intransitive

to bleach (caus.)

1. to bleach, to discolor

The sun and rain bleach the garment

Literally: “The sun and rain bleach the garment”

animate, inanimate

to make dear ()

1. to raise the price

Now they value iron

“Now they are raising the price of iron”

2. to value, to cherish

Cherish your health

“Cherish your health”

animate

to become more expensive // to raise the price

brandinti ()

1. to wait until it ripens

They are already harvesting rye, while we are still ripening it.

“They are already harvesting, while we are still waiting”

anim.

būgti

1. to be frightened Žvėrys būgsta to žaibavimo “The animals are frightened by the lightning” anim.

bukti

1. to become dull, to grow blunt Kirvis bunka “The axe is getting dull” 2. (figurative) to weaken Atmintis bunka “Memory is fading” inanim.

to wake up

1. to wake up Vaikai jau bunda iš miego „The children are already waking up“ 2. to arise, awaken Bunda pavasaris, gamta „Spring, nature awakens“ Bunda žmonių supratimas, sąmonė „People’s understanding, consciousness awakens“ anim.

*to perk up

1. to become lively, perk up Vaikas čiunka po ligos „The child is perking up after an illness“ Kiaulės jau čiunka „The pigs are already getting back on their feet“ anim.

to sprout

1. to put forth shoots, grow, emerge Rugiai pasėti jau dygsta „The sown rye is already sprouting“

to frighten ()

1. to cause fear, frighten Kam tu baugini mane, baisioji šmėkla „Why are you frightening me, you terrible ghost?“ anim. bauginti // baugintis

to blunt ()

1. to blunt, to dull bukinti kuolą “to blunt a stake” bukinti yłą “to blunt an awl” 2. (figuratively) to dull, to blunt bukinti ausį “to dull (the ear), to blunt the sense of hearing” anim.

to wake ()

1. to wake Lobis budina, vargis migina “Wealth keeps one awake; poverty lulls one to sleep” 2. to awaken political consciousness Budinti liaudies sąmonę “To awaken the people’s consciousness” anim.

*to urge ()

1. to encourage, to spur on Juos vis reikia čiukinti, patys nieko nedaro “They need to be constantly spurred on; they do nothing themselves” anim.

to germinate (caus.)

2. to grow, to raise sprouts Sėklas daiginti “To wait for the sprouts to emerge”

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Vaikui dantys dygsta “The child is teething” inanim.

anim. to sprout // to prick

to suffocate

1. to suffocate Dūsta žuvys po ledu “Fish are suffocating under the ice” Dusdamas eina prieš kalną “He goes uphill, gasping” anim.

to suffocate ()

1. to choke, impede breathing Kosulys dusino ligonį “The cough was choking the patient” 2. to burden, overwork Ponai dusino mužikėlius “The masters oppressed the peasants” anim. to suffocate // to be suffocated

to spoil

1. to spoil, become unusable, lose good qualities Mašina pradėjo gesti “The car began to break down” Nesūdyta mėsa greitai genda “Unsalted meat spoils quickly” 2. (figurative) to deteriorate Žmogus, nieko nedirbdamas, genda “A person who does nothing deteriorates” inanim.

gadinti (caus.)

1. to spoil, render unusable Menka šviesa akis gadina „Dim light spoils the eyes“ mechanizmą gadinti „to spoil a mechanism“ Senas jautis vagos negadina „An old ox does not spoil a furrow“ (proverb) anim.

gerti

1. to drink Karvė geria iš kibiro „The cow drinks from a bucket“ gerti vandenį, pieną „to drink water, milk“ 2. to drink, to be a drinker Gerk stiklelį „Have a little glass“ Jis daug geria „He drinks a lot“ 3. to absorb Kempinė geria vandenį „The sponge absorbs water“ anim., inanim.

girdyti (caus.)

