226 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
PAVEL SKORUPA
Lie u ių kalbos ins i u as
ORCID id: o cid.o g/0000-0003-3903-7006
Fields o esea ch: Toponymy, Cogni i e Onomas ics,
Cogni i e Seman ics.
DOI: doi.o g/10.35321/all88-11
MOTIVATION AND SEMANTICS
OF ŠALČININKAI DISTRICT
POTAMONYMS: A COGNITIVE
APPROACH
Kogni y inis požiū is į Šalčininkų ajono
po amonimų mo y aciją i seman iką
ANNOTATION
The aim o he esea ch is he seman ic analysis o po amonyms ( i e and s eam names)
in Šalčininkai Dis ic wi hin he amewo k o cogni i e seman ics, ocusing on iden i ying
hei mo i a ion. The s udy examines a o al o 55 po amonyms cu en ly o icially
unc ioning wi hin he a ea o in es iga ion. The linguis ic analysis e eals ha po amonyms
all in o wo dis inc ca ego ies: hose wi h anspa en mo i a ion and seman ics (32 cases)
and hose wi h opaque mo i a ion and seman ics (23 cases). The names in bo h ca ego ies
con ey he nomina o ’s imp essions o he named objec h ough e ymons ha e lec he
mos salien ea u es o he loca ion and a ibu e meaning o hem.
KEYWORDS: oponym mo i a ion, oponym seman ics, po amonyms, Šalčininkai
Dis ic , Cogni i e Onomas ics.
ANOTACIJA
Ty imo ikslas – kogni y inės seman ikos ėmuose a lik i Šalčininkų ajono po amonimų
(upių i upelių a dų) seman inę analizę, daugiausia dėmesio ski ian jų mo y acijos
nus a ymui. S aipsnyje nag inėjami 55 po amonimai, šiuo me u o icialiai unkcionuojan ys
i iamame plo e. Kalbinė analizė a skleidžia, kad po amonimus galima suski s y i į
d i ski ingas g upes: skaid ios mo y acijos i seman ikos (32 a ejai) bei neskaid ios
S aipsniai / A icles 227
Mo i a ion and Seman ics o Šalčininkai Dis ic
Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
mo y acijos i seman ikos (23 a ejai). Abiejų g upių a dai pe eikia į a dy ojo įspūdžius
į a dijamų objek ų a ž ilgiu pe pama inius žodžius (e imonus), a spindinčius yškiausius
ie ų b uožus i su eikiančius jiems eikšmę.
ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: oponimų mo y acija, oponimų seman ika, po amonimai,
Šalčininkų ajonas, kogni y inė onomas ika.
INTRODUCTION
P ope names a e an impo an pa o any language and he s udies o hei
unc ions ha e been ongoing since ancien imes. Howe e , no uni ied heo y
o p ope names exis s as di e en onomas ic schools pu sue a ying esea ch
pa hs, especially in Cogni i e Onomas ics. Based on he pos ula es o Cogni i e
Onomas ics, Thomas Hobbes’ ea ise O Names (1655) may be ega ded as
he i s wo k p esen ing insigh s abou he meaning o names. Acco ding o
Hobbes (2002 [1655]: 13), a name is “a wo d aken a pleasu e o se e o
a ma k, which may a ise in ou mind a hough like o some hough we had
be o e, and which being p onounced o o he s, may be o hem a sign o wha
hough he speake had, o had no be o e in his mind.” Thus, names e oke
bo h he speake and add essee’s hough s, e lec ing he essence o he p ope
name. This di e s om John S ua Mill’s (1906 [1872]) widely used de ini ion
o he p ope name, which asse s ha p ope names a e de oid o seman ic
ea u es (c . wo ks o K ipke 1972; Ullmann 1969; and o he s).
The cogni i e pe spec i e owa ds he analysis o names sugges s ha in
addi ion o lexical ea u es, names also con ey seman ic and concep ual con en .
Willy Van Langendonck (2007, 2013, 2016, 2017) a gues ha p ope names ha e
inhe en assump ions, including g amma ical meaning, basic le el assump ions,
and conno a i e p agma ic meanings. Howe e , hey “do no ha e asse ed
lexical meaning” and only “display p esupposi ional meanings o se e al kinds:
ca ego ical (basic le el), associa i e senses (in oduced ei he ia he name
bea e o ia he name o m), emo i e senses and g amma ical meanings”
(Van Langendonck 2007: 7). The e o e, p ope names e e o an en i y wi hou
con eying lexical meaning and a e conside ed he mos p o o ypical nouns.
Simila ly, Joana Sze szunowicz (2010) obse es he conno a ional meanings
o p ope names and oponyms, which o m onymic g oups ha e oke cul u al
conno a ions in he speake ’s consciousness. Sze szunowicz (2010: 548–549)
claims ha onyms pe o m bo h deno a i e and conno a i e unc ions, wi h
an h oponyms o ming he la ges g oup wi h conno a i e po en ial, ollowed
by oponyms. Mo e han ha , he cogni i e app oach o p ope names sugges s
ha hey hold abundan in o ma ion beyond hei li e al in e p e a ion,
PAVEL SKORUPA
228 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
encompassing di e se laye s ha demons a e a ious connec ions wi h he
su ounding en i onmen , including cul u al cus oms, amilial ela ions, and
owne ship (c . wo ks by Be ezo ič 1991; Ru 2001; and o he s).
Toponyms, like o he p ope names, a e in eg al o language as hey e eal
in o ma ion abou a loca ion’s landscape, his o y, and cul u e. In Ka penko
and Golubenko’s (2015: 286) iew, oponyms, like o he p ope names, ha e
a g amma ical s uc u e and meaning ha exis s in human consciousness.
Toponyms and loca ions “ esona e wi h meanings. Besides he place names’
unc ion as indica o s o speci ic locali ies, hey also ca y implica ions ha
people sense and deciphe p oceeding om hei du ies, backg ound, and
inspi a ions” (Alasli 2019: 6). This implies ha oponyms se e a dual
unc ion o deno ing a speci ic loca ion while also communica ing associa ed
cha ac e is ics and meanings ele an o ce ain indi iduals o social g oups.
