73Te minologie | 2019 | 26
doi.o g/10.35321/ e m26-04
Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Specialized Seman ic F ames1
AnA Os Oški Anić
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
MAjA LOnčA
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
MA inA PA ić
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
AbS Ac he pape discusses he idea o using pa allel co po a o he ex ac ion o
e minological uni s used o iden i y seman ic ames o a ia ion, as he i s s ep in
de eloping a me hod o de e mining specialized seman ic ames. he p ocess o
compiling he pa allel co pus o ex s aken om he Eu -Lex da abase using Ske ch
Engine ools is desc ibed i s . he me hodology o ex ac ing e m candida es and
hei manual e i ica ion is hen p esen ed, as well as he p ocess o ex ac ing and
e i ying ele an e bs. he esul s o e m e i ica ion a e discussed, wi h he ocus
on he ole o e bs and e bal colloca ions in iden i ying ele an seman ic ames and
ame elemen s. Keywo ds: a ia ion e minology, English-c oa ian co pus, seman ic
ames, specialized knowledge, e minology.
Ano AcIjA
L'a iclenyje consids ema, commen pa allag a ieji ex ynai peu en ê e u ilisés des uni és e minies,
appliquomies a ia ion seman iniams eimam dé e mine , a él e . c'es la p emiè e mé hode pou les eims
séman iques spécialisés dé e mine le ni eau de c éa ion. Tou d'abo d déc i s commen , su la base de la base
de données Eu -Lex e u ilisan Ske ch Engine moyens, es p épa é un pa allag a is ex e de collec ion. Puis
son p ésen ées des mé hodes de sélec ion des a ian es de e mes e leu é i ica ion de maniè e manuelle
chez 1 his pape is based on he alk F om pa allel co po a o specialized seman ic ames, gi en a he 3 d
in e na ional con e ence on e minology Scien i ic, Adminis a i e and Educa ional Dimensions o Te minology
in Vilnius, 1718 oc obe 2019. his wo k has been ully suppo ed by he c oa ian Science Founda ion unde he
p ojec H ZZ-UIP-2017-05-7169.
7 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying p ocessus de sélec ion e de
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
é i ica ion des ac ionsmažodžių app op iés. Ap a ian e mes des pa seuls ésul a s
inimo une a en ion pa iculiè e es acco dée au ôle des ac ionsmajodžių e des mo s
conjugés, son dé e minés app op iés seman iniai eimai e leu s élémen s. des mo s
essen iels: e minija a ia ion, anglais e c oa des langues eks ynas, seman iniai eimai,
spécialisés žinios, e minologija.
In oDUc Ion he e ha e been nume ous applica ions o he heo y o F ame
Seman ics (Fillmo e 1976, 1982) in lexicog aphy and compu a ional linguis ics,
mos known o which is ce ainly he lexical knowledge da abase F amene
(Fillmo e e al. 2003; uppenho e e al. 2017). he wo k on mapping ela ions
be ween syn ax and seman ics, which F amene essen ially is, has no only
inspi ed simila p ojec s conce ning o he languages besides English, bu has
also pa ed he way o esea ch on specialized knowledge and he o ganiza ion
o specialized knowledge ca ego ies based on seman ic ames.
