Term after Term. III

JONAS KLIMAVIČIUS

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

BONNET

The current history of the term kapotas in Lithuanian officially ends with its implementation. Periodical usage is somewhat different—here even today one can read: gets into the car, starts the engine, opens the bonnet Sav with TV 2005 48 70. In fact, it could have ended much earlier. And it began much earlier, and not with a term. Like many loanwords, it touched Lithuanian at the margins, fragmentarily.

It did not begin with the automobile or the aircraft. LKŽ V 1959 kapotà (from Polish kapota)—“a short, sleeveless outer garment (usually warm, fur-lined), a waistcoat; a jacket, a blouse”—is recorded from Mūsninkai, Debeikiai, Šalakas (documented lexicographically: kapota, ēlē (sermėga) – svārki. węgierka, kapota. kanomъ M 1894), while the variant kapòtas (from Russian kanom) is recorded from Rokiškis and Giedraičiai (eastern Highland Lithuanian kapotkinas, though heard, it was not recorded); another variant, ²kapòtė (cf. kapka 2), differs considerably in meaning—“an old-fashioned dark-fabric women’s dress hat, worn without a kerchief,” Kupiškis.

It also appears in dictionaries of international words: kapotas (Pr.)—“a women’s housecoat, dressing gown” TŽŽ 1936; 4) “women’s home garment, blouse, dressing gown” TŽŽ 1951.

In standard-language usage, this kapotas existed mainly as an exoticism (though not a very foreign one)—usually in translations, for example: You should know that Abakiy Abakievich’s coat was also an object of ridicule among the officials; they even took away the proper name for his coat and called it a kapotas N.GogR III 1954 148. For a long time he [Chichikov] could not make out the sex of that person [Plyushkin]—whether male or female. The clothes were very indistinct, resembling a woman’s kapotas; on the head was a hood N. GogR V 1954 131. The meanings are not entirely clear—cf. Russian kanom 1. “a loose-fitting women’s house dress” // archaic “women’s or men’s

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“outer garment without a waist seam” // “the greatcoat of French soldiers” (< French capote; first recorded in the 1847 academic dictionary of the Russian language) ССРЛЯ V 1956, 1. obsolete loose-fitting garment (women’s dressing gown) RLKŽ I 1967, 1. obsolete loose-fitting garment, loose [loose-fitting] dress RLKŽ II 1983; while Polish kapota – hood; loose garment; dressing gown LeLieŽ 1979, Polish kapotka obsolete – bonnet with ties LeLieŽ 1979, French capote – 1) hooded cloak, 2) soldier’s greatcoat, 3) women’s bonnet PLKŽ 1976 and, unfortunately, 2) hinged, metal cover [3) colloquial capote anglaise – condom] PLKŽ 2004¹.

French ¹capot, known in the sense of a garment since 1576, acquired the variant capote in 1688 (also of the same origin are cape, capeline, capuchon, cappa) – first in reference to various garments (and nautical “hooded cloak”), and from 1839 also in the sense of “a carriage with a removable or folding top,” although ¹capot had already been used in a similar sense from 1819 (nautical “tarpaulin rain cover”) (Robert 1993).

Only TŽŽ 1951 records kapotas as 1) “a hinged metal cover that protects the upper part of an engine from dust and atmospheric precipitation” and 3) “a casing that gives an aircraft engine a streamlined (aerodynamic) shape”; here we can also see how these meanings developed from 2) “a warm woollen or quilted (padded) casing that protects an engine from excessive cooling,” and how closely this meaning is connected with kapotas 4) “women’s house dress, <…>”.

This loanword is no longer offered in the sense “covering of a truck engine” in LKŽ V 1959 – x kapotas 2. Kapotas is also absent from DŽ 1954, 1972, 1993. TechnŽ 1949 has kanom – (engine) hood [о кожух – casing, cover (mach.)], PolŽ 1959 – (engine) hood. However, PolŽ 1984 gives kanom automotive – hood, kapotas. Russian kanom – technical kapotas, hood, cover RLKŽ I 1967, but 2. technical hood, covering RLKŽ II 1983. Kapotas is not rejected by TŽŽ 1969 either, but the equivalent is changed – 1) “hood, <…>” (likewise TŽŽ 1985), while TŽŽ 2001 has only hinged cover – “hinged metal cover, <…>”. PATŽ 1995 also

¹ Words of related meaning (perhaps not without mutual influence) include kabōtas, from Polish kabat – now obsolete 1) “a garment with a front opening (men’s garment),” 3) archaic “shirt for those sentenced to death” LeLieŽ 1979] “such a garment”: On a bay horse, wearing a bear’s kabotas Pakruojis (LKŽ V 1959), kobotas (cf. kabat < Latin capatus) – a warm sleeveless women’s garment: a vest” (also Kabelka 1964); cf. kapotas – LKŽ VI 1962 cites the dictionaries of P. Rūgys, K. Milkus, F. Nesselmanno and A. Juška; it is well known from K. Donelaitis’s Metai: “And whenever we happen to see your kobotas. Then you seem to us like a Prussian sparrow” Pl 113–114. “When the sun scorches us too much with its heat, / Then you’ll put on a trim little kubotas” Žr 67–68 (Donelaitis 1977), as well as from S. Daukantas’s collection Dainės Žemaičių: “On bay horses beneath a bear’s kobotas” (No. 101). In fact, these are loanwords of a different origin – Oriental words that reached us from the East through the Arabs, Persians and Europe—via Middle Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian, Czech, Polish and Russian (Фасмер II 1986).

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now recommends engine cover – kanom двигателя – bonnet (GB); hood (US) – Motorhaube – capot. In an anti-codification move, VL,LVKATŽ 1996 gives: kapotas – Haube, Verkleidung, engine kapotas – Motorschutzhaube, Motorverkleidung, and engine cover – Motorhaube, Motorschutzhaube, Motorverkleidung. CivilAvŽ 1996 has cover, casing – cowling: cowl – kanom. Kapotas is absent from TechEnc II 2003, which has only casing – “the outer shell of a machine, instrument, mechanism or apparatus – case, hinged cover, lid.” Incidentally, this follows Russian кожух – “the outer shell (case, hood, covering) of a machine, instrument, mechanism or apparatus, <...>” ПС 1976, 1989.

Kapoto nėra nei KPP₁ 1976, nei KPP₂ 1985, o TT 1992 kapotas svet.: variklio kapotas (= variklio antvožas) tech., o KP 4 L1 2005 kapotas svet. ntk. = tech. antvožas, dangtis: gaubtas.

Thus kapotas has finally been eliminated from technical terminology, after considerable vacillation. However, the refinement of its replacements may not yet be complete.

STRESS, EUSTRESS, DISTRESS

Hans Selye developed the theory of stress in 1936. It reached Lithuania late. The term raised doubts. In his short article “Words as Fetishes,” A. Novodvorskis quotes: stress determines urgent intervention. He is convinced (and the editorial board apparently agrees) that English stress means “tension, emphasis, stress (= stress)” and has no particular specificity for English speakers, so tension should suffice for us too, while the specificity “we ourselves created by turning certain foreign-language words into some sort of fetishes, attributing to them wonderful qualities they do not possess” (Novodvorskis 1973: 13). It seemed so, and there are cases where this is indeed true. It was not immediately understood that H. Selye had nevertheless created a fundamentally new concept, rather than merely giving the existing word stress a somewhat more technical meaning. The fact that other languages borrowed it is, of course, a significant difference. But rather than mechanically concluding that they should have taken their own word—the equivalent of English stress—it would have been worth considering seriously whether such a general rule exists at all, and whether it could be applied in this particular case without semantic loss, risk of ambiguity, and so on.