1. to water, give drink to cattle, horses girdyti „to give drink, water horses“ Ten bernelis žirgą girdė „There the lad watered his horse“ 2. to ply with drink (Ji) girdė, mylėjo svečius „She entertained (lit. plied with drink) the guests“ 3. to torment, drown girdyti katę „to drown a cat“ anim. girdyti // girdytis (“to drown oneself”)

188

gyti

1. to heal, recover

Ligonis jau gyja

“The patient is already recovering”

Žaizda gyja

“The wound is healing”

anim., inanim.

to return

1. to return, to come back, to be returning

He did not return from the war

“He did not return from the war”

The days of youth will not return

(d)

“The days of youth will not return”

The children are returning from school

“The children are returning from school”

intransitive

to lie down

1. to lie down, to go and rest

One moment lies down, the next sits up

“One moment lies down, the next sits up”

2. to bend toward the ground

The rye falls over

“The rye has fallen over”

3. to burden, to weigh down

All the worries weigh on me

“All the worries fall on my shoulders”

4. to descend, to set

Dust settles on the table

“Dust settles on the table”

animate, inanimate

to wean

1. to wean

The piglets are finishing weaning

“The pigs have already been completely weaned”

2. to become accustomed, to become tame

to treat (caus.)

1. to treat, to heal

She herself treats her child

“She herself treats her child”

anim.

to treat // to be treated

grąžinti (caus.)

1. return, call back, recall

Grąžink vaiką

“Return the child”

2. give back, return

grąžinti skolą

“pay back a debt”

grąžinti pinigus

“return the money”

animate

grįžti // gręžti

guldyti (caus.)

1. to make or allow someone to lie down, to put to bed

Laikas guldyti vaikus

“It’s time to put the children to bed.”

2. to bend, to incline

Vėjas guldo rugius

“The wind bends the rye to the ground.”

4. to place, to lay

Raštus guldyk prie sienos

“Stack the logs by the wall.”

anim.

gulti // gultis

gulėti // guldyti

to wean ()

1. to wean

Piglets are weaned from the sow

“The piglets are weaned from the sow”

2. (colloq.) to teach, bring up

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The sow is getting used to peas

“The sow is getting used to peas”

anim.

juosti

1. to turn black, become black

Hands turn black

“Hands turn black”

Smoking makes teeth turn black

“Smoking makes teeth turn black”

inanimate

lakti

1. to lap

Where the dog laps, it barks too

“Where the dog laps, it barks too”

The cat laps milk

“The cat laps milk”

2. figurative

degtinę lakti

“to lap vodka”

animate

to wilt

1. to swoon

He began to swoon

“He began to swoon”

2. to become flabby, grow limp, relax

The leaves of the trees wilt from the sun

“The leaves of the trees wilt from the sun”

to laugh oneself silly

“to laugh oneself silly”

inanimate, animate

to be pampered

1. to become spoiled, to grow effeminate

Doing nothing, a person soon becomes spoiled.

“Doing nothing, a person soon becomes spoiled.”

anim.

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The father taught and accustomed his child in every way

“The father taught and trained his son in every way.”

intransitive verb.

juodinti ()

1. to blacken, make black, smear

juodinti batus

“To smear boots with black polish”

2. (smerkti) to blacken, condemn

He criticizes others, but he is no better himself.

“He blackens others, but is no better himself”

anim.

juoduoti // juodinti

to make lap (caus.)

1. to make (a dog, cat) lap; to give to drink

katę lakinti

“to let the cat lap”

Ne laikas šunis lakinti, kai reikia medžioti (flk.)

“When it is time to go hunting, you must feed the dogs” (proverb)

anim.

* to make wilt ()

1. to cause to wilt

Karštis leipina lapus

“The leaves wilt from the heat”

2. Jis visus leipino juokais

“He made everyone laugh uproariously”

anim.

leipėti // leipinti

lepinti ()

1. to spoil, to pamper

Grandmother raised and pampered her little daughter (folk song).