indépendammen de si ils adhè en à la mé hodologie de F amene oi emen ou
ils appliquen une app oche modi iée à iden i ie e delinean seman ic ames
comme ypes de ca égo ies, he p ojec s c ea ed a ound building esou ces
designed o specialized knowledge communi ies needed o ake in o accoun
he speci ics o e minology and he con ex o languages o speci ic
pu poses as opposed o gene al language and i s use (Fabe e al. 2006; 2009;
LHomme 2012). he e has been no lexical esou ce de eloped o he c oa ian
language ha is comple ely based on F amene s me hodology and seman ic
in en o y. ce ain seman ic ames ha e been de ined as pa o a la ge
da abase o concep ual me apho s in c oa ian (Despo e al. 2019). Howe e , a
da abase o seman ic ames o a ia ion, which is being de eloped wi hin he
esea ch p ojec he Dynamici y o Specialized Knowledge Ca ego ies (DIKA,
ihjj.h /dika), is he i s a emp a building such a specialized da abase o
c oa ian. he p ojec deals wi h he desc ip ion o concep ual and linguis ic
le els o specialized knowledge ca ego ies wi hin he dynamic na u e o
seman ic ames. he p ojec s key ou pu is a mul ilingual e minological
da abase in which a ia ion e minology is de ined in seman ic ames, including
ame elemen s, concep ual ela ions, and igu a i e and ph aseological
e minological uni s. A pa allel co pus o English and C oa ian ex s in he
domain o ai a ic has been compiled o he pu poses o seman ic and
syn ac ic analysis, and i will se e as
7Te minologija | 2019 | 26 he s a ing poin o e m ex ac ion and e m
analysis. he subdomain his pape discusses he idea o using pa allel co po a
o ai a ic has been chosen as he mos ep esen a i e aspec o he as
and in e disciplina y ield o a ia ion.
o he ex ac ion o e minological uni s e e ing o speci ic seman ic
ames o a ia ion, as he i s s ep in de eloping a me hod o de e mining
seman ic ames and hei concep ual ela ions in he ield o a ia ion.
Al hough pa allel co po a ha e long been ecognized as in aluable sou ces o
e m candida es o building a ious specialized esou ces (Vin a 2000), hey
ha e so a been li le used in applied esea ch e e ing o F ame Seman ics.2
he p ocess o compiling he pa allel co pus o ex s aken om he Eu -Lex
da abase using Ske ch Engine ools is desc ibed i s . he me hodology o
ex ac ing e m candida es and hei manual e i ica ion is hen p esen ed, as
well as he p ocess o ex ac ing and e i ying ele an e bs. he esul s o
e m e i ica ion a e p esen ed and commen ed on, sui i pa he discussion o
he po en ial use o e bs and e bal colloca ions in iden i ying ele an
seman ic ames and ame elemen s in he ield o a ia ion.3
1. HEo E IcAL bAcKG oUnD
In con empo a y e minology and LSP communi ies, specialized knowledge esou ces a e no longe buil
a ound he desc ip ion o hie a chical ela ions only because i is conside ed hey do no e lec he
dynamic na u e o he knowledge ca ego ies (Fabe e al. 2006; 2009; LHomme, obichaud 2014). De plus, he
o mal dis inc ion be ween a dic iona y and a lexicon ha he whole adi ional e minog aphy is based on
seems o ha e been blu ed wi h mo e and mo e specialized esou ces employing he me hods o
compila ion and knowledge p esen a ion o he wise used in c ea ing gene al language esou ces (LHomme e
al. 2016; LHomme 2018). Lexical and seman ic esou ces buil on he p emises o F ame Seman ics de ine
knowledge in e ms o seman ic ames as a ype o dynamic ca ego ies o in ica e elemen s and mu ual
ela ions. Each seman ic ame is de ined as a ype o e en o s a e wi h i s pa icipan s, called ame
elemen s (FEs). Seman ic ames a e in oked by 2 Pa allel co po a would ce ainly each hei ull po en ial
in he c ea ion o mul ilingual lexical eposi o ies based on seman ic ames (boas 2005). 3 We hank he
anonymous e iewe s o hei in aluable commen s and sugges ions.
7 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying lexical uni s, i.e.