In this case, first we must bear in mind the considerable polysemy of English tension compared with Lithuanian stress—almost amounting to homonymy: 1) pressure, compression, 2) tension; difficulties, 3) importance, significance, meaning, 4) emphasis, 5) music accent, rhythmic stress ALKŽ 1975. The boundaries between meanings are very clear, and the distances between them are great. To claim that stress—“the state of an organism’s struggle against harmful factors”—would be precisely tension sense 2, when tension sense 1 is “the tightening of forces and concentration of attention while working” DŽ

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1993, is rather careless. More logically, one would say that stress resulting from tension (though not only from tension alone) differs.

The history of naming the concept unfolded somewhat controversially. Incidentally, ALKŽ 1975 does not give a medical meaning for stress. MedŽ 1980 gives stress – stress – tension – cmpecc. It is essential to bear in mind that medicine already had (and still has) terms for stretching: tensio – tension: 1. pressing, pressure, 2. tensing; elasticity, tensio muscularis – muscle tension (of contracting muscles), tensor – a stretching muscle; intensioitas – intensity – tension, intensiuvus – intensive – tense; molimen – 1. tension, 2. strenuous activity, 3. malaise MedŽ 1980. For example: the tension in the blood vessels will ease GV 1981 102. Yet the concept and term tension have never been, and are not, different from stress. LTE X 1983 now gives only stress, without a Lithuanian equivalent: “a state of mental and physiological tension in humans and animals, arising from changes in external conditions or internal disturbances (stressors). <...> Stress is manifested in physiological changes (heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, muscle tone, brain electrical activity), impaired coordination of movements and actions, emotional tension, fear, frustration, and sometimes even a complete disorganization of activity <...>.” Although H. Selye generally “explained stress as an adaptive syndrome—a mobilizing response of the organism to illness” LTE X 1983, with “3 stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion” M ir G 1978 12 38, and although “minor stresses stimulate vital functions in the organism” and “stress can be beneficial or harmful” MedEnc II 1993, presenting only the international term stress nevertheless takes the explanation even further from the concept of “tension”: “Stress can be caused by physical or psychological trauma, illness,” and “behavioral stress can manifest itself in loss of self-control, inactivity, and the like” MedEnc II 1993. Stress also has its own physiology: Stress is an unpleasant emotional state during which psychological factors determine biochemical changes in the organism LA 1998 77 11. Popular accounts include claims that lying can cause stress, and that stress can cause dandruff... PsichŽ 1993 mentions information stress—“when, because of an excessive amount of information, a person is unable to complete tasks and cannot make correct decisions at the required pace, especially when they bear the greatest responsibility for the consequences of those decisions.” One can certainly conclude that stress differs from tension both quantitatively and qualitatively—it is already a failure to withstand tension. When using stress, it is not even appropriate to explain it as tension, for example: A person is constantly affected by tension called stress M ir G 1978 12 38.

Although LKŽ XIII 1984 already recognizes stress as “the organism’s reaction to adverse factors, tension,” DŽ 1993 gives stress—see tens-

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ion 2. A little closer to the truth would be stress, overexertion Dnvd 1991 36 5. But overstrain would be only a partial case of stress. E. Šimkūnaitė, the renowned popularizer of herbal medicine, tries to call stress by the entirely dialectal word užsitrenkimas: The second power of flowers is their fragrance: for worries, for hardships, for emotional blows (stresses), for heartache M ir G 1990 7 38, cf. užtrenkti 5. // figuratively, “to shock, to oppress”: Tei[p] overwhelms a person, and they neither cry nor do anything (when there is a great misfortune) Radviliškis (LKŽ XVI 1995). This is more like “frustration”...

Eikime prie vidinių kalbos dalykų. Stresas turi savo mikrosistemą: Hansas Seljė (1907–1982) – Kanados patologas fiziologas, klasikinės streso teorijos kūrėjas (1936), „Stresas be distreso“ ir kitų knygų autorius M ir G 1990 1 34. Tam tikrų rūšių stresas, autoriaus vadinamas „eustresu“, mums naudingas M ir G 1990 1 34. Distresas – „nemalonus, kenksmingas, trikdantis veiklą stresas“ PsichŽ 1993. Stresorius – „streso būseną sukeliantis veiksnys“: fiziologiniai stresoriai – „(pvz., labai didelis fizinis krūvis, aukšta ar žema temperatūra, skausmas, pasunkėjęs kvėpavimas)“ ir psichiniai stresoriai, „t. y. veiksniai, turintys individui signalinę reikšmę (pvz., grėsmė, pavojus, įžeidimas, informacijos perteklius)“ PsichŽ 1993. Skiriama keletas streso rūšių ir porūšių: fiziologinis ir psichologinis (informacinis ir emocinis) Psi-chŽ 1993, taip pat streso formos: impulsyvus, slopinamas, generalizuotas. Periodikos vartosenoje pasitaiko ir daugiau junginių: nervinis stresas LA 1998 190 13, Sav su TV 2006 48 26, psichomotorinis stresas Bion 2006 2 20, psichosocialinis stresas Vd 2006 48 21, socialinis stresas Vd 2006 48 22, oksidacinis stresas MkslL 2002 10 14, lėtinis stresas M ir G 1991 8 36, nuolatinis stresas LA 1998 212 24, tarnybiniai ir buitiniai stresai L ir M 1987 28 3, streso situacija M ir G 1987 1 23, streso būsena VL 1998 37 6, stresinė situacija VL 1998 37 6, MkslL 2000 15 10, Vd 2003 41 43, stresinė būsena LA 1995 58 17, MkslL 2000 15 10, stresinė reakcija NŽA 2003 11–12 633, streso hormonai Vd 2003 41 43, 2006 9 53, „streso hormonai“ – adrenalinas, noradrenalinas, kortizolis Sav su TV 2006 49 24, streso faktorius Sav su TV 2001 19 4, antistresinis mineralas Vd 2006 16 41. Pasitaiko, bet dar, išskyrus šnekamąją kalbą, nepaplitęs stresuoti: netvirtų žingsneliu amžinai stresuojantieji pasuka „pas bobutę“ KV 1998 19 21. Taigi stresas jau įsitvirtinęs.

If stress causes very significant changes in the electrical tension of the organism or even of a cell, can stress itself be called tension?

Stress can strike M ir T 1974 10 20, arise M ir G 1987 1 23, stress can be inflicted LR 1996 2 18 3, caused TMtr 1987 1 P6, LA 1996 167 24, experienced LA 1998 232 7, lived through LA 1998 190 13, one can eliminate the stressful

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state LA 1995 58 17, stress can be got rid of LA 1996 217 11. To inflict tension, experience tension, withstand tension—these expressions are unheard of. This difference also argues in favor of distinguishing tension from stress.