Consequen ly, he meaning o a oponym can be concep ualized as i s lexical
meaning, which de i es om he mos salien ea u es o he designa ed e e en
ha mo i a ed he name. The o iginal seman ic con en o he name is e e ed
o as he e ymological meaning o iden i iable meaning (Ainiala, Saa elma,
Sjöblom 2016: 32).
The a icle examines he po amonyms o Šalčininkai Dis ic om a Cogni i e
Onomas ics pe spec i e, conside ing hei cul u al, his o ical, and social
con ex and he conno a ions o he language used. The s udy acknowledges he
mul i ace ed meanings o oponyms, e lec ing ac o s such as geog aphy, his o y,
language, and cul u e. The a icle analyzes Šalčininkai Dis ic po amonyms
h ough a Cogni i e Onomas ics pe spec i e, explo ing hei cul u al, his o ical,
and social con ex , and he language conno a ions hey embody and ecognizing
he complex meanings o oponyms shaped by hese ac o s. Šalčininkai Dis ic
Municipali y is in he sou he n pa o Vilnius Coun y and bo de s Vilnius,
T akai, and Va ėna dis ic s. To he sou h and eas , he dis ic sha es a bo de
wi h Bela us. Al hough, om a his o ical pe spec i e, he e i o y o Li huania,
including he lands o Šalčininkai Dis ic Municipali y and e i o ies well o
he eas and sou h-eas o p esen -day Li huania, we e o iginally inhabi ed by
e hnic Bal ic ibes,1 cu en ly, many o Šalčininkai Dis ic inhabi an s iden i y
hemsel es as Polish, comp ising 79.5% o he popula ion while Li huanians,
Russians, Bela usians, and o he na ionali ies make up 10.4%, 5.0%, 2.9%, and
1 This is e idenced in he wo ks o Kazimie as Būga (1961: 493–550), Zigmas Zinke ičius (2011)
as well as o he onomas icians and linguis s, and is e i ied by he a chaeological esea ch, c .
wo ks o Eugenijus Jo aiša (2012, 2014, 2016, 2020, 2020a, e c.) and o he schola s.
S aipsniai / A icles 229
Mo i a ion and Seman ics o Šalčininkai Dis ic
Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
1.2%, espec i ely.2 The e o e, he dis ic is an in e es ing a ea o linguis ic
in es iga ion, since language con ac s a e cons an ly aking place he e and a ec
all a eas o li e, including cul u e.
The aim is o analyze he seman ics o Šalčininkai Dis ic po amonyms
unde he amewo k o cogni i e seman ics and o iden i y hei mo i a ion.
Resea ch Ma e ial and Sou ces. The main body o he esea ch
comp ises 55 po amonyms in Šalčininkai Dis ic selec ed om he co pus3
o 362 po amonyms cu en ly o icially unc ioning in Vilnius Coun y. The
in es iga ion is based on po amonyms and he ac ual da a collec ed om a ious
sou ces: 1) Šalčininkai Dis ic Municipali y websi e; 2) elec onic ca alogues;
3) mode n and his o ical in e ac i e maps; 4) scien i ic esea ch on onomas ics,
e ymology, his o y, e c.; 5) lexicog aphic sou ces; 6) a chi al ma e ials.4 These
ma e ials o m he basis o he esea ch, complemen each o he , and help o
de i e sound e ymological and mo i a ional e sions o po amonyms.
Resea ch Me hodology. The e ymological, de i a ional, mo i a ion5 and
seman ic analyses o he selec ed po amonyms a e based on he in eg a ion o
adi ional6 and Cogni i e Onomas ics heo e ical p inciples and me hodologies
de eloped by Li huanian and o eign schola s. The e ymological analysis o
po amonyms is based on he wo ks o Kazimie as Būga (1958, 1959, 1961),
Aleksand as Vanagas (1970, 1981, 1981a, 1988, 1996), Jonas Ju kš as (1985), and
o he s; ols. I–IV o he Dic iona y o Li huanian Place Names (he eina e , LVŽ I,
LVŽ II, LVŽ III, and LVŽ IV); Li huanian, Russian, Polish, e c. (e-)dic iona ies.7
The composi ion analysis and seman ic classi ica ion o po amonyms a e based
on, bu no limi ed o he hyd onyms’ s uc u al-g amma ical classi ica ion
and he hyd onyms’ seman ic classi ica ion p oposed by Vanagas (1970, 1981a,
1988). The la e classi ica ion was adop ed in Li huanian egional oponymy
s udies and de eloped in o he local oponymy o anspa en and obscu e
2 Acco ding o he Depa men o S a is ics o he Republic o Li huania 2021 da a pos ed on
ŠDMW a h ps://www.salcininkai.l /apie- ajona/ e i o ija-gy en ojai/562.
3 The e m co pus is used in he sense o a gaze ee (lis ) compiled by he au ho o he cu en
pape (c . MW de ini ion).
4 See Po amonym Sou ces, Lexicog aphic Sou ces and Re e ences.
5 He e, he e m mo i a ion (mo i o nomina ion) is unde s ood as an ex alinguis ic eason o
choosing o c ea ing a gi en p ope name o a gi en en i y (c . Podol’skaya 1978: 87).
6 Unde he e m adi ional onomas ics we unde s and he e ymological, ypological and s uc u al
s udies o p ope names, which some imes also include he analysis o he seman ic aspec o
onyms. Acco ding o Te hi Ainiala and Jan-Ola Ös man (2017: 3): “[…] onomas ics adi ionally
has la gely ocused on he e ymology and ypology o names”.
7 C . Lexicog aphic Sou ces.
PAVEL SKORUPA
230 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
mo i a ion classi ica ion model by Dalia S ide skienė (2016, 2017, 2019, 2022).