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
wo ds in e e yday language o e ms in specialized knowledge, which
ins an ia e ame elemen s. he basic c i e ion o delimi ing one ame om
ano he is ha all lexical uni s should e oke he same ype o e en and sha e
he same in en o y and con igu a ion o FEs ( uppenho e e al. 2017: 384385).
his me hod o a i ing a he scope o seman ic ames and hei
de ini ions could be, howe e , conside ed an a bi a y one because i does no
equi e a p e ious o e iew o he a ailable lexical da a. Since many ames
ollow a scena io-like composi ion, hei desc ip ion usually s a s om
selec ing ele an e bs ( uppenho e e al. 2010) o which app op ia e
a gumen s a e added ollowing he anno a ion o examples ex ac ed om
he co pus. Bien que lexical uni s and ame elemen s a e de ined acco ding o
he analyzed co pus da a, seman ic ames a e ne e heless mos ly
in ui i ely iden i ied and named. In iden i ying seman ic ames o a ce ain
specialized knowledge domain, i would be mo e sui able o i s delinea e he
scope o knowledge being de ined, which in e minology wo k is done h ough
he iden i ica ion o key concep s and concep ual ela ions in he domain.
e minological esea ch has closely kep ack o de elopmen s in linguis ics
o e he pas wo decades, and has shi ed i s heo e ical ocus o analysing
p ocesses and e en s as mo e dynamic specialized knowledge s uc u es.
he e o e, i has become clea ha p edica i e e ms ( e bs, adjec i es,
ad e bs and ce ain nouns) o en deno e key concep s o a domain
e minology (LHomme 1998; Pimen el 2012; LHomme, obichaud 2014). Fo
ins ance, e ms communica e, ly, ake o , and anspo a e ypically
p esen in he ield o a ia ion, as well as e ms o a numbe o p ocedu es
ha we on ologically de ine as p ocesses o ac i i ies. Bien que la no ion de
e mhood es plu ô bien comp ise pa mi les e minologues quand il ien à
dé e mine le concep ual le el o e ms, he c i e ia o choosing which ypes
o lexical uni s should be included as e ms in a e minological esou ce s ill
di e depending on he ield analyzed and he heo e ical amewo k applied.
he c i e ia o de ining ypes o e bs ca ying specialized meaning
p oposed by LHomme (1998, 2015) a e mos e e ed o in e minological
li e a u e, along wi h Lo en es c i e ia and he ypology o e bs in
specialized discou se (2002, 2007). LHomme dis ingues among h ee ypes o
e bs in specialized ex s: e bs speci ic o a ce ain ield (e.g. land, ake o ),
e bs ha acqui e specialized meaning in he ield (e.g. ope a e), and e bs o
gene al lan he c i e ia o deciding whe he a e b akes on a new, specialized
meaning in a gi en con ex should ye be mo e p ecisely de ined. he c i e ia
7Te minologie | 2019 | 26 guage.4 Ve bs que belongen à la i s and second
ypes peu en ê e labellés comme e ms, mais e bs o he second ype
p esen a mo e in e es ing g oup o e minological analysis because he e
a e cases où i is no clea whe he he meaning is di e en enough om
he e bs canonical o de aul gene al dic iona y meaning.
o deciding whe he a e b can be classi ied as a e m depend, acco ding o
LHomme (1998, 2015), on i s a gumen s and i s mo phological and seman ical
ela ion o lexical uni s o he same meaning ha a e de ined as e ms. In
sho , i a e b has a gumen s ha a e de ined as e ms, i is likely o be a
e m i sel , as in he sen ence The pilo lies he helicop e . Also, i he noun
akeo is de ined as a e m, hen he e b ake o should also be de ined as
one. We ha e applied hese c i e ia in ou analysis o ex ac ed e bs, o
which mo e is said in sec ion 4.
2. MEHoDS
In o de o de elop a alid me hodology o iden i ying specialized seman ic
ames, se e al s eps had o be aken. Fi s , a pa allel Englishc oa ian co pus
was c ea ed. he second s age consis ed o e m ex ac ion and alida ion o
e m candida es lis s. he hi d s ep included ex ac ing a lis o e bs and
analysing hei colloca ions bea ing specialized meaning.