One can observe a transterminologization, known to have occurred beyond the boundaries of the Lithuanian language: stress—impact, stress: drought stress, heat stress, salinity stress, osmotic stress AugBiolŽ 1998, plant stress LA 1998 222 19, stress state in plants LA 1995 58 17; anthropogenic stress: [social and economic elements in the landscape are disregarded; only the consequences of human intervention in natural landscape components are studied, and predictions are made about how they will change in the future as a result of anthropogenic stress, <...> M ir G 1984 3 8. This, too, argues in favor of stress.

Determination is unclear, not frequent, for example: spiritual stress L ir M 1984 44 7, spiritual stresses KB 1984 7 62; Lithuanian poultry farming underwent real stress. It had to catch up quickly <...> Vd 2000 41 18.

There are ambiguous cases—even perhaps for the users themselves (although these are more likely instances of transterminologization)—for example: since the rains were light, the grapes avoided “water stress” LA 1994 179 8; in our time, only a certain social stress has intensified—the loss of motivation M ir G 1990 1 34. The world economy promises much, but also considerable tension and stress LA 1998 199 6.

Having established the prevalence of stress, its accuracy, and thus its necessity, it must nevertheless be noted that initially there were more, and later too there were various connections between stress and tension.

At first, although stress is used fairly often, it is simply derived from tension: Another property of the nervous system—balance—helps one withstand great, sudden tension. — — — When danger threatens, a person must exert their mental, and often physical, strength to the utmost. The so-called stress befalls them M and T 1974 10 20. Any stress provokes illness <...>. So, unless we learn to use our inner reserves, each year we will feel worse and worse; our psycho-emotional tension will increase. We live in constant fear about work, family relationships, and so on. Fear tenses our muscles and immobilizes our movements. Muscle tension is transmitted to the psyche, but many of us do not know how to relax. That is why psychological counseling rooms are vital today KmT 1989 164 3. <...> committed suicide, unable to bear the constant stress caused by demanding work LA 1998 212 24. Constant stress keeps our body tense; the brain registers this state and informs the immune system Vd 2006 9 53. Neither these quotations nor the other texts on this subject that I have read suggest that anywhere, even to some extent, tension, incidentally, a term that is not clearly defined, is regarded as either the sole cause or one of several

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stress, or as a consequence of stress, a component of it. This, again, is an argument in favor of stress.

Although it comes from a doctor, this is a rather uncharacteristic combination: Frequent stressful tensions and an abundance of information are characteristic of modern life TMkt 1980 26 3. Č. Grizickas.

That is why, from the very beginning until now, the pairing of tension and stress has been common: Tensions and stresses wear down the nervous system and weaken the heart Šm 1977 11 45. Most often, they are joined by the conjunction “and”: my already failing health could not withstand such tension and stress Šv 1990 7 18. In these times of tension and stress LA 1993 31 10. <...> people with higher incomes spent more time engaging in activities associated with negative emotions, such as tension and stress Vd 2006 29 31 (translated from English!). However, it is not certain that these are two concepts; compare: <...> died of a heart attack, the cause (not causes—J. K.) of which was stress and tension LA 1994 1436. The conjunction or is also used, which already indicates a distinction between the concepts: However, the routine demands of everyday life and psychological conflicts often cause emotional stress or chronic emotional tension. All this, in turn, creates very favorable conditions for psychosomatic pathology, that is, the onset of neurogenic diseases TMr 1987 1 P6. <...> children’s resilience may also be affected by stresses or tension in family relationships LA 1996 213 3. Here, attention should also be paid to the plural—stresses (tension occurs only in the singular). The likely conclusion is that stress has become distinct from tension, but that a certain connection remains. Although a clearer distinction would be needed.

In usage, stress also has other, rather unclear associations, for example: One should avoid negative emotions, stresses, <...> Šm 1984 7 34; emotional-stress psychotherapy VN 1988 26 2. A state of stress and depression is certainly an unwelcome guest VL 1998 37 6. <...> it is painful when one has to dismiss young people, <...>. For them, this compulsory step of mine is a real shock. It may be easier for me—I have already experienced similar stresses Sav 1994 11 7. After entering open space, a newborn also experiences shock. – – – The stress experienced during birth will have an effect throughout life. It is thought that such people will be more aggressive LA 1998 85 21. <...> three months have passed since a very painful trauma, especially for an elderly person—the death of a spouse. On the stress scale, such a trauma is assigned one of the highest scores. <...>, <...>, <...> it is impossible to prepare for death. It is always unexpected and unforeseen. The living’s reaction to it is tears, great sadness, mourning. Often, sadness that has not been fully expressed and tears that have not been shed develop into depression and various physical illnesses LA 1993 97 14. The conclusion here would be that, although stress is a clearly defined medical concept, in popular usage and

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the stress itself, and its connections with tension and other medical concepts—depression, euphoria, apathy, frustration, trauma, shock—are not as clear as they should be. But, generally speaking, stress is not confined to medicine; in life it is almost a cultural phenomenon: “In specialized literature, as well as in fiction, it is now difficult to find another word used so frequently to denote the most diverse intense experiences and mental and physical discomfort as stress. Stress has become almost a symbol of contemporary life. Although the problem of stress is studied in depth in our country and abroad by doctors, biologists, physiologists, biochemists, biophysicists, psychologists, sociologists, and even philosophers, it is still far from being solved,” states physician Vytautas Meška (M ir G 1986 8 26). In her review of the Russian translation of H. Selye’s work (Селье Г. Стресс без дистресса. – М.: Прогресс, 1982. – 126 с.), Laima Gudaitýtė, incidentally, also raises important points not mentioned in the medical literature I cited [“H. Selye distinguishes two principal reactions for maintaining the constancy of the organism’s internal state: syntoxic (when a negative influence is ignored and one seeks to come to terms with it) and catatoxic (when one fights against it)” DorVert 1982: 311], and states that “the second, ethical-philosophical [part] of the book sets out the general principles of morality that, in the author’s view, inevitably follow from this” (DorVert 1982: 310), drawing a very broad conclusion: “Its purpose is to formulate a moral code that reveals the meaning of life and prescribes principles of conduct enabling one to express one’s ‘Self’ as fully as possible and attain the most optimal (= optimal) harmony in communication” (DorVert 1982: 310).

GRIAUČIAI IR SKELETAS

For decades, school has taught: skeleton. As soon as someone leaves school (or even before), newspapers, translations, and translated language in general inundate them, and there is scarcely any skeleton and skeletal remains left. During the Soviet era, Russian strongly influenced the use of international words in Lithuanian. Russians also have their own words—остов (cf. Old Russian остати)—“that which remains” (cf. останки—“remains,” formerly “leftovers”), as well as костяк (cf. кость, “bone”), but they already make extensive use of скелет. Remarkable things occur: остов – 2. skeleton (of an animal), skeletas RLKŽ II 1983 [RLKŽ IV 1985 “corrects” it: скелет – 1. skeleton, skeletal remains (of a person), <...>, скелетный – 1. skeletal, pertaining to the skeleton, but скелетные мышцы – skeletal muscles RLKŽ IV 1985]. Not infrequently, even a linguist writes: skeleton, skeletal remains—as if that made it clearer. The word griaučiai (used by J. Basanavičius as lavonkauliai) is very well established in archaeology—supported by inhumation graves LEnc IX 1940 553, DŽ 1993 (as opposed to cremation graves).