“Mother raised and pampered her daughter” (song)

anim.

lepinti // lepintis

lesti

1. to peck Višta lesa grūdus “The hen pecks grain” 2. (figurative) to be Kur bāsa, ten ir lesa “Where it is weak, there it gets struck” (proverb) anim.

to slow down

1. to slow down Žingsniai lėtėja “The steps are slowing down” inanim.

to climb

1. to be obtained, to climb, to go up or down Lipti į kalną “To go up a hill” Lipti laiptais aukštyn “To go up the stairs” Lipti per tvorą “To climb over a fence” fig. Ant galvos lipti “To climb on someone’s head, to crowd” anim.

to stick

1. to stick, to adhere Sniegas limpa prie kojų “The snow sticks to the feet” Tie klijai gerai limpa “This glue sticks well” (lit. sticks) 2. turėti patraukimą, lipti to attract, to appeal Vaikinai prie jos limpa “The guys are drawn to her” 3. to be contagious

to feed (birds)

1. to feed (birds) vištas lesinti “to feed chickens.” anim.

slow down ()

1. to slow down lėtinti žingsnius “to slow down one’s steps” Oras lėtina kulkos greitį “The air reduces the bullet’s speed” inanim.

to seat, put on board (caus.)

1. to seat, put on board Laipinti ant vežimo “To seat on a wagon” Keleivius laipina iš laivo “Passengers are put ashore from the ship” inanim.

to glue, stick, mold (caus.)

1. to glue, stick together lipdyti pašto ženklą “to stick on a postage stamp” 2. to sculpt, mold statulą lipdyti “to sculpt a statue” Kregždės ėmė lipdyti lizdus “The swallows began building nests”

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Šiltinė limpa “Typhus is contagious.” inanim.

inanim. lipti // lipinti

(to diminish) to become smaller

1. to decrease Sutaupyti pinigai menkėja “The money saved is dwindling” (lit. is decreasing) 2. to weaken Sveikata menkėja “Health is deteriorating” 3. to lose weight Jis vėl menkėja “He is losing weight again” inanim.

to diminish ()

1. not to consider valuable or important; to belittle (merits) menkinti nuopelnus “to belittle achievements”

anim. to diminish // to belittle

to die

1. to die, to pass away Mirsi, o darbų nebaigsi “You’ll die, but you won’t finish the work” mirti nuo žaizdų “to die of wounds” 2. (figurative) to disappear Miršta senasis pasaulis “The old world is dying” 3. to crave, thirst for, feel intensely Miršta saldimo “He is dying for something sweet” Miršta iš piktumo “He is dying of anger” anim.

to cause to die ()

1. to torment, ruin, poison Ligos marina žmones “Diseases ruin people” 2. to kill marinti nervą “to kill a nerve” 3. to starve marinti badu “to starve” 4. to attend a dying person marinti ligonį “to attend a dying patient” anim.

misti

1. to feed on Mėsėdžiai gyvuliai minta mėsa “Carnivorous animals feed on meat” 2. to subsist Minta iš medžioklės “Lives (feeds) by hunting”

to feed ()

1. to feed, give food Vaiką maitina “(She) is feeding the child” Svによonėmis dvasią maitina “(He) feeds the spirit with dreams”

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You can't live on beauty

“You can't live on beauty” (you can't make a living from it)

3. to grow, to mature

She has already grown up; she is in her thirties

“She is already of age, in her fourth decade!”

anim.

get used to

1. to get used to

He is accustomed to doing that work

“He got used to doing this work”

The child is getting used to eating by himself

“The child is getting used to eating by himself”

2. (dial.) to understand, grasp the meaning

I keep trying to understand, but I just can’t figure it out

“I keep trying to understand and can’t manage it at all”

He understands Lithuanian perfectly well, he just doesn’t speak it

“He does understand Lithuanian, he just doesn’t speak it”

intransitive verb

to rot

1. to rot

Potatoes are rotting this year

“The potatoes are rotting this year”

Pears rot quickly

“Pears spoil quickly”

2. to smolder, decompose

bones rot

“bones rot”

3. (figurative) to grieve, suffer, languish

to rot in prison

“to rot in prison”

intransitive

transitive

to feed // to feed (dial.)

to feed // to feed oneself

pratinti (caus.)

1. to accustom

It is necessary to patiently accustom children to cleanliness

“Children must be patiently accustomed to cleanliness”

pratinti maudytis

literally “to accustom oneself to bathing”

anim.

to accustom // to get accustomed

to make rotten (caus.)

1. to rot

Lietus šieną pūdo

“Rain rots the hay”

3. to rot (to keep confined for a long time)

Hundreds of revolutionaries were kept to rot in prisons

“They kept hundreds of revolutionaries to rot in prisons”

anim.