2.1. Co pus compila ion he co pus is compiled om he Di ec o y o legal ac s o he Eu opean Union,
chap e T anspo policy, subchap e Ai anspo in English and c oa ian. ou o 220 documen s om he
Ai anspo subchap e , 178 legal ac s a e aken ha ing bo h (English and c oa ian) language e sions. he
ex s a e downloaded om he EU -Lex da abase,5 and en e ed in o he Ske ch Engines co pus compila ion
module.6 he simples way o c ea e a pa allel co pus in Ske ch Engine is o upload da a 4 LHomme (2015)
u he classi ies gene al language e bs in o suppo e bs (a e Le a 2002) and discu si e e bs
( ollowing Lo en e and he classi ica ion om 2002). See Pimen el (2017) o a ecen elabo a ion o hese
wo app oaches o ypology o e bs in specialized ex s. 5 A ailable à:
h ps://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/b owse/di ec o ies/legisla ion.h ml [accessé 05.09.2019]. 6 A ailable a :
h ps://www.ske chengine.eu/use -guideuse -manual/co po a/se ing-up-pa allel-co po a
[accessé 05.09.2019].

8 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying in a abula
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
o ma such as a sp eadshee (Excel). Sp eadshee s mus con ain language
names in he i s ow and hen aligned segmen s (wo d, sen ences, o
pa ag aphs) side by side.
E e y documen (legal ac ) was p ocessed o ge one column o each language. In
o de o achie e his, bulle s and numbe ing, as well as nusou ce ile was
me ical pa o ables in documen s we e emo ed. Each language in he
p ocessed in o a sepa a e monolingual co pus and aligned wi h he co esponding
co pus in he o he language. 1. size o he pa allel english-c oa ian co pus
EnGLISH c oA IAn EnGLISH c oA IAn okens 1,151,297 1,059,406 Sen ences 72,045
75,638 Wo ds1,156 855,560 Documen s Table 178 178 Apa om ex ac ing mos
equen single-wo d and mul i-wo d e ms used as candida es o seman ic
ames elemen s, he co pus can also be used o he ex ac ion o e ms,
de ini ions and examples o he linguis ic con ex ha will be en e ed in o he
he heological Ai F ame da abase. he co pus will also se e o he analysis o
he syn ac ic le el o e ms, i.e. hei colloca ions, ph aseological ela ions and
p edica e-a gumen cons uc ions.
2.2. Te m ex ac ion and e m e i ica ion
Au oma ic e m ex ac ion was conduc ed o each language wi h he op ion
o ex ac ing a lis o 1000 single-wo d and mul i-wo d keywo ds. he EU -Lex
English 2-2016 co pus was used as a e e ence co pus o ex ac ing English
single-wo d e m candida es, while he English Web 2013 was used as a
e e ence co pus o ex ac ing mul i-wo d e m candida es. Simila
op ions we e possible o e m ex ac ion in c oa ian. he EU -Lex c oa ian
2-2016 co pus se ed as a e e ence co pus o ex ac ing mo e ele an
single-wo d e m candida es, while his op ion was no possible o
ex ac ing mul i- e m keywo ds. he e o e, he c oa ian Web h Wac 2.2.
co pus was used ins ead. In o de o es he eliabili y o he me hod, he
i s 100 e m candida es aken om he English lis o mul i-wo d e ms
we e manually alida ed.
Ha ing checked hei conco dances, ou o 100 e m candida es, 70 we e
ecognized as alid e ms by a e minologis wi h ample expe ience in
7Te minologija | 2019 | 26 a ia ion e minology. he lis o English keywo ds (o
single-wo d e ms) consis ed la gely ou o a ia ion abb e ia ions and a ew
key a ia ion e ms. Manual analysis and e m e i ica ion o bo h English and
c oa ian candida e lis s o ex ac ed e ms was hen conduc ed. he
e i ica ion p ocess consis ed o wo phases: 1. emo ing all abb e ia ions and
ob ious gene al language wo ds and colloca ions; and 2. analysing he
conco dances o he emaining e ms in o de o e i y whe he hey we e
indeed a ia ion e ms. Abb e ia ions a e commonly used in a ia ion as e ms,
hus no including hem in a dic iona y o glossa y o a ia ion would be
unde s ood as a poo p esen a ion o a ia ion e minology in use. Howe e ,
puisque we wan ed o a i e a a lis o e ms o mul i-wo d cons uc ions
ha could be used in naming he elemen s o seman ic ames in a ia ion,
abb e ia ions as lexical subs i u es o ull e ms we e no ea ed in he
same unc ion he e. Apa men om his, he e was no eason o keeping
abb e ia ions in he c oa ian e m candida es lis s because hey we e used in
he ex s as o eign language elemen s.