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In written sources, griaučiai has been known for at least a hundred years (Vrp 1898 13). SNŽŽ 1907 gives griaučiai—bones, skeleton, giltinė, and skeleton (gr.)—“bones arranged as they are in a living body”; griaučiai, giltinė. Griaučiai is also simply called bones; Jonas Balvočius-Gerutis (1842–1915) presumably coined, on the basis of Polish kościec and Russian костяк, kaulynas 2 (LKŽ V 1959), while kaulyčia 2 is a hybrid of A. Juška’s dictionary and Mósėdis. [cf. also kaulinyčia 3, “giltinė(?)”: Kaulinyčia sėd po tiltu, neik, pagaus! Varniai (LKŽ V 1959)]. In the interwar period, naturalist Jurgis Elisonas wrote: Support organs, or the skeletal system LKŽ XII 1981. In LKŽ III 1956, griaučiai is not marked with dialect abbreviations. Thus it was indeed the school that spread and taught the word: griaučiai.

This is clearly a Lithuanian word, but its motivation is somewhat obscured by a slight uncertainty about its derivational base: whether it comes from to demolish or from to crush, with a vowel alternation in the root. So let us walk the paths of the semantics and motivation of related words, so that griaučiai, together with its whole family, may become more familiar and vivid.

Pirmiausia tai – griaumedis (: griauti Urbutis 1978: 192) – 1. „išgrįuvęs medis girioje“, A. Juškos žodynas (t. y., gri(u)v)medis“?); griaumenys „medžių prigrūvęs tankus miškas“: Vėtra jį nunešė toli toli, į girių griaumenis, į laužyną Tauragė. Išleidau dukrelę už griaumenų, už girių griaumenų Skaudvilė; griovà 3. „išgrįuvęs raiste medis; išvarta“ Nemunaitis, Merkinė, Ródūnia [1. „dauba, lėnkė; tarpukalnė, griovys“, 2. „grūvantis upės krantas; skardis“]. Pagal formą ir reikšmę artimas taip pat retas griaučias (1) „drūtas, aukštas ąžuolas (nukirstas)“ Panevėžys (be sakinio) (LKŽ III 1956).

There are many more words that are semantically close but more distant in origin. Even the meaning 2 of the same word griaumedis, “a hard, non-splitting and inflexible tree” (Veliuona, Girkalnis), explained using the word graudus—not used in this sense in standard language—shows a connection with the word to crush (F. Kurschat’s 'grūisti), rather than with to be hard or to demolish. The verb to crush has the meanings 1. “to crush, rub, grind, mill,” 2. “to pound”: The children are pounding at the door; 3. “to beat, torment, weary,” 4. “to push, put, stuff, ram,” 5. “to carry, transport, haul,” 6. “to drive, chase,” 7. refl. “to press forward, travel, crawl, climb,” 8. refl. “to make noise, knock, rage, thunder about”; semantically it is closer not to to be hard but to ¹to demolish: 1. “to overturn, dismantle; damage,” 2. figuratively, “to do something vigorously, be busy doing something, while hurrying somewhere or carrying something,” 3. refl. “to force one’s way, press forward, crawl in” (LKŽ III 1956). Graudus, dialect meaning 3: “hard, inflexible; brittle, crumbly, crackling”: A brittle spruce crumbles when split Ūpnikai. A brittle axe breaks quickly Lioliai (also used in Gaurė, Kietavas, Kvėdarna, Palanga; A. Juška’s dictionary; V. Kalvaitis’s song collection, p. 93). “The flax is brittle,” they say in Tryškiai, “only then can it be broken by hand. Such a brittle body!” Valkininkai (also

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(Kabėliai use it). “Weak and frail is human nature” M. Daukša’s Postilė (162). “I had never yet seen a tree breaking so pitifully” (Upyna) has a more clearly motivated variant—and, incidentally, an unambiguous one—³graudus ‘brittle’: “Oaks are brittle trees” Seirijai. “The walls are brittle” Mósėdis. “The mushrooms are so brittle to eat” Viekšniai (also used in Skuodas, Šatės, Telšiai, Endriejavas, Veiviržėnai). The antonym ²graudus ‘cruel, rough’ is probably of the same origin, though very distant: “Bitter times” Ylakiai, “a hard heart” raštai, that is, ‘hard’; and ‘hard’ and ‘brittle’ are both similar and polar qualities.

Dar reikėtų grįžti prie žodžio griaumedis 3. scom. reikšmės „didelis, dramblotas žmogus ar daiktas; griozdas, griova“ Geistarai, Alksnėnai, Barzdai, Sintautai, Šakiai, Lekėčiai, Skirsnemunė, A. Juškos žodynas. Kuo jį motyvuoti – „grūti“, „griauti“ ar „grūsti, gr(i)audus“? Yra ir griómedis „pasenęs, sudžiūvęs žmogus, gyvulys“ Geistarai. Labai siaurai žinomas griauma scom. 1. „didelis, nedailus žmogus“ (Ūdriijà) gali būti semantinė raida iš griaumà 2. „kas griaumoja“ Nemunaitis (: griaumoti „mauroti; storai kalbėti“; meška griaumoja Ālovė, jaučiai griaumoja Miroslavas // žmogus griaumoja Nemunaitis, Ālovė, Alksnėnai – gal iš griausti + riaumoti). Nežinia, kaip reikėtų aiškinti: griauslinis „didelis, nedailus žmogus“ Kalnalis ir griaušala „netikša“: Ką tu imsi tą griaušalą – tau mergų bus ne jos vertės! Alksnėnai (plg. aūšena, aūšelis, aūšėjus „užaūšelis, vėpla, žioplys“). Aiškesni, nors sunkiai susiejami su katruo vienu – grūti ar griauti – dar keli menkinamieji asmens pavadinimai: grióva, ret. griovà 6. scom. „nevikrus žmogus ar gyvulys; kerėpla“: E, su tokiu grióva dar kas eis šokti – kojas numindžiotų! Žvirgždaičiai. Kumelė didelė – baisi grióva Ālovė. Kokia čia karvė – kaip grióva Alytus, taip pat ¹grióvas Gizai, grióvelis Viduklė, toliau grióvainis „žiopla“ Radviliškis, griovėklis, -ė „nedailaus elgesio, netašytas žmogus; griaumedis“ A. Juškos žodynas. grióveldıs Žemaičių Kalvarija; ¹grìúva scom. „griova“ A. Juškos žodynas, griùvelis, -ė „kas nuolat griūva; sugriuvėlis, ištįžėlis“ Gruzdžiai, Salantai, griùsna scom. „kas greit griūva; griūvena, išsikėtėlis“ Baisogala, griūnis, -ė plg. griūsna: Griūnis yra santiža, sutižęs žmogus A. Juškos žodynas. Tos pačios kilmės, tik su didele šaknies balsio kaita (gal senesni?) yra: gréva scom. „dramblotas žmogus; kelmas, griozdas, griaumedis“ Geistarai, Keturvalakiai, Alksnėnai, Vilkaviškis, Naumiestis, grévaiša Užventis, grévalas „ištiža“ Rietavas, grévalis Veiviržėnai, grévelis A. Juškos žodynas, grevélda 1. Stačiūnai, Klovainiai, A. Juškos žodynas, grevéida A. Barono žodynas, grevéza Eržvilkas, grevézdas Grūžiai

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See gremeždas 2. (gremėždas or gramoždas ‘an old, awkward sort of object, a piece of junk’: gramėti ‘to fall noisily’ Skardžius 1941: 102, with reference to K. Būga), grėvas, dialectal, ‘grėva, clumsy lump’ Salamiestis, Subačius, Smilgiai, Adolfas Sabaliauskas (LKŽ III 1956).