As he esea ch also ollows he heo ies o Cogni i e Onomas ics (c . Willy Van
Langendonck 2007; 2013; 2016; 2017; An ii Leino 2004; 2005; 2007; 2011;
Paula Sjöblom 2011; Ka alina Reszegi 2012; Teh i Ainiala, Minna Saa elma,
Paula Sjöblom 2016; and o he s), we adhe e o he iew ha all onyms ha e
meaning and will elabo a e on he idea ha oponyms, being he esul o human
linguis ic ac i i ies, we e once explici in meaning and easy o associa e wi h
he gene ic lexical uni s hey we e de i ed om. We will a emp o econs uc
he aded meaning o oponyms by applying he model o concep ual con en
ealiza ion h ough language adop ed by Nicola Dob ić (2010) o p ope names
s udies om he cogni i e me apho heo y de eloped by Geo ge Lako , Ma k
Johnson (1980) and Zol an Kö ecses (2002). This model e lec s he ans e
o cogni i e ai s (concep s) om one domain o ano he ( om appella i es o
onyms) and explains how he concep ual s uc u e o wo ds has been mo i a ing
he c ea ion o p ope names: sou ce domain (appella i e) → concep ual
s uc u e (cogni i e ai ) → a ge domain (onym) (Dob ić 2010: 139–141).
To main ain consis ency wi h he p e ious Li huanian ( egional) oponymic
esea ch, his pape p esen s po amonyms ollowing he es ablished c i e ia o
he p esen a ion o oponymic ma e ial wi hin Li huanian onomas ics. Each
po amonym is accompanied by a e e ence o he loca ion o he named objec
(i.e., he la ge wa e body in o which he i e /s eam d ains), ollowed by an
explana ion o i s o igin in e ms o a hypo he ical e ymon and i s associa ed
meaning. Cu en o ms a e isually emphasized using i alics, bold ace, and,
whe e possible, s essed. To a oid edundancy, e e ences o lexicog aphic
sou ces o e ymons a e omi ed om he ex . Gi en he uni o mi y o
po amonyms in e ms o anspa ency o mo i a ion and seman ics, hey a e
classi ied in o wo ca ego ies: po amonyms wi h anspa en mo i a ion and
seman ics and hose wi h opaque mo i a ion and seman ics.
1. POTAMONYMS OF TRANSPARENT
MOTIVATION AND SEMANTICS
The po amonyms comp ising his g oup exhibi a dis inc lack o ambigui y
in he iden i ica ion and in e p e a ion o he concep s ha mo i a ed hei
c ea ion. These names we e mo i a ed by a a ie y o ac o s ha highligh he
unique cha ac e is ics o he named wa e bodies, including hei physiog aphic
ea u es, he lo a and auna in he icini y, hei ela ionship wi h o he objec s,
he physical s a e o wa e in hem, hei in ended pu pose, and wa e c ea ed
sound as pe cei ed by he nomina o .

S aipsniai / A icles 231
Mo i a ion and Seman ics o Šalčininkai Dis ic
Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
1.1. Po amonyms Re lec ing Flo a
The po amonyms Be žẽlis ( he Gauja ib.), Bé žė ( he Šalčia ib.), Be žuonà
(o Be žūnà) ( he Šalčia ib.) sha e a common base Li h be ž- (c . Vanagas 1970:
62, 202, 204; 1981: 62; 1981a: 13–14) and a e ela ed o Li h bé žas ‘bi ch; he
ee o he genus Be ula’, bu di e in hei meaning. Be žẽlis is Li h DIM Su
-elis de i a i e and names a s eam (app ox. 7 km leng h) in he icini y o
Die eniškės. The name could be mo i a ed by he ee species ha a e dominan
in he icini y and also con eys he meaning o he named s eam’s smallness
indica ed by he DIM Su : Li h bé ž-as + -ẽlis → a s eam in an a ea co e ed
wi h bi ch ees → Be žẽlis. Bé žė is ela ed o Li h bé žė ‘bi ch o es ʼ and is
mo i a ed by he name o he place meaning a se o objec s and he ansposi ion
o he concep o a bi ch g o e in o he i e name: Li h bé žė → a i e in he
bi ch o es → Bé žė. Meanwhile, Be žūnà (o Be žuonà)8 – a double name
o he s eam in Šalčininkai Dis ic – is Li h Su -ūn- (-uon-)9 and in lexion
-a de i a i e: Li h bé ž- + -ūna (o -uon-a) → a s eam lowing ac oss a e ain
co e ed wi h bi ch g o e(s) → Be žūnà / Be žuonà. Thus, he po amonym migh
e lec he quali y cha ac e is ic o he e ain he s eam lows ac oss.
Kle à ( he Gauja ib.) names he i e he longes pa o which is in p esen
Bela us (Bel Клява / Клева) and only a small sec ion is in Li huania. The name
is de i ed om Li h klẽ as ‘maple; he ee o he genus Ace ’ (c . Būga 1961:
527; Vanagas 1970: 59; 1981a: 159). The po amonym may be mo i a ed by
maple ees in he a eas adjacen o he i e con eying he concep o he
e i o y o e g own wi h maple ees: Li h klẽ -as + in lexion -a → he i e
in he icini y o which he e is a big concen a ion o maple ees → he Kle à.
The signi icance o ce ain ee species in Li huanian cul u e, speci ically in
he belie s and wo ld iew o he ancien Bal s and Li huanians, has mo i a ed
he c ea ion o po amonyms in Šalčininkai Dis ic and many simila place
names h oughou Li huania. The bi ch, oak, maple, and o he lea y and
coni e ous ees ha e long been ega ded as symbols o i ali y, g ow h, e ili y,
and ege a i e powe , as well as anquilli y, and we e belie ed o be inhabi ed
8 Be žūnà is he name o he s eam om i s sou ce in he icini y o he illage Ū a up o he
Li huania-Bela us bo de ( he leng h o he s eam sec ion – 2.7 km); in Bela us, along he bo de
wi h Li huania, he s eam is known by he name Bel Березина / Бярэзина (3.8 km); and a small
sec ion o he s eam (0.6 km) om he Li huania-Bela us bo de un il i d ains i s wa e s in o he
Šalčia nea he own o Šalčininkai is known as Be žuonà. The leng h o he s eam sec ions we e
measu ed manually using he dis ance measu emen ools a UETK and GP web si es.
9 Li h Su -uon- as well as -ūn-a, acco ding o Saulius Amb azas (1993: 149–150; 150–152), a e
used o de i e names o agen s ha possess a ce ain quali y.
