DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Institute of the Lithuanian Language

NAMES FOR THE INHABITANTS OF STATES AND ETHNONYMS

As horizons broaden, we increasingly encounter different parts of the world and need to name their inhabitants or languages. To make this easier, special publications are issued and documents prepared. It is now possible to refer correctly in Lithuanian to all the states and their capitals that currently exist, as well as to the territories and regions they govern¹. A Language Classification² has also been approved, and two books of World Place Names³ have been published. However, the question of what to call their inhabitants remains relevant. This article discusses only a small subset of such words—the names for the inhabitants of states and ethnonyms (lists⁴ with definitions are provided in four tables appended to the end of the article).

First, it should be said that names for the inhabitants of states and ethnonyms do not always coincide in Lithuanian. For example, Ireland is home to the Irish people, and Russia to the Russian people, but Belgians refers to people of Flemish, Walloon, or German ethnicity who live in Belgium. The word Angolans means inhabitants of Angola, not an ethnicity, since Angola is home to many peoples and ethnic groups: Ovimbundu, Mbundu, Bakongo, Ovambo, and others. This non-linguistic point is mentioned because the influence of the languages of major countries often leads to confusion between ethnicity and citizenship in Lithuanian as well. In Lithuanian dictionaries and encyclo-

¹ For more information, see the website of the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter VLKK) at http://www.vlkk.lt/nutarimai/svetimvardziai.html

² The Language Classification was prepared in accordance with the international standard for language names, ISO 369–1, considered at a meeting of the VLKK Subcommittee on Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation, and approved by Order No. 1B–88 of the Director of the Customs Department dated January 31, 2003 (Žin. 2003, No. 14–590).

³ World Place Names. Europe, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 2006; World Place Names. America, Vilnius: Institute of Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing, 2008.

⁴ The names for inhabitants in these lists (without definitions) were considered at a meeting of the extended VLKK Subcommittee on the Dictionary (2008 06 02), and at its 5th meeting (2008 10 02), the VLKK adopted Protocol Resolution No. PN-6, “On the Recommendation ‘On Names for the Inhabitants of States.’”

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In dictionaries, these two things are distinguished, although this too causes problems. For example, it is clear how to define a Latvian or an English person: “person of a particular nation.” The Swiss or Sri Lankans are equally easy to define: “inhabitants of a particular state.” But how should one describe Americans, Brazilians, Canadians? Here the boundary between an ethnic name and a name for an inhabitant is no longer so clear; these people are usually united by a shared place of residence and history, but not always by origin or even language. Therefore, in such cases, different approaches are taken: some sources continue to call them “inhabitants,” while others call them “representatives of a particular nation” or even “representatives of a particular emerging people (nation).”

Another, more complex problem is what to call the inhabitants or ethnic groups of certain countries in general. To date, not all the names under discussion appear in dictionaries or encyclopedias. The following sources were consulted: Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (6th electronic edition; hereafter DŽ_6e), Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (electronic version; hereafter LKŽ_e), Dictionary of International Words (hereafter TŽŽ), Valerija Vaitkevičiūtė’s Dictionary of International Words (hereafter VV TŽŽ), Practical Dictionary of Lithuanian (hereafter MLKŽ), Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia (hereafter VLE), and Soviet Lithuanian Encyclopedia (hereafter LTE). These publications were chosen because they are the most comprehensive, normative as far as possible, and accessible to anyone interested. Naturally, the names under discussion may not always be included in dictionaries of international words because of their Lithuanian form—that is, if a word cannot be considered international. The Practical Dictionary of Lithuanian was consulted perhaps more as a source on what knowledge about ethnic groups and terms for inhabitants pupils acquire at school. It includes only the most important names, but also some that are not recorded in other sources.

Iš beveik 200 valstybių gyventojų pavadinimų ir tautovardžių maždaug ketvirtadalis yra fiksuojami beveik visuose minėtuose šaltiniuose, jie seniai prigiję lietuvių kalboje: afganas, –ė⁵, airis, –ė, albanas, –ė, australas, –ė, baltarūsis, –ė, bosnis, –ė, brazilas, –ė, islandas, –ė, kazachas, –ė, kinas, –ė, kirgizas, –ė, kroatas, –ė, libis, –ė, makedonas, –ė, portugalas, –ė, tadžikas, –ė, turkmėnas, –ė, ukrainietis⁷, –ė, uzbekas, –ė ir kt. Jų vartosena lyg ir neturėtų kelti kokių sun-

⁵ VLE also gives the variant Afghanistanis. It is much more common on the Internet, although the shorter form is also used. In general, these two variants are confused. It would be best to include both, but distinguish their meanings: an Afghanistanian, “an inhabitant of Afghanistan,” and an Afghan, “a member of the people living in Afghanistan.” This people is indeed also called Pashtuns, but Afghans and Pashtuns may be used as synonyms.