A number of other words should also be mentioned, semantically associated with brittleness, breakability, inflexibility, and at the same time hardness, as well as unevenness and angularity: grauždūs (4) 1. ‘hard (of wood); hard in layers, soft in layers’: “Grauždus wood is hard to saw” Varėna. “Grauzdus wood is brittle” Garliava. “The body is very brittle—it cracks at the slightest touch” Valkininkai (2. ‘angry, fierce, terrible, cruel; rough’); ¹gríaudėti: pagriaudėti ‘to become somewhat brittle, friable’: “Bread that has become brittle is too hard for an old person to bite” Tvėrai, sugriaudėti ‘to become brittle; to become crisp’: “The dough will become firm after the oven, and then there’ll be baked bread” Gegrėnai. Next comes the semantic group of crispness and crustiness: griaudiniai ‘bread crusts’ Vie kšn iai; ³griaūdinti: apgriaūdinti ‘to brown, toast’ Žemaičių Kalvarija, pagriaūdinti ‘to toast, lightly brown’ Vie kšn iai; griaušti, griaušta, griauḍo ‘to become crisp’ Akmenė, Tirkšliai, Vie kšn iai; griauzdas ‘a hard crust’ (of frozen earth) Luokė; griau kšlinis ‘rough, uneven’: “a rough, uneven road” Gegrėnai; griau kšlus 1. ‘bread crust; hard crust’ Šilalė (graukšlys Trakų r. Onuškis), 2. ‘a hard clod; a hard crust’ Žygaičiai; griaunà 2. ‘bread crust, crust, rind’ eastern Aukštaitians (1. ‘edge, border, outskirts’ Dusetos, 3. usually plural ‘ribs’ Vyžuonos, Jūžintai, Dusetos). Particularly distinctive is the rare grautas ‘coarse gravel, usually taken from collapsing riverbanks’ Vaškai (LKŽ III 1956)—it even calls to mind the word griaučiai.

Griaučiai is not the only word with this meaning (along with the already mentioned kaulyno and the like)—there are griobai, grioblai, grobai, grėbčiai, grebėstai, among others. The most widely used is gróbai, although the word grobàs is also the most polysemous: in Aukštaitian, 1. ‘rib’ (also grobkaulis, groblas; cf. also grobelis ‘meat from the chest with ribs’), 2. usually plural ‘human or animal bones, skeleton, ribs’ [also groblai, grioblai; ¹grėblai Raseiniai (!); griobai Geistarai, Gižai], 3. plural ‘the framework, shell, or ribs of some object’ Seirijai, Puns kas [also groblai, grioblai; ¹grėblai Raseiniai (!)], 4. dialectal ‘a very thin person or animal’ (also gróbanas; cf. also grióba ‘a worthless person, a clumsy oaf, a clumsy lump’ Šiauliai), while in Samogitian, 5. ‘intestine; rectum’; plural ‘entrails’ [also M. Daukša’s Postilė (163), F. Kurschat’s dictionary]—essentially, this is already a homonym. grėbčiai (: grėbti, grėbti) ‘ribs, skeleton, framework’ Dysna, Tverečius has a quite clear derivational basis; grebėstai ‘bare bones, skeleton’: “The wolves ate the cow, leaving only the bones”

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I found in Marcinkonys, roof laths 2. “roof framework”: The roof framework has burned down; only the walls remain Dūkštas (1. “a pole nailed horizontally onto the rafters”; also grebėzdas). 4. “a worn-out, dilapidated object; a bulky thing” (also grebėzdas 1), 5. dialectal. “an awkward person; grebėzdas” (also grebėzdas 2, grebėzda 2, grebėzas, grebėža). The connection with grebti is perhaps best illustrated by greblai “a comb for grooming horses” in Liudvinavas, Šventėžeris, grėblos (2) in Gegrėnai, Renavas, Raseiniai (LKŽ III 1956). [LKŽ III 1956 regards grėblius “a road laid across a bog; an embankment” (Nedzingė, Marijampolis, Daugėliškis) as a borrowing from Polish grebla (Polish also means “ditch”!), but grõblius means “embankment, roadbed” (Kuktiškės, Vidiškės, Tverėčius). gróblis (Serėdžius, Betygala, Šėta) is not considered Polish; perhaps all are Lithuanian, and the meanings are results of semantic development?]. A possibly contaminative formation is grėzdai 2. “skeleton, framework”: Wherever you build, it’s all just grėzdai (bones) in Kiduliai (1. “barn ceiling made of poles; poles arranged high in a hayloft for storing things”; cf. grėdas 2 in Alksnėnai, Miroslavas).

SinŽ 1980 also gives griaučių as a synonym of kriauklai. According to LKŽ VI 1962, kriauklai 1. means “bones, skeleton” and krauklai 1. is Samogitian [also kriauklas 1. “rib,” kráuklas 1. “rib,” also kriau kaulis in S. Daukantas, kráuk aulis in A. Baronas’s dictionary, 'kriauklys 3. “rib” in Joniškis; kriauklai 2. “chest” (4. “width across the top of a horse’s rump; croup”), kriauklinė 1. “chest bones, rib cage,” 2. “meat with chest bones, ribs,” krauklinė “rib cage, chest”]. Next come the frameworks of objects: kriauklai 3. “the framework of an object,” kráuklai 2. figuratively “the main parts”: Without straw, the roof is all framework in Šakyna; kriauklas 2. “rafter, roof lath.” There is also krėklai 1. “skeleton, framework” in Raseiniai, Žygaičiai, Girdamas (2. “side of a carcass, ribs” in Valkininkai; ²krėklas “chest” in M. Mažvydas, J. Bretkūnas, M. Daukša), and also krėkliai 3. “building framework, structural frame” in Gaurė, 'krėklas 1. “rafter” in eastern Aukštaitian (2. usually plural diminutive “the wickerwork forming a basket’s framework”), kreklinis “the upper wall log on which the rafters rest; rafter-related,” kreklà “rafter,” krėklė “rafter”; krekvà ir krėkvas “rafter” in Dzūkian.