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232 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
by a ious dei ies and he spi i s o he dead (Dundulienė 2008: 55–74).
These po amonyms a e seman ically mo i a ed by plan names de i ed om
phy olexemes o Li huanian o igin, e e ing no only o indi idual ee species
bu also o hei concen a ion in he e i o ies nea he i e s hey signi y.
1.2. Po amonyms Re lec ing Fauna
Two po amonyms a e mo i a ed by animal species in he dis ic . S inčelė
( he Be žė ib.) is he name o a small s eam nea Š enčius illage (Ge iškės
eld.). The locals call bo h he s eam and he illage S inec (o S inė). The e
a e se e al en ies on his a ea in VK: S inki – he meadow in he icini y o
Paba ė (1973 expedi ion), Swinka – he s eam (1924 expedi ion). Acco ding
o Vanagas (1981: 323–324), he po amonym may be ela ed o lake S inuka
(Vie is, El D), also called S inùcha by he locals, c . lake S inka (Rudnia,
V n D). Howe e , due o Šalčininkai Dis ic ’s demog aphics, he e sion o
he Sla ic o igin o he po amonym should no be uled ou . Thus, i may be
ela ed o Bel свінарыя ‘mud pi whe e pigs oos ʼ o Rus свинья ‘pigʼ and may
con ey his meaning: Bel свін-арыя / Rus свин-ья + Li h Su -elė (in he o icial
name) / Li h in lexion -ė → a mud pi whe e pigs oos → S inčelė (S inė).
Al hough acco ding o Vanagas (1981a: 342, 350), he o igins o he
po amonym Tu ė ( he Ve seka ib.) a e no e y clea , i may be ela ed o
Li h aũ as (Li h  as, u as ← Pol u ) ‘ex inc species o he wild la ge ca le
o he genus Bos p imigenius’, he animal which in ancien imes could ha e
li ed in he icini y. The po amonym could ha e been he cha ac e is ics o he
s ong cu en o he i e : Li h. u -as ( aũ -as,  as) + Li h in lexion -ė →
wild, s ong, powe ul → Tu ė. Al e na i ely, he e ymology o his and
simila po amonyms may ha e been in luenced by he cul u al signi icance
o his animal. Riman as Balsys (2016) main ains ha many ancien cul u es,
including hose o Indo-Eu opean o igin, conside ed he bull, ox, o bison o
be zoomo phic ep esen a ions o he dei y o he ha es associa ed wi h he
Sun, Sky, hunde s o m, and ain. Li huanians and P ussians also ecognized
ho ned dei ies by a ious names. The depic ion o he bull, bison, o ox in
he coa s o a ms o Li huanian nobili y, as well as in he seals and coa s o
a ms o Li huanian ci ies, is no coinciden al. The bison ep esen s nobili y,
s eng h, and he p o ec ion o he weak, while he ox embodies diligence,
pa ience, ag icul u e, and wisdom. These symbolic meanings a e consis en
wi h pe sis en belie s conce ning he associa ion o hese animals wi h nobili y,
mili a y p owess, and e ili y (Balsys 2016: 5–12).
S aipsniai / A icles 233
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Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
1.3. Po amonyms Re lec ing Physiog aphic Fea u es
The nomencla u e wi hin his g oup is p ima ily desc ip i e o he i e bed
con igu a ion, including elemen s such as he quali y o he i e bo om, low
di ec ion, and o he ele an ea u es (Vanagas 1981a: 54–75).
Akliánka ( he Ve seka ib.), acco ding o Vanagas (1970: 61; 1981: 37), may
be ela ed o he po amonym Aklė, which is de i ed om Li h ãklas ‘o e g own
swamp; closed, blindʼ. This name is de i ed wi h a Sla ic su ix, c . Pol Su -anka /
Rus Su -анка (-янка) / Bel Su -янка10, and is an example o “con amina ed”
oponyms.11 The au hen ic o m could ha e been *Aklenka / *Aklė. The name
was p obably mo i a ed by he dense ege a ion in he s eam and/o on i s
banks being he concep ualiza ion o his cha ac e is ic: Li h ãk l-as + Sla Su
-ianka → a s eam o e g own wi h ege a ion → Akliánka.
Di onlė ( he Naujanka ib.; Bel Наўянка, BY) is Li h DIM Su -ėlė
de i a i e om Li h di ónas ‘abandoned, uncul i a ed, o e g own landʼ. The
Su poin s o he smallness o he named s eam, whe eas he po amonym
con eys he meaning o he abandoned, uncul i a ed lands a ound he hyd o
objec : Li h di ón-as + -ėlė → he s eam lowing h ough he uncul i a ed
land → Di onlė.
Dumblė ( he Di a ib.) is Li h in lexion -ė de i a i e om Li h dublas
‘se led u bidi y; we , shaken mud; sludgeʼ, c . Vanagas (1970: 62; 1981: 96).
The po amonym may be mo i a ed by he mu ky, algae- illed wa e o an algal,
sludgy i e bed: Li h dubl-as + -ė → he s eam wi h sludgy, algal i e bed /
algae- illed, mu ky wa e → Dumblė.
Kamenà ( he Visinčia ib.) names he i e in Bela us and Li huania, which
is e e ed o as Pol Kamionka; Bel / Rus Каменка by he locals. Vanagas (1970:
131) claims he po amonym is he Li h Su -en- de i a i e om Li h kãmas
‘hassock, humpʼ. Howe e , he possibili y ha he name is o Sla ic o igin
should no be uled ou . F om ou obse a ions, he e is plen y o s ones bo h
in he i e bed and on i s banks. The e o e, he name can be associa ed wi h
Sla kamień / камень ‘s one’ and he p ima y o m migh ha e been Bel / Rus
10 Fo Sla ic a ixes, see Saulius Amb azas (2000: 111 .); Mikalaj Bi yla, Pa el Shuba (1985: 210 .);
Pio Bąk (1984: 211 .); Na alija Sh edo a (1980: 183 .).