2.3. Ex ac ion and analysis o e bs he lis s o English and c oa ian e b
we e ex ac ed au oma ically using he Keywo ds op ion in Ske ch Engine.
Ve bs be, ha e and do ha e no been aken in o accoun in he English
co pus, while bi i be, ima i ha e, moći can and mo a i mus ha e been omi ed
om he analysis in he C oa ian co pus. he i s 100 e bs om each lis
a e hen analyzed by manual alida ion o hei wo d ske ches. colloca ions
deemed as mul i-wo d e ms o colloca ions o ela i e signi ica ion o
a ia ion e minology based on hei equency a e no ed down in an Excel
shee nex o he analysed e b.
3. ESUL S AnD DISCUSSIon
Manual e m e i ica ion o single-wo d and mul i-wo d English and c oa ian e m candida es yielded
su p ising esul s conce ning p ecision and ecall o he au oma ic ex ac ion p ocess in Ske ch Engine.
Fo ins ance, a e he i s phase o e m e i ica ion, ou o 1000 e ms, only 400 single-wo d c oa ian
e ms emained ha we e no abb e ia ions o gene al language wo ds. he inal lis s o c oa ian e ms
consis o 199 single-wo d and 455 mul i-wo d c oa ian e ms. he e a e somewha mo e English
mul i-wo d e ms, bu no as many as one would expec . 664 mul i-wo d English e ms emained a e he
analysis, bu only 148 juncke ), wo ds in o he o eign languages, and e en some unc ion wo ds (e.g. he
p onoun his). he algo i hm o he ex ac ion o keywo ds and mul i-wo d e ms appa en ly
ecognizes o eign elemen s, i.e. non-English wo ds in he co pus as e ms, oo. his could ha e been
8 0 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying single-wo d English
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
e ms, which makes o a signi ican ly poo esul o only 14.8% alid e ms om
he ini ial lis o mul i-wo d English e ms. Comme p é u, he second phase o
e m e i ica ion p esen ed se e al issues ega ding he e mhood o he
candida es. I bo h he noun and he adjec i e e e ing o a ce ain concep
appea ed on he lis , he noun was kep as a mo e p o o ypical e m ealiza ion.7
his was mo e he case wi h he c oa ian e ms since in English a noun and an
adjec i e o en ha e he same mo phological o m, as in he ollowing examples:
kabina, kabinski cabin, na igacija, na igacijski na iga ion, na iga ional, helikop e ,
helikop e ski helicop e , iden i ikacija, iden i ikacijski iden i ica ion.
Similai emen , i bo h an adjec i e and an ad e b appea ed in he lis s, he
adjec i e o m was kep : ins umen alni, ins umen alno ins umen , while in
he case o he e b/adjec i e di e ence, he e b was no mally kep on he
lis : ce i ici a i, ce i ici an ce i y, ce i ied. When wo nouns e e ing o
he same concep appea ed, bo h we e kep i one o hem was e e ing o he
ac ion, and he o he o he esul , as in he example o iden i ikacija and
iden i ici anje iden i ica ion. I seems ha no such di e ence exis s in he
English coun e pa s. he English e m candida es lis s included a lo o
in o ma ion ha needed o be il e ed, such as he names o coun ies, pe sonal
names (e.g.