As with Greek skeleton [skeleton (sōma) – “dried-up (body)”], there is also a wealth of meanings relating to drying out and the like—“crust, scab”: kr(i)augžlys, kriauglė, kr(i)aukšlė, kriaukalas 2, krauklys, 'kriauklys 6, 'krėklius, 'kriauklys 4. “a dried-up, frozen, clotted object,” kriauklas 7. “a dried-up, frozen lump of mud,” 'kráuklai 5. “clods frozen on the road, frozen ground,” krau̇kšlas 1. “a frozen clod, frozen ground,” kraukšlai “sharp frozen ground,” kregžlė “sharp frozen ground,” kraukšlė 1. “a thin, dry-frozen layer of ice, dry ice,” kráukla “a subsoil layer hardened by iron compounds; kraulis”; personal na-

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mes are kriauka “someone dried up, wasted away,” kriaukšlys 2. “a dried-up person, a wretch,” kriaukšlelis dialectal “a thin, emaciated person who is constantly dried up,” kriauklinis 1. “a weakling,” 2. “someone impoverished, a tired person,” krauklenyčia “someone very thin.”

SinŽ 1980 also records the dialectal jocular kabakštai—LKŽ V 1959 glosses it as “skeleton, framework, bones”: All that is left are kabakštai (bones), dried out and sticking out; there is no meat left A. Juška’s dictionary.

Some of these folk synonyms have at various times been used or attempted in terminology or ordinary language: groḃliai (skeleton)—in 1903, Antanas Vileišis (Zemlevičiūtė 2003: 92); The Zeppelin is named after the German inventor of the airship. <...>. The Zeppelin has a metal skeleton (kriauklai). Its entire skeleton is covered on the outside with gas-impermeable cotton fabric (Untulis 1927: 139). A few minor things need correcting, but all the spelling groblai (grebčiai) remain untouched. Groblai (skeleton) will remain the same for hundreds and hundreds of years, as long as the Lithuanian language endures (Būga I 1958: 556). The ship’s krėpštai (framework) will remain in the sand (written this way) LKŽ VI 1962. Many of these synonyms are included in some bilingual dictionaries: костяк – 1. griaučiai, skeletas, grobai, kriauklai RLKŽ I 1967; остов – 1. anat. skeletas, griaučiai, groblai RLKŽ II 1967; скелет – 1. skeletas, griaučiai (...), грёдай RLKŽ IV 1985.

During the decisive decades when the vocabulary and terminology of the standard language were becoming established, there was no prescriptive dictionary. Dictionaries of foreign words got ahead of it. This is when skeletas held sway—1. “skeleton, the bones of a human or animal, stripped of flesh,” 2. figuratively, “the outline, rudiments, principal guidelines of any work; also, a very thin person or animal” TŽŽ 1936; 1) “skeleton, the totality of the bones and cartilage in the body of a vertebrate; in invertebrates, various supporting structures, e.g. the calcareous armor of echinoderms,” 2) *skeleton; the main points of a work; plan, outline” TŽŽ 1951. The normative DŽ 1954 is very similar: skeletas 1. “the totality of the bones and cartilage in the body of a vertebrate, griaučiai”: human skeleton, 2. figuratively, “the main points of a work; plan, outline,” while griaučiai means 1. only “skeleton” (so the principal synonym is skeletas!..), 2. figuratively, “main parts”: the framework of a burned-out car, 3. figuratively, “outline, sketch”: the outline of a literary work. TŽŽ 1969 is almost like TŽŽ 1951, except skeletas means 2) *the skeleton, framework of something; <...>.” DŽ 1972 defines both skeletas and griaučiai essentially as in DŽ 1954. In TŽŽ 1985, the international and Lithuanian terms are equated: skeletas—“griaučiai”; likewise in TŽŽ 2001. But DŽ

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1993 already shows the Lithuanian word prevailing: griaučiai—1. “the totality of an animal’s bones and cartilage (or similar structures), skeleton”: mammoth skeleton (2. and 3. figurative meanings—as in DŽ 1954); the adjective griautinis is now also included → griaučiai 1: a skeletal grave. But how many more skeletons are still in bilingual dictionaries!..

The path to griaučiai was no easier in anatomy: Skeleton and its structural regularities, but: Bones, joined in an orderly manner by connective-tissue ligaments and cartilage, form an animal’s framework or skeleton; external and internal frameworks, but: Two main parts are distinguished in the skeleton: the axial and peripheral, or appendicular, skeleton GA 1967 35; thereafter only skeleton GA 1967 35 (nx), 36 (nx), 37 (nx), 51 (nx), 52 (nx), 87, 92, 108; for birds only griaučiai GA 1967 366, but then again wing skeleton GA 1967 369; in the book’s Index of Lithuanian Terms—griaučiai 373 (though it cannot be found in the book!..), whereas skeletas is absent; The skeleton forms a system of levers joined by joints of varying mobility. In vertebrates, the skeleton is inside the body, under the skin and between the muscles (internal skeleton). — — The skeleton, skeletum, is a system of rigid structures in an organism, consisting of bones, cartilage, and the connective-tissue joints binding them, and performing a mechanical function ŽA 1972 61; also separate trunk, limb, and hand skeletons ŽA 1972 85, 148, 155, but in phylo- and embryogenesis smooth-muscle tissue skeleton, striated skeletal muscles, striated skeletal musculature ŽA 1972 48, 50; although connective-tissue framework, yet membranous framework (membranous skeleton), cartilaginous framework (chondral skeleton), bony framework (osseous skeleton) and only desmal skeleton ŽA 1972 64; also axial skeleton, skeletogenic [i.e. skeleton-forming—J. K.] tissue ŽA 1972 85; there is also fin skeleton, then skeleton, framework, skeleton... ŽA 1972 149; framework, skeleton—“a system of rigid structures in humans and animals that perform mechanical functions (protective, supporting, and locomotor)”: external and internal (including limb and fin), membranous, cartilaginous, bony LTE IV 1978; skeletum – skeleton – framework – скелет (and skeletisatio – skeletonization – extreme emaciation – скелетизация, крайнее истощение), exoskeleton – exoskeleton – external framework (hair, nails, feathers, etc.; the chitinous covering of insects) – экзоскелет, внешний скелет MedŽ 1980; skeleton—also known as griaučiai MedEnc II 1993, griaučiai (Latin skeletum), skeleton⟧ MedEnc I 1991. It seemed that the Lithuanian matter had finally been settled: systema skeletale – skeleton, skeleton axiale – axial skeleton. skeleton appendiculare – appendicular skeleton, skeleton cruris – leg skeleton. skeleton pedis – foot skeleton VAnat,HirET 1998. But once again framework,

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skeleton VLE VII 2005 (and many will not understand that encyclopedias characteristically also include secondary, even outdated terms).