11 Fo he e m con amina ed oponym, see Pa el Sko upa (2021: 223).
PAVEL SKORUPA
234 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
*Камен(н)а(я) (река) ‘s ony i e ’.12 The e o e, i is possible o claim ha he
i e ’s name is mo i a ed by he s ony i e bed: Sla kamień / камень (s one) →
a s ony i e (bed) → Kamenà (← Bel / Rus *Камена / *Каменна / *Каменная
(река)).
Kena ė ( he Visinčia ib.) names he s eam ha lows om lake Kena as
h ough he Rūdninkai o es nea by Kena ė ma shes. The po amonym is
de i ed om Li h kena ė ‘sloughy place in meadows, o es ʼ and also may be
ela ed o Li h ke nà ‘ hicke ’, c . (Vanagas 1981: 153). Indeed, he e i o ies
a ound he lake and s eam a e a he sloughy and a e co e ed wi h a hick o es ,
which makes hese wa e bodies p ac ically inaccessible. Thus, he mo i a ion o
he po amonym is qui e ob ious, as he name concep ualizes physiog aphic
cha ac e is ics o he a eas: Li h kena ė → he s eam in he swampy a ea →
Kena ė.
Kulnė ( he Juodė ib.) names he s eam wi h a sinuous i e bed. Due o
i s sinuous/winding i e bed, he po amonym mos p obably was de i ed using
Li h Su -inė13 om Li h kulỹs ‘ wis , winding, u nʼ. Thus, he name may be he
concep ualiza ion o he con igu a ion o he i e bed and he winding na u e
o he low: Li h kul-ỹs + -inė → he winding, u ning s eam → Kulnė.
Mažóji Kenà (Kin) ( he Me kys ib.) is he po amonym made by
analogy om he name Kenà (Kin) ( he Ne is ib.). Bo h po amonyms o m
he opposi ion, based on he augmen a i e-diminu i e co ela ion o he
di e en ia ing adjec i e and a ze o modi ie .14 The opolexeme Kenà is ela ed o
Li h kin ‘ele a ed place in a meadow o wa e ʼ o ‘ he oo s o ees and bushes
on he i e bank (in wa e )ʼ; also o Li h kins ‘c us on he wa e , ma shʼ o ‘small
island in a i e o lake, a ma shʼ. Thus, he mo i a ion may be explained in
se e al ways: Li h kin- → he i e su ounded by ees and sh ubs → (Mažóji)
Kenà; o : Li h kin-s + -ė → he i e ull o ege a ion → (Mažóji) Kenà. Bo h
e sions a e plausible since mos o he i e bed is in o es ed a eas, and in he
wa m season, a lo o wa e plan s g ow in he i e , which some imes o m
“c us s” on he wa e ’s su ace.
12 This asse ion is suppo ed by he con inued usage o he name Каменная ‘s ony’ by he locals
when e e ing o he i e . The e a e simila names in he Russian Fede a ion (e.g. he Каменная
река in Ka elia, o lake Каменнoe), Bela us ( he Каменная река – a 40 km segmen o he
Ne is wi h mul iple apids). Also, he concep o he ‘s ony i e ’ is “echoed” in he names o
se lemen s loca ed close o he i e : he illage Akmenỹnė, Šlčn D (R1872 Rus Каменка), and
R1872 Rus Околица Каменка (cu en ly, he illage Sangliškės, Šlčn D).
13 The Su is used o de i e wo ds indica ing ac ions (c . Amb azas 1993: 58 .).
14 Mo e on his opposi ion ype, see Sko upa (2019: 144 .; 2023: 49 ).
S aipsniai / A icles 241
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Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
Dūdõkas. On he o he hand, he name may be mo i a ed by he concep o
possessi i y and be de i ed ei he om PN Li h Dūdà, c . he model: PN
Li h Dūdà + -okas → a s eam in he lands belonging o Dūdà → Dūdõkas; o
could be mo i a ed by i s loca ion nea Dūdà illage, which once exis ed in he
icini y o Tu geliai (Tu geliai eld.) (c . LVŽ II 369). In his case, he mo i a ion
may be explained by he concep o possessi i y, i.e., he meaning o belonging
o he place (oikonym).
2.1.3. Po amonym de i ed om an oikonym o an h oponym is a composi e
name Jù šiškės upẽlis ( he Nezdilė ib.) he i s componen o which may
be ei he Li h Su -iškės de i a i e om PN Li h Jù ša, Ju ša, Ju šas, Jušė,
Jù šė, Ju šia, o Ju šỹs (c . LVŽ IV 268), o is a esul o ansonymiza ion o
he oikonym in o he po amonym, as he named s eam is in he icini y o
Jù šiškės (Daina a eld.). The second componen p esen s he nomencla u e e m
ha names he ype o he objec named: Li h upẽlis ‘s eam’. The e o e, he
seman ics and mo i a ion o he po amonym may be explained by wo models:
1) PN Li h Jù š-, Ju š- + -iškės + upẽlis → a s eam in lands belonging o Jù ša /
Ju šas / Jušė / Ju šia / Ju šỹs → Jù šiškės upẽlis; 2) Ju šiškės + Li h upẽlis → he
s eam in he icini y o Ju šiškės illage → Jù šiškės upẽlis.
2.1.4. Po amonyms de i ed om an appella i e o oikonym p esen wo cases
wi h se e al e sions o he in e p e a ion o hei mo i a ion and seman ics.
Pasg indà ( he Ve seka ib.) names a s eam lowing h ough Vaidagai
(Kalesninkai eld, Šlčn D) and Pasg inda (Ma uizos eld., V n D) illages. I is
no clea whe he he po amonym o oikonym is he p ima y o m. In case he
po amonym is he esul o ansonymiza ion, i s mo i a ion may be explained
by he concep o possessi i y and con ey he meaning o belonging o he
place (oikonym): Pasg inda → he s eam in he icini y o Pasg inda illage →
Pasg indà. Al e na i ely, he po amonym may be a a ian o Li h pag indà
‘causeway, s one-pa ed, b anch-lined pa h h ough he swampʼ o Li h pãzga da
‘con emp ʼ (c . Vanagas 1981: 238, 247). I is possible ha he po amonym
e lec s he physiog aphic ea u es and may be mo i a ed by he s eam’s solid,
i m bo om allowing one o wade he s eam h ough. Thus, he po amonym
may e lec he meaning o wade: Li h pag indà → a s eam possible o wade
h ough / a s eam wi h wade → Pasg indà.