a oided had he ph ases (in all EU languages) ha usually appea a he end o each documen been e ased
p io o adding he documen s o he co pus, bu i was decided ha i was easie o igno e hem in he
candida es lis s a e wa ds. he second phase e m e i ica ion ega ding he English e m candida es
showed he inabili y o dis ingue wo-pa om h ee-pa mul iwo d cons uc ions as he g ea es
pi all o he applied algo i hm, which is a common e o in many s a is ical e m ex ac ion ools. Bound
ai and simula ed engine a e hus pa s o la ge , co ec mul i-wo d e ms bound ai ca go and
simula ed engine ailu e (bo h e sions appea ed on in e minological dic iona ies o e co esponding
adjec i es and e bs e e ing o he same concep (Sage 1990: 58). Howe e , bo h would be included as
lexical uni s connec ed wi h he seman ic ame hey in oke.
he lis ), as well as ins umen g ound and c ew compa men (ins ead o
7 his kind o easoning is mo e in line wi h adi ional e minology wo k, in which nouns had p io i y
8 1Te minologie | 2019 | 26 ins umen g ound ime and ligh c ew compa men ).
Some mul i-wo d e m candida es o mally appea as p ope e ms and i akes
domain speci ic knowledge o label hem as inco ec o alse posi i e esul s,
e.g.: isual ligh > isual ligh ules, p o iding ai a ic > p o iding ai a ic
se ices, in es iga ion au ho i y > sa e y in es iga ion au ho i y, maximum
ake-o > maximum ake-o mass, seconda y su eillance > seconda y ada
su eillance. Sho e e sions a e o en simply synonyms, like con olle
licence o ai a ic con olle licence. Ano he g oup o alse posi i e
mul i-wo d e ms consis s o mul i-wo d exp essions ha could be labelled as
belonging o gene al language: ele an ai c a , indi idual ai c a , speci ic
ai c a , la ge ai c a , p esen ai c a , heigh o cloud base, ield o ci il
a ia ion, en i e lying ime o speci ic aining. Bien qu'ils son
mo pho-syn ac ically alid o ms, ils é è en à no pa icula concep and
he e o e canno be conside ed e ms. Ha ing analysed all lis s, we a i ed a a
e y small numbe o singlewo d e ms, 199 c oa e and 148 English e ms. In
o de o e i y whe he he e ms ha could be conside ed o deno e key
concep s o he ield had been ex ac ed, he wo d ske ches o he i s 10
e ms in each language we e analyzed. Wo d ske ches a e au oma ic,
co pus-de i ed summa ies o wo ds g amma ical and colloca ional pa e ns,
and hey se e as an excellen sou ce o gene a ing a la ge numbe o e m
candida es in hei syn ac ical con ex (Kilga i e al. 2014). Apa om
ypical adjec i e/ noun (we -leased ai c a ) o noun/noun (ai c a noise,
ai c a posi ion) colloca ions, e bal colloca ions (ope a e an ai c a ) and
p eposi ional ph ases (ai c a en e ing in o) gi e in aluable e minological
in o ma ion mos use ul o e minologis s and ansla o s. he mos ele an
ela ion o his pu pose was he coo dina ion ela ion be ween he a ge
wo d and he ela ed wo ds. As can be seen in Figu e 1, he wo ds ela ed o
ai c a a e occupan , e ain, ehicle, p oduc , sys ems, con en , loss, uni ,
engine, equipmen and ype. We compa ed he lis o he coo dina ed e ms
wi h he lis o he single-wo d e ms and ma ked hose ha appea ed in bo h.
he second s ep in e i ying he esul s was compa ing he mos equen
colloca ions o he e ms in wo d ske ches wi h hose om he lis o
mul i-wo d e ms. When he colloca ions om he wo d ske ch (e.g. ai c a
iden i ica ion o ai c a ope a o in Figu e 1) ma ched hose in he lis o
e ms ex ac ed om he co pus, hey we e also ma ked as lexical uni s o be
included in he desc ip ion o a seman ic ame.