In translated and untranslated newspaper reporting, skeleton<...> mountains of skeletons in the Soščicė depression LA 1991 215 6. <...> 150 skeletons were unearthed LA 1994 162 1. A skeleton of a primitive human was found LA 1998 244 24. A growing child needs silicon so that <...> a strong skeleton can develop LA 1998 187 11. <...> petrified pterosaur skeletons LA 1999 106 22. The two skeletons excavated in Yekaterinburg in 1992 were identified as those of the Russian tsar Nicholas and his heir Alexander, murdered by the Bolsheviks LA 1999 120 24. <...> between one thousand and 7,000 skeletons of children were found LA 1999 153 26. <...> skeletons of six buried people were found ŠA 2002 14 11. <...> a human skeleton was found beneath the foundations ŠA 2002 14 11. In a deep underground chamber, a guide shows tourists several skeletons VŽ 2004 35 15. <...> turned into a living skeleton Sav su TV 2006 48 15. Japanese scientists have developed an exoskeleton robot that will help elderly people walk and even lift heavy objects Vd 2005 52 49. The figurative meaning is most often expressed only by skeleton: There is no need to look for skeletons of the past in “Villon”’s closets LA 2000 27 12. Voting alone is not enough to make Lithuania independent—so far, bureaucracy’s roar and democracy’s skeleton reign here ŠA 2001 13 3. A historical novel is not meant to scrape away the bones, but to flesh out the historical skeleton with muscles, thread its nerves, make its blood flow, and breathe life into the past Vd 2005 5 57. In 1999, “Vaga” published William Somerset Maugham’s book Cakes and Ale, or the Skeleton in the Cupboard (trans. Virgilijus Čepiejus). This is true linguistic skeletonization (skeletonization—extreme emaciation MedŽ 1980). It also afflicts newspaper articles on osteopathic–musculoskeletal medicine and diagnostics, for example: <...> all organs serve the musculoskeletal system, <...>. Thanks to the activity of the musculoskeletal system, we can work— <...> Gyv 1999 1 3. When Lithuanian bones and muscles disappear, Lithuanian words too—to serve, thanks to—are forced onto a foreign last. And it even sounds like Lithuanian Association of Manual Musculus-Skeletal Medicine LA 1999 246 12. Skeletal stretching LA 1998 182 14—that’s like a leg fracture... Skeletons are rare here: in 1886, the Apache chief and leader of the last major Indian uprising, Geronimo, surrendered to General Nelson Miles in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona LA 1999 173 32. And here he stands on the threshold of the temple. Beneath his feet stretches a boundless wasteland, strewn with the white skeletons of annihilated cultures ŠA 2001 5 11.

Net TŽŽ II 2000, nors skeletas – griaučiai, bet TŽŽ I 1999 kanoja – 1. „eskimų valtis iš banginio skeleto“.

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Skeletons (mixed up with skeletons) also occur in other kinds: the skeletons of flint algae (diatom algae) TechEnc I 2000 409. Coral reefs are <...> islands formed from <...> accumulations of calcareous skeletons of corals and other organisms, and at the surface also from living corals VLE X 2006. There are even more unusual examples: The spaces between nephrons are filled with connective tissue, which seems to form the skeleton of the kidney InkstL 1971 6. Unfortunately, skeleton is still common here: skeleton of the eyeball ŽA 1972 607, molecular skeleton< TechEnc II 2003 322; >... the basis of the cell skeleton is a special system of the thinnest fibrous elements. <...> it consists of quite complex assemblies of fibrous proteins. <...>. The system is very economical—in performing the combined work of support and locomotion, it serves in the cell as “skeleton,” “joints,” and “muscles,” yet continues to be called only the cell skeleton—cytoskeleton M ir G 1979 10 7.

These more complex skeletons are also called stroma (Greek stroma — “bedding, covering”): iris skeleton, or stroma ŽA 1972 609; stroma — biology: 1) “the base, or skeleton, of an animal organ, consisting of undifferentiated connective tissue containing cells capable of multiplying and developing, as well as fibrous structures that determine its supporting function,” 2) “the proteinaceous framework of erythrocytes” [also 3) and 4)] TŽŽ 1969; 1. “the supporting structure, framework, skeleton of an animal’s organs, on which the elements of those organs are arranged” TŽŽ 1985 (also TŽŽ 2001); in the study of internal organs stroma — (of an organ, cell) skeleton, stroma, in endocrine glands stroma — skeleton. stroma VAnat,HirET 1998.

French griaučiai means framework. In Lithuanian, griaučiai can be used in anatomy. However, “griaučiai” is quite universal. Many such structures occur in construction, architecture, sculpture, technology, and even clothing. But here griaučiai has been set aside. It is interesting, though, that the French term was adopted—French car-casse: karkas—1. “a wire hoop in women’s hats and lampshades”; 2. “in sculpture, certain frames used when modelling to preserve the proportions of a piece”; 3. “ancient cannon projectiles”; 4. “the metal or reinforced-concrete framework of a ship or house” TŽŽ 1936. Later the form was Lithuanianized and the order of meanings changed: karkasas—1) “the metal or wooden framework of a structure of some kind (house, ship, aircraft)”; 2) “the main part of an automobile tire—the fabric impregnated with rubber and covered with a thin layer of rubber”; 3) “an ancient incendiary projectile in the shape of a bag, with an ignition device, reinforced by iron hoop-shaped strips”; 4) “a tree of the elm family; it has very hard wood and is therefore called ironwood; used to make wooden

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wind instruments and various other items; <...>” TŽŽ 1951; ¹ karkasas 1. “the framework of a structure of some kind (...) <...>” (2. absent!, while °karkasas means, in botany, “a tree of the elm family <...>”) DŽ 1954; karkasas—the essential meaning is absent from TŽŽ 1969; it reappears in DŽ, 1972: karkasas—“the framework of a structure of some kind (...) <...>”; also karkasas—only “the skeleton of a product, structural element, or building, <...>” TŽŽ 1985 (likewise TŽŽ 2001); similarly, karkasas—“the framework of a structure of some kind (...) <...>; a kriauklai” (while kriauklai means: 1. dialectal “skeleton, bones”; 2. “the skeleton, framework of an object”; cf. kriauklas: 1. dialectal “rib”; 2. eastern dialect “crest, shell, husk”) DŽ 1993.

Similarly in terminology: karkasas—“the skeleton of a product, structural element, or building, giving it shape, strength, and stability, <...>” LTE V 1979; karkasas—carcass, framework, ossature—Skelett, Gerüst, Gerippe—ossature, carcasse, charpente, gros œuvre—каркас: reinforced-concrete, wooden, metal, steel, thin-walled section, framed, wall, rigid, prefabricated StatŽ 2002; skeleton construction—frame construction: a timber, reinforced-concrete, or steel structure—framework, <...> ALKAiškArchŽ 2004; karkasas—“the framework of a building, structure, or manufactured object, <...>” TechEnc II 2003, frame building, frame wall TechEnc II 2003; karkasas—“the framework of a building, structure, sculpture, or other manufactured object. <...>” VLE IX 2006.

But technology has not only karkasas: остов means karkasas: frameless, framed, semi-framed, load-bearing, body; but остов трактора means tractor frame, остов двигателя means engine housing, остов петли means the base of a loop PolŽ 1984.

Skeleton is also used and has been used here as an explanatory word for griaučiai, as a term: griaučiai, krūmas—остов (машины) VĮ 1924 75; carcase, carcass—1. framework; skeleton (2. lattice), but also shell—2. skeleton (1. casing) ALKStatŽ 1993; griaučiai—skeleton, framework, fabric—Gerippe, Skelett, Rohbau—ossature, carcasse—остов: building, wooden StatŽ 2002; ship hull framework LTE VI 1980 331, TechEnc II 2003 674; skeleton—1. technical: framework, kriauklai (2. warp, layout, plan) HidrotechŽ 2000.