Pa ais  ( he Šalčia ib.) names he i e ha lows in he icini y o
Bu imonys, Pa ais is and Janonys illages (Bu imonys eld.). I may be ela ed
o Li h pa ais ỹs / pa ais  ‘a place a a swamp o e g own wi h ees and bushesʼ,
being mo i a ed by he named s eam’s loca ion in he icini y o such place:
Li h pa ais  → a s eam in/by he swampy a ea o e g own wi h ees and

PAVEL SKORUPA
242 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
bushes → Pa ais .19 The name may also be ela ed o Li h pa as is ‘ ea he y-
lea ed e n g owing in we o es sʼ. Thus, he po amonym may be mo i a ed by
he phy olexeme: Li h pa as -is + in lexion -ė → a s eam in he a ea co e ed
by ea he y-lea ed e n hicke s → Pa ais . Al e na i ely, he i e name may
be a esul o ansonymiza ion and is mo i a ed by he oikonym: Pa ais -is +
-ė → a s eam lowing in he icini y o Pa ais is → Pa ais .
2.2. Po amonyms De i ed om Polysemous
Appella i es
The inde e mina e sou ce o mo i a ion wi hin his ca ego y pe ains o he
ague cha ac e is ics o he mo i a ing appella i es a ibu ed o he po amonym.
Though he pos ula ed hypo heses o he o igins o hese po amonyms a e
plausible, he exac concep ha he po amonym encodes emains indisce nible
in he case o Ge inė ( he Žižma ib.) ha names he i e in Bela us
(Bel Гервиня) and Li huania. The name may be ela ed o and is Li h Su -inė20
de i a i e om Li h gé ė ‘c ane’ (c . Vanagas 1970: 157) o Li h ge inas
‘male c aneʼ. The po amonym may con ey he meaning o a place: Li h gé -ė /
ge -inas + Su -inė → a i e whe e c anes li e/nes → Ge inė. Al e na i ely,
he po amonym may be ela ed o Li h ge inė ‘blackbe y (Rubus caesius)ʼ, was
mo i a ed by his phy olexeme, and con eys he meaning o he a eas co e ed
wi h blackbe y bushes/ hicke s in he icini y o he i e : Li h ge inė →
a i e in an a ea co e ed wi h blackbe y bushes → Ge inė (also c . LVŽ III
155–157).
2.3. Po amonyms Mo i a ed by Lexemes o he Same
Fo m Con eying Di e en Meanings
The mo i a ion and seman ics o se e al po amonyms a e now opaque as hey
we e p obably de i ed om lexemes o he same exp ession ( o m) con eying
di e en meanings.
U ėlnė ( he Ve seka (Ve saka) ib.) may be Li h Su -inė de i a i e om
Li h u ėlė ‘small wingless pa asi ic insec ʼ and mo i a ed by he concep o
19 The name may also be Li h P e pa- de i a i e om he physiog aphic (nomencla u e) e m
Li h as as ‘swamp o e g own wi h ees and bushes’ (c . Vanagas 1981a: 24).
20 The Su is used o de i e wo ds deno ing places (Amb azas 1993: 63, 231).
S aipsniai / A icles 243
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Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
a place in es ed wi h pa asi es: Li h u ėl-ė + Su -inė → a s eam in es ed wi h
pa asi es → U ėlnė. Bu i may also be de i ed om Li h u ėlỹnė ‘o e g own
placeʼ and con ey he meaning o such a place: Li h u ėl-ỹnė + Su -inė →
a s eam in an o e g own place/a s eam o e g own wi h lush ege a ion →
U ėlnė.
Ve sekà ( he Me kys ib.) and Ve sekà (Ve sakà) ( he Gauja ib.), acco ding
o Vanagas (1981: 374), could ge hei names by analogy wi h Vi sia and could
be de i ed om Li h es is ‘ o oll (in wa es)ʼ, is i ‘ o ush, low, gushʼ, o
om La ē s ‘ o bend, u nʼ. Al e na i ely, hese names could be de i ed om
Li h e sm ‘sp ing, sou ce; gushing, see hing s eamʼ o esmas ‘e up ionʼ. The
ac ha bo h i e s a e a he as - lowing and a e ed by a my iad o sp ings
along hei winding i e beds and he su ounding ields, makes all he abo e
mo i a ional e sions plausible. Hence, he names may con ey se e al meanings:
Li h es- is / is i / e s-m / es-mas / La ē s + Li h Su -eka → a i e
ed by sp ings/a as - lowing, gushing i e /a i e wi h a winding i e bed →
Ve sekà (Ve sakà).
Žižmà ( he Gauja ib.) names he i e in Bela us (Bel Жыжма) and
Li huania, which Vanagas (1981: 402, 405; 1981a: 115) a ibu es o hyd onyms
o med om he names o emo ional imp essions and con eying an emo ional
e alua ion. This hyd onym, howe e , may be a ibu ed o he opposi ion good –
e il and mo i a ed by he sound p oduced by he wa e low, as he name may
be de i ed om Li h žež i ‘g owl, be ang y, scold, howlʼ c . Li h žežma a ‘wi chʼ,
žžė, žiūžė ‘spi i e, ha pyʼ wi h a o man -ma: Li h žžė / žiūžė → he ang y,
howling i e → Žižmà.
2.4. Me apho ici y
The con igu a ional, me apho ical meaning may be aced in Špigùlė ( he
Me kys ib.), which Vanagas (1981: 335) a gues, is an al e a ion o Špygùi is,
he o m used by he Li huanian-speaking locals in he Dis ic , and is
Li h DIM Su -ulė / -u(i) is om Li h špygà / špỹgas ‘ ig; is wi h he ip o
he humb p o uding h ough he o he inge sʼ. Seman ically, his may be
a hyd onym o con igu a ional meaning associa ed wi h he names o body
pa s. Also, he name may con ey he meaning o ‘ wis ed bundle o s aw,
used o s a co e ing he oo ’ o ‘small, meag e, s un ed, sh i elled’. This
leads o se e al mo i a ion e sions: 1) Li h špyg-à / špỹg-as + DIM Su -ulė /
-u(i) is → a small, meag e, s un ed, winding s eam → Špigùlė (Špygùi is); o
2) ~ → a s eam by which he s aw o oo ing may be ob ained → Špigùlė
(Špygùi is).