13. 949

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to scream

1. to cry out, scream Volungė prieš lietų rėkia “The golden oriole cries out before the rain” 2. to cry, yell Vaikas rėkia, valgyti nori “The child is crying; it wants to eat” anim.

to dwindle

1. to recede (of water), to become shallow Upė jau senka “The river is already becoming shallow” figuratively Žaliavų ištekliai smarkiai senka “Raw-material resources are dwindling rapidly” 2. (figurative) to run out, be depleted Sveikata senka “Strength is ebbing” inanim.

to freeze

1. to solidify, freeze, harden Vaškas stingsta “The wax is hardening” 2. to grow cold, go cold kraujas stingsta gyslose “the blood runs cold in one’s veins” 3. to become numb, grow stiff Nuo šalčio stingo rankos ir kojos “The hands and feet grew numb from the cold” inanim.

to make (someone) scream (caus.)

2. to make (someone) scream Be reikalo vaiką rėkdo “They are making the child scream for no reason” anim. rėkdyti // rėkydytis

to deplete (caus.)

1. to lower the level of a river, to dry out sekinti vandenį (garinti) “to evaporate water” 2. to cause to run out, to weaken priešo jėgas sekinti “to weaken the enemy’s strength” anim.

to stiffen (caus.)

1. to make cool, to bring into a state of numbness Šaltis stingdė rankas “The frost made the hands numb” anim.

III. Oppositions of the type “non-reflexive verb // reflexive verb” (prausti “to wash” // praustis “to wash oneself”)

auti

1. to put shoes on, to shoe Nėra kuo vaikus auti “There is nothing to put on the children’s feet”

autis

1. to put on shoes Aukis šiandien veltinius “Put on your felt boots today”

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anim.

Tuoj ateis — jis dar aunasi „He’ll be here soon — he’s still putting on his shoes“ anim.

to adorn

1. to dress up, decorate

We decorate the living room with greenery

“We decorate the living room with flowers”

2. to spruce up, adapt, divide

That was how she chose tender words

“She was choosing tender words”

anim.

to dress oneself

1. to dress up

Dabinasi eidama į vestuves

“She is dressing up as she goes to the wedding”

2. to intend, to be planning

Dabinasi pas mus ateiti

“He/she intends to come to us”

animate

to muddy

1. to muddy

Ducks muddy the water

“The ducks muddy the water”

2. to disturb

to disturb someone’s peace, to muddy someone’s life

“to disturb someone’s peace, to make a mess of someone’s life”

imperative

to become cloudy

1. to become cloudy

Vanduo drumsčiasi

“The water is becoming cloudy”

2. to look gloomy

Dangus drumsčiasi

“The sky looks gloomy”

3. to worry, bustle about

The bees are swarming restlessly

“The bees are bustling about before swarming”

anim.

to raise

1. to raise, to wake

Kelk visus iš miego

“Wake everyone up”

anim.

to rise

1. to get up, to rise

Mes keliamės anksti

“We get up early”

anim.

pamper

1. to spoil, to pamper

Lepino močiutė dukrelę (flk.)

“Mother pampered her dear daughter” (song)

anim.

pamper oneself

1. to indulge oneself, to luxuriate

Vyras dabar kaime lepinasi

“The man is enjoying a leisurely time in the village now”

anim.

13*

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to feed

1. to feed, give food

Now the grandmother is feeding the children

“Now the grandmother is feeding the children”

transitive

to bathe

1. to bathe

It is time to bathe the children

“It is time to bathe the children”

transitive

to wash

1. to wash

I washed the little girl with water.

“I washed my face with water.”

Anelė is washing the child.

“Anelė is bathing the child.”

animate

to wrinkle; to draw together

1. to wrinkle, to furrow

Why are you furrowing your brow?

“Why are you wrinkling your forehead?”

2. to pull tight, to tighten

to darn a stocking

“to darn a stocking”

3. (colloquial) to sew or knit poorly, badly

to sew a fur coat poorly

“to sew a fur coat”

inanimate.

to feed oneself

1. to eat, to feed oneself

She feeds only on herbs.