Such skeletons are not uncommon in periodicals (though often needlessly placed in quotation marks): the skeletons of the oldest ships were found LA 1999 123 4; the “skeleton” of a structure Vd 2006 23 16, the “skeletons” of buildings Vd 2006 16 31, the “skeleton” of a farm Vd 2006 16 30, the “skeleton” of a stage LA 1999 134 15; the “skeleton” of history Vd 2001 33 41.

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The remaining skeleton. Nevertheless, skeleton is used in several terminologies even without a Lithuanian equivalent:

Šaknų sistemos skeletas (priklausomybės metų raštai) LKŽ XII 1981, skeletinės šaknys – „visos stambiosios medžių šaknys“ BTŽ 1965, skeletinės šakos – „stambiosios šakos, iš kurių išauga smulkios, daugiausia vaisinės šakelės“ BTŽ 1965; скелетный – 3. spec. skeletinis, pagrindinis, atraminis: skeletinės šakos RLKŽ IV 1985 (vartojama ir periodikoje), plg.: Vabalai skeletuoja ir apgraužia lapus bei stiebelius AugAps 1974 160 (taip pat 167, 168); skeletiškieji debesys – хребтовидные облака, tarpt. vertebratus MeteorŽ 1975;

soil, ground, and similar meanings of skeleton: Soil particles larger than 1 mm form the soil skeleton, while smaller ones form the fine earth BŽirDM 1974 30. Fine-grained soil is a natural dispersion system consisting of 3 phases: a solid phase—mineral particles (the soil skeleton); a liquid phase—water; and a gaseous phase—air and water vapour LTE IV 1978 231. Soil skeleton – grunto skeletas ALKStatŽ 1993, grunto skeletas – soil skeleton – Bodenske lett, Bodengerüst – squelette de sol – скелет грунта StatŽ 2002; also skeletal materials M ir T 1974 12 50, skeleting i smėliai MG 1975 5 16, skeletal soil – “soil containing rock and mineral fragments (larger than 3 mm in diameter), which form the soil skeleton. Depending on the size of these fragments, s. d. may be gravelly, stony, pebbly, or boulder-strewn. <···>” FGŽŽ 1987;

скелетная схема – el. skeletal circuit PolŽ 1984 (but ETŽ 1999 – absent);

skeletal crystals, called dendrites by scientists KV 1983 15 15 (but FTŽ 1979 – dendritinis kristalas – дендритный кристалл, древовидный кристалл, скелетный кристалл – dendrite crystal, pine(-tree) crystal, skeleton crystal – dendritischer Kristall, Tannenbaumkristall. Skelettkristall);

skeleton isomerism, chain isomerism – “a variant of structural isomerism” – скелетная изомерия, изомерия цепи – skeleton isomerism, chain isomerism (there is no skeleton itself, only a chain – “a sequence of directly connected atoms” – цепь – chain) ChemŽ 1997 and 2003, skeletal catalyst – “a catalyst [porous, metallic catalyst – ChemŽ 2003] obtained by dissolving [removing – ChemŽ 2003] the inactive metal [catalytically inactive components – ChemŽ 2003] from a two-metal alloy [from a metal alloy – ChemŽ 2003] ChemŽ 1997 – скелетный катализатор – skeletal catalyst, skeleton catalyst, spongy catalyst ChemŽ 1997 and 2003.

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Will the skeleton remain here? Sometimes this skeleton is disturbing: During baking, the state of proteins and starch changes. When the temperature of the bread crumb rises to 50°C, starch granules swell, and at 65°C their surface gelatinizes. At the same time, proteins denature and form what seems to be a bread skeleton ŽUPT 1969 122.

Skeleton. Of the same origin, but spread through English, is also skeleton – skeleton set-up – Skeleton, Skeletonfahren – скелетон [also Polish skeleton] – 1. “a low, simple-structure, single-seat racing sled without a steering device, with runners that do not protrude, used to descend an ice track down a hill. <⋯>”, 2. “a sledding sport—a high-speed descent down hills on a steel, single-seat sled without a steering device. The athlete lies face down and steers the sled with their legs (using spikes on the toes of their shoes). <⋯>” STŽ 1996. It was recorded (only in the sense of ‘sled’) as early as TŽŽ 1951; TŽŽ 1969 – absent, TŽŽ 1985 – 2. “sports discipline – <⋯>”. Even the Germans have it. But perhaps there is reason for doubt; cf.: The rules of this sport are simple: lying on a 96 cm long, brakeless iron sled, which translated into Lithuanian we would call a skeleton (?Į – J. K.), one must hurtle down a winding ice channel for more than a kilometre Šv 1978 14 9.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Kapotas first appeared as a dialectal borrowing, a word used in translations and dictionaries (and the variants kapota, kapotė), denoting quite varied garments. In standard language, this kapotas existed mostly as an exoticism. The engine covering, later called an engine bonnet – kapotas – is much more recent; it was not admitted into standard language, but did enter some terminology dictionaries. The history of the item ends with the official and emphatic effort to eliminate this kapotas, though it has lingered in usage, while the refinement and selection of its substitutes – engine bonnet, lid, cover – may not yet be quite complete.

2. Stress theory, developed in 1936, reached Lithuania late. In 1973, an attempt was made to reject the term stress lightly and noisily, without even looking at the theory. Nor was any attention paid to the considerable semantic load already carried by the proposed equivalent tension. Had the theory been studied even somewhat closely, and the whole microsystem considered—stress, eustress, distress, as well as the collocability of stress, which differs from that of tension—then medical literature and general usage would have had to grant stress at least some dispensation from language regulators and terminologists. But that is not the end of the matter. Only a medical professional can distinguish ordinary tension from stress, yet everyone wants to use stress, which has truly crossed the boundaries of medicine and become a symbol of globalized life, and so it gets used any which way. The same can be said of casual attempts to use other

190 Jonas Klimavičius | Terminas prie termino. III

medical concepts – depression, euphoria, apathy, frustration, trauma, shock. The usage of non-specialists here impermissibly exceeds the bounds of both knowledge and moderation.

3. Griaučiai, already used in 1898 in Varpas, although not recorded from dialects in LKŽ III 1956, has numerous variants and related words in living speech. School teaches: griaučiai. In anatomical terminology, griaučiai has not easily and not yet entirely supplanted the international term skeletą (the latter is still frequent in translations). Griaučiai also refers to the skeleton of a cell or molecule, as well as the skeleton of the eyeball, iris, or kidney. The term skeletas has also persisted here; moreover, stroma is sometimes used (also synonymously). “Griaučiai” is fairly universal. In construction, architecture, sculpture, and technology, the French-derived term for a framework, karkasas, is used most often, although griaučiai is also used directly. Skeletas, without a Lithuanian equivalent, is used in plant morphology, soil science, and other terminologies. Is this an entrenched remnant of double-word usage, one that can or cannot be eliminated? In sports terminology, skeletonas is known as “a certain type of racing sled.”

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Received 2006-11-20

Jonas Klimavičius

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

5 P. Vileišio Street, LT-10308 Vilnius

Email: [email protected]

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