PAVEL SKORUPA
244 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
2.5. Po amonyms o Complex Seman ics
The names in ques ion may ha e o igina ed om appella i es ha could e oke
a ious associa ions in di e en languages. Howe e , due o a lack o a ailable
da a, he e ymons’ o igins a e unclea , making i challenging o de e mine hei
gene ic a ilia ion wi h a pa icula language.
Gaujà ((Bel Гаўя / Гавья), he Nemunas ib.), Būga (1961: 852) supposes,
may be ela ed o *Ga ī, *Ga jās ‘cow i e ʼ om La gùo s (go s) ‘cowʼ o
Li h gaujà ‘packʼ. In B onys Sa ukynas’ (1966: 188) iew, his po amonym
may be ela ed o Li h gó i ‘ o ushʼ, a gó i ‘ o come quicklyʼ, and nugó i ‘ o go
quicklyʼ. Meanwhile, Janīs Endzelīns (1974: 565) belie es ha Gaujà is ela ed o
Sk dža a e ‘ o has e, hu yʼ. O he , including simila , e ymologies a e p o ided
in LVŽ III 101. Thus, he name may be mo i a ed by he animal species and
con ey he meaning o he i e lowing h ough pas u es whe e cows g aze:
La gùo s (go s) → a i e along which cows g aze → Gaujà. Al e na i ely, he
name may be mo i a ed by he as wa e low: Li h gó i → a as , apid i e →
Gaujà.
Me kỹs ((Bel Мерычанка / Мяркіс) he Nemunas ib.) may ha e o igina ed
om -me č o -me k ( he oo o Selonian o igin) o Li h mé k i ‘ o ain hea ilyʼ,
‘ o dip, di e in o wa e ʼ (c . Būga 1961: 276; Vanagas 1970: 66), o om
Bel мяреча ‘swampʼ (Būga 1961: 502). The name can be mo i a ed by egula
i e loods du ing he ainy season o in sp ing when i collec s wa e om
mel ing snow om ields i lows ac oss, con eying he meaning o looding
i e : Li h mé k i + in lexion -ys → sinking, looding i e → Me kỹs. Also,
i could be mo i a ed by he swampy i e basin and con eys his meaning:
Bel мяр-еча + Li h in lexion -ys → a i e lowing h ough swampy a eas →
Me kỹs (Мерычанка / Мяркіс).
Vókė ( he Ne is ib.) may be ela ed o Ta oka ‘wa e ʼ (K ajewski 2013:
225) o Li h ók is ‘ o cleanʼ, ók i ‘ o ha es ʼ. Bo h mo i a ion e sions may
be plausible. On he one hand, Ta a s we e people b ough o Li huania by
he G and Duke Vy au as and se led in he icini ies o he i e , calling i
by a common wo d deno ing wa e . On he o he hand, his name could be
mo i a ed by he cul i a ed ields a ound o he seasonal looding o hose ields,
du ing which he i e “cleaned/ha es ed” hem. Hence, se e al meanings
o he po amonym: 1) Ta ok-a + Li h in lexion -ė → wa e → Vókė; o
2) Li h ók- is / ók- i + in lexion -ė → a ha es ing, cleaning i e → Vókė.
S aipsniai / A icles 245
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2.6. Po amonyms Mo i a ed by Colou
Colou -mo i a ed hyd onyms a e one o he mos uni e sal seman ic
ca ego ies in he nomencla u e o many Indo-Eu opean languages
(Vanagas 1981a: 97–101).
Di à ( he Nemunas ib.) may be ela ed o Th Διτας, Διτα o Alb di ё ‘dayʼ
(which in p ehis o ic ime could mean ‘ligh ʼ) (c . Vanagas 1970: 213; 1981: 88;
LVŽ II 298). The name could be mo i a ed by he b igh ligh colou o wa e
and con ey he meaning o ligh , cleanliness, o cla i y: ?Th Διτας, Διτα /
Alb di ё → a ligh , clea i e → Di à. Though he e sion is a guable and
needs u he in es iga ion.
Júodupė ( he Kamena ib.) and Júodupė ( he Ve seka ib.) a e ela ed
o and de i ed om Li h júoda ‘black’ + ùpė ‘ i e ’ (Vanagas 1970: 232–233;
ibid. 248; 1981: 138; LVŽ V 204–214). Leino (2011) and S achowski (2018)
a gue ha colou in hyd onymy is o en mo i a ed by he colou opposi ion,
e.g., black–whi e, and may be obse ed in he di ec co ela ion o hyd o objec s
cha ac e ized by geog aphical p oximi y. Howe e , he analyzed i e s do no
o m opposi ions wi h any o he po amonyms mo i a ed by he Li h bal à
‘whi e’. Thus, hei mo i a ion may be subjec o se e al in e p e a ions. In his
esea ch, S achowski (2018) sugges s ha he ‘black’ colou in oponyms may
be mo i a ed ei he by he colou and e ili y o he su ounding soil – he
mo e e ile he soil, he da ke i is, o by he named objec ’s age, o objec ’s
signi icance. Bo h po amonyms name ela i ely small s eams ha a e ibu a ies
o bigge i e s. Hence, he colou componen in bo h may be mo i a ed by he
s eams’ insigni icance o smallness: Li h júoda + ùpė → insigni ican , small i e
( ibu a y) → Júodupė. Al e na i ely, bo h names may symbolically indica e he
icini ies wi h e ile soil o may ha e con eyed o he meanings a he ime o
denomina ion.
Raudonėlė ( he Me kys ib.) may ha e o igina ed om Li h audónas ‘ edʼ
(Vanagas: 1981: 274) and was de i ed by Li h DIM Su -ėlė ha ma ks he
smallness o he named s eam. The name could be mo i a ed by he colou o
he soil in i s icini y, o he colou o wa e : Li h audón-as + DIM Su -ėlė →
a s eam wi h ed (b own) wa e → Raudonėlė.