“She eats only greens.”

animate.

to bathe

1. to bathe

Sparrows bathe in the sand.

“Sparrows bathe in the sand.”

On a hot day everyone bathes in our lake.

“On a hot day everyone bathes in our lake.”

animate.

to wash oneself

2. to wash oneself, to wash one’s face

He washes himself without soap

“He washes himself without soap”

The children already wash themselves

“The children already wash themselves”

anim.

to wrinkle, pucker

1. to frown

Why are you frowning? Is something wrong?

“Why are you frowning? Is something wrong?”

2. to become overcast

It is getting cloudy all around; apparently it will rain

“It is getting cloudy all around; probably it will rain”

3. to diminish, to come to an end

The meat is already shrinking

“The meat is running out already”

Jau dienos raukiasi

“The days are growing shorter”

inanimate, animate

The experience of compiling a dictionary shows that contemporary Lithuanian is characterized by a certain mobility in the relations among individual types of oppositions.

Thus, in some meanings, oppositions of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” (e.g., grįžti “return” // gręžti “turn, return”)

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recede into the background or disappear, since a verb with external diathesis is displaced by a causative verb with a derivational suffix, e.g., gražinti “return” instead of gręžti “return”; as a result, an opposition of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” (grįžti // gręžti) is replaced by an opposition of the type “non-causative verb // causative verb” (grįžti // gražinti). Similarly, in some oppositions of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis,” verbs with internal diathesis are displaced by reflexive verbs, as a result of which these oppositions are replaced by oppositions of the type “non-reflexive verb // reflexive verb.” For example, in some meanings the diathetic opposition kilti “rise” // kelti “raise” is displaced by the opposition keltis “rise” // kelti “raise.” Thus, a certain tendency toward greater grammatical explicitness in oppositions can be observed (the opposition of root ablaut grades recedes into the background as insufficiently explicit). This tendency comes into sharp focus when compared with contemporary Russian, where most Lithuanian oppositions of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” correspond to oppositions of the type “reflexive verb // non-reflexive verb” (the semantic opposition “state of the subject // action of the subject”).

The mutual transitions among these strata are, in principle, apparently connected with the fact that in contemporary Lithuanian they all have the same meaning (the semantic opposition “state of the subject // action of the subject”), and therefore there is a tendency toward its uniform expression.

The latest shifts are also related to the nature of the subject. Thus, for example, the above-mentioned opposition of the type “internal diathesis // external diathesis” kilti “rise” // kelti “raise” in contemporary standard Lithuanian usually denotes the opposition “state of an object // action of a human being or some other animate being,” whereas the opposition of the type “reflexive verb // non-reflexive verb” that is displacing it, keltis “rise” // kelti “raise,” denotes the opposition “state of a human being or some other animate being // action of a human being or some other animate being.” But in some Eastern Aukštaitian dialects, oppositions of the type “reflexive verb // non-reflexive verb” are already used in certain contexts in both cases.

Thus, reflexive verbs, which combine with a wider range of subjects than verbs with internal diathesis, tend to displace them. From the perspective of speech culture, this creates a weak point, particularly in translations from Russian into Lithuanian. Russian also has morphological types of transitive verbs (Виноградов В. В., 1972, с. 503) analogous to those identified in Lithuanian, for example, the type of causative verbs пить // поить, расти // растить, but it is represented in Russian by only a few words, apart from the subtype of denominal verbs белеть // белить, which is more evident and regular (Лобашкова С. Г., 1977, с. 5). Among the morphological types of transitive-

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Among verbs, the most significant and productive type in Russian is that of reflexive verbs (to change // to change) (Mustejskis K., 1972, p. 169).

Since the use of verbs in the two languages cannot be symmetrical (especially depending on the individual meanings of verbs and their combinations with different subjects), errors arise as a result of cross-linguistic interference not only in the choice of the verb word (lexeme), but also in the choice of the morphological type of transitive verb, e.g.: visi susitalpino (= tilpo) “everyone fit in,” mėsa gadinasi (= genda) “the meat is spoiling,” vėl vėjas keliasi (= kyla) “the wind is rising again,” orai keičiasi (= kinta) “the weather is changing,” paveikslas skaidosi (= skyla) “the image is splitting apart,” etc. Therefore, given that at school students learn to distinguish transitive and intransitive verbs, it should be hoped that, in a bilingual context, this distinction will be deepened through recognition of the morphological types of transitive verbs, both when teaching Lithuanian and, apparently, when teaching Russian.

СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ

Виноградов В. В. Русский язык. 2-е изд. – М., 1972.

Криницкайте С. А. К общей теории глагольной переходности (на материале литовского языка): Автореф. канд. дис. – М., 1980.

Лобашкова С. Г. Словообразовательная структура и семантика соотносительных переходных / непереходных (с суффиксами -и- / -е-) глаголов в современном русском языке: Автореф. канд. дис. – М., 1977.

Мустейскис К. Сопоставительная морфология русского и литовского языков. – Вильнюс, 1972.

Степанов Ю. С. Вид, залог, переходность. – Изв. АН СССР. Сер. лит-ры и языка, 1977, т. 36, вып. 2.

Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. – V., 1971, t. 2.

Jakaitienė E., Laigonaitė A., Paulauskienė A. Lietuvių kalbos morfologija. – V., 1976.

Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. – V., 1972.

Paulauskienė A. Gramatinė lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžio kategorijos. – V., 1979.

S. KRINICKAITĖ

LIETUVIŲ IR RUSŲ KALBŲ TRANZITYVIŲJŲ VEIKSMAŽODŽIŲ ŽODŽIO SUDARYMO PATIRTIS

Reziumė

Veiksmažodžio tranzityvumas suprantamas kaip leksinė-gramatinė kategorija, kuri reiškiama opozicijomis veiksmažodžių, galinčių turėti tiesioginį objektą, ir veiksmažodžių, negalinčių turėti tiesioginio objekto. Žodyne veiksmažodžiai pateikiami pagal tris morfologinius opozicijų tipus: 1) vidinės ir išorinės diatezės opozicijos (birti || berti), 2) nekauzatyvinių ir kauzatyvinių veiksmažodžių opozicijos (verkti || virkdyti), 3) nesągrąžinių ir sągrąžinių veiksmažodžių opozicijos (prausti || praustis). Manoma, kad visi šie opozicijų tipai reiškia semantinę opoziciją „būsena // veiksmas“, kurios pagrindą sudaro veiksmažodžių priešpriešinimas pagal veiksmo santykį su subjektu. Tai opozicijos veiksmažodžių, užfiksuotų „Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne“ (1972).

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Veiksmažodžių reikšmės pateikiamos sugretintos opoziciniu principu. Po kiekvieno veiksmažodžio yra pažymėta, su kokiais subjektais jis dažniau vartojamas ir kokias priešpriešas jis sudaro su kitais veiksmažodžiais.

Iš žodyno matyti, kad svarbi lietuvių ir rusų kalbų tranzityviųjų veiksmažodžių neatitikimų dalis yra būtent morfologinių veiksmažodžių tipų skirtumai. Todėl, autorės manymu, dvikalbystės sąlygomis mokant lietuvių ir rusų kalbų, yra svarbu išmokyti mokinius ne tik skirti tranzityviuosius ir intranzityviuosius veiksmažodžius, bet ir jų morfologinius tipus.

S. KRINICKAITĖ

EXPERIENCE OF COMPILING LITHUANIAN–RUSSIAN DICTIONARY OF TRANSITIVE VERBS

Summary

On the basis of morphological analysis of transitive verbs drawn from "Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian" („Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas“, 1972) 3 morphological types of transitivity are given: 1) the oppositions of medial and active diathesis (birti "to pour" // berti "to strew"); 2) the oppositions of noncausatives and causatives (verkti "to cry" // virkdyti "to make cry"); 3) the oppositions of irreflexive and reflexive verbs (rengti "to clothe" // rengtis "to dress").

The comparison of the corresponding oppositions in Lithuanian and Russian has shown that Russian differs from Lithuanian in the considerable predominance of reflexive type.

Many speech and translation mistakes are connected with this discord of the morphological types of the transitive verbs.

The author presumes that the morphological types of the transitive verbs must be taken into consideration in teaching either Lithuanian or Russian.