2.7. Po amonym o Comple ely Opaque Seman ics
and Mo i a ion (Uniden i iable O igins)
Ok a (Lake Papis) is o comple ely opaque mo i a ion and seman ics, as
a he ime o w i ing his pape no linguis ic o ex alinguis ic da a ha could
PAVEL SKORUPA
246 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
explain he o igin o his po amonym was a ailable o us. This name p esen s
an in e es ing case o u he esea ch.
CONCLUSIONS
The mo i a ional in e p e a ion and meaning o po amonyms ep esen
a complex and nuanced domain o inqui y ha seeks o explica e he mul i a ious
conno a ions, deno a ions, and implica ions o po amonyms, as well as he
a ious ac o s ha can shape and ans o m hem o e ime. By analyzing
55 po amonyms in Šalčininkai Dis ic , se e al conclusions can be d awn.
1. The po amonyms unde in es iga ion can be classi ied in o wo dis inc
ca ego ies: hose ha possess anspa en seman ics and mo i a ion, and hose
ha exhibi opaque seman ics and mo i a ion.
A. Po amonyms wi h anspa en mo i a ion and seman ics a e easily
iden i iable and lack ambigui y. These names e lec he concep s and con ey
he meaning o a) ege a ion species (4), b) animal species (2), c) physiog aphic
ea u es (8), d) ela ionship wi h o he objec s (6), e) wa e s a e (7), ) he
named objec ’s pu pose (3), and g) sound pe cep ion (2).
B. Po amonyms wi h opaque mo i a ion and seman ics e e o i e
and s eam names whe e he mo i a ional in e p e a ion is complex due o
insu icien suppo ing da a. The in e p e a ion o hese names is limi ed o me e
possibili ies o disco e y due o a) he opaque lexical cha ac e o he base (9),
b) polysemy o he mo i a ing appella i e (1), c) mo i a ing lexemes o he
same o m ha con ey di e en meaning (4), d) me apho ici y (1), e) complex
seman ics as he mo i a ing lexeme con eys di e en associa ions in di e en
languages (3), ) mo i a ing lexeme exp esses he concep o colou (4), and g)
uniden i iable seman ics and mo i a ion (1).
2. The impac o language con ac s is aced in 11 po amonyms ha
demons a e a ying models o o ma ion.
1) Po amonyms o Sla ic o igin a e ei he Sla Su de i ed om Sla PN (1),
Li h ansli e a ion o Sla appella i es (1), o Li h ansli e a ion o Sla
appella i e o PN (1);
2) Con amina ed po amonyms ha a e: a) Sla a ixes de i a i es om
Li h bases – Su de i a i e om Li h oikonym (1); P e and Su de i a i e om
Li h appella i e (1); b) Li h Su de i a i e om Sla appella i e (1);
3) Po amonyms o unclea o igins a e likely de i ed wi h Li h in lexions om
Li h / Pol PN o InE s em (1); Li h appella i e o PN, o om Sla appella i e
o PN (1); Li h o La appella i e (1); Li h o Bel appella i e (1); Li h o Ta
appella i es (1).

S aipsniai / A icles 247
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Po amonyms: A Cogni i e App oach
ABBREVIATIONS
Alb – Albanian; app ox. – app oxima ely; Bel – Bela usian; BY – Bela us;
c . – compa e; D – dis ic ; DIM – diminu i e; El – Elek nai; eld. – elde ship;
e al. – and o he s; – eminine; . – o wa d; InE – Indo-Eu opean; km –
kilome e ; La – La ian; Li h – Li huanian; m – masculine; PN – pe sonal
name; Pol – Polish; P us – P ussian; Rus – Russian; Sk – Sansk i ; Sla –
Sla ic; Su – su ix; Šlčn – Šačininkai; Ta – Ta a ian; Th – Th acian; T ak –
T ãkai; ib. – ibu a y; V n – Va ėnà.
POTAMONYM SOURCES
GK – Gam os ka alogas. Lie u os andens elkiniai [Na u e Ca alogue. Wa e Bodies o
Li huania]. A ailable a : h p://eze ai. ilnius21.l /.
GP – Lie u os e d inės in o macijos po alas [Li huanian Spa ial In o ma ion Po al].
A ailable a : h ps://www.geopo al.l /geopo al/.
R1872 – Russia 1872 Map. A canum Maps – His o ical Maps Online. A ailable a :
h ps://maps.a canum.com/en/map/ ussia-1872/.
ŠDMW – Šalčininkai Dis ic Municipali y websi e. A ailable a : h p://www.salcininkai.
l /.
UETK – Lie u os upių, eže ų i enkinių kadas as [The Ri e s, Lakes and Ponds Cadas e
o he Republic o Li huania]. A ailable a : h ps://ue k.am.l .
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LEXICOGRAPHIC SOURCES
LKŽe – Lie u ių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (1941–2002), ed. kolegija G. Nak inienė,
J. Paulauskas, R. Pe okienė, V. Vi kauskas, J. Zaba skai ė, y . ed. G. Nak inienė,
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LVŽ I – Lie u os ie o a džių žodynas 1 (A–B), ed. kolegija L. Balode, V. Blažek,
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PAVEL SKORUPA
248 Ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXXXVIII
LVŽ II – Lie u os ie o a džių žodynas 2 (C–F), au . L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, M. No kai ienė,
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kalbos ins i u as, 2014.
LVŽ III – Lie u os ie o a džių žodynas 3 (G–H), au . V. Adamony ė, L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė,
D. Kačinai ė-V ubliauskienė, M. No kai ienė, M. Razmukai ė, A. Ragauskai ė,
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LVŽ IV – Lie u os ie o a džių žodynas 4 (I–J), au . L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, A. Ragauskai ė,
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Ska nik.by – Mazok Aleg, Li Se ž, comp., 2015: Мазок Алег, Літ Серж,
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WSJPe – Wielki słownik języka polskiego PAN: geneza, koncepcja, zasady op acowania,
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M. G ochowski, R. P zybylska, J. Waniakowa, K. Węg zynek, e- e sion, K aków:
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