⁶ Previously, the form Croat was used, based on the country’s former name, Croatia.

⁷ The form Ukrainian is also recorded, but it is much less common than the variant Ukrainian. For more on these two words, see M i l i ū n a i t ė R. Comments on surveys of language users, www.kalbosnamai.lt

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lar problems, but in some places (especially on the Internet) one still encounters Irish people, Albanians, Australians, Bosnians, Brazilians, Icelanders, Chinese people, Libyans, Macedonians, and Portuguese people. It should be noted that the suffix –ietis, –ė is highly productive, and terms for inhabitants are often formed with it even when it is entirely unsuitable. Sometimes it is indeed difficult to see why one name with the suffix –ietis, –ė is considered normative while another is not. In such cases, it would probably be better to give priority to tradition rather than systematicity⁸. The forms Kazakhstanis, Kyrgyzstanis, Tajikistanis, Turkmenistanis, and Uzbekistanis are also used on the Internet. Such forms derive from the names of the countries where members of these peoples live: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. However, it should not be forgotten that in Lithuanian these countries have long had other correct names as well: Kazachija, Kyrgyzija, Tadžikija, Turkmėnija, Užbėkija. Shorter ethnic names are derived from these, so the longer, more difficult-to-pronounce forms are entirely unnecessary. Variants such as Azerbaijanis, Belarusians, Moldovans⁹ and so on also occur.

Kai kurie pavadinimai yra kiek retesni, bet jie randami vienoje ar kitoje enciklopedijoje, žodyne, plg.: alžyriečiai, –ė, argentiniečiai, –ė, birmiečiai, –ė, bolivas, –ė, kolumbiečiai, –ė, kostarikiečiai, –ė, kuveitiečiai, –ė, laosiečiai, –ė¹⁰, perujietis, –ė, šrilankiečiai, –ė ir kt.

Other analogous terms for inhabitants or ethnic groups are not recorded in the sources mentioned above, but are regularly formed with the suffix –ietis, –ė. These entirely correct words should therefore also appear in dictionaries (many of them are, incidentally, used on the Internet); compare: Bangladeshis, Belizeans, Gabonese, Grenadians, Guineans, Cypriots, Lesothoans, Lebanese, Malians, Marshallese¹¹, Mauritians, Rwandans, Timorese, Togolese, Tongans, Venezuelans, Zimbabweans, and so on (see Table 1).

⁸ For more, see: Liutkevičienė D. On ethnic and inhabitant designations with the suffix –ietis, –ė. – Kalbos kultūra 74, 2001, 60–65; Miliūnaitė R. Comments on surveys of language users, www.kalbosnamai.lt

⁹ The name Moldovan is correctly formed and entirely justified, since the country is now called Moldova rather than Moldavia. However, the ethnic name Moldavian has long been established and should not be changed.

¹⁰ Laotian appears in TŽŽ, LTE, and VLE. These sources give two forms: Lao (the main form) and Laotians. For our purposes, the form Laotians would suffice, especially considering that this people speaks the Lao language (this form is also recorded in the Language Classifier).

¹¹ The author hesitated somewhat over whether to call the inhabitants of this country inhabitants of the Republic of the Marshall Islands or Marshallese. Two arguments tipped the balance: 1) Marshallese is shorter and therefore more convenient; 2) some foreign sources (e.g., UNTERM) already distinguish the Marshallese language (English Marshallese, French marshallais, Spanish marshallés). Thus, a shorter name is preferable if a name for that language is needed.

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A separate discussion is needed of a small group of demonyms that do not conform to the rule that, for a place name ending in the suffix –ija, one should avoid (if possible) forming demonyms with the suffix –ietis, –ė. Such demonyms are: gambijietis, –ė (: Gambia), kenijietis, –ė (: Kenya), mauritanietis, –ė (: Mauritania), namibietis, –ė (: Namibia), tanzanietis, –ė (: Tanzania), zambietis, –ė (: Zambia). The forms that should seemingly be used are gambis, –ė, kėnis, –ė, mauritanis, –ė, namibis, –ė, tanzanis, –ė, zambis, –ė¹². However, the rule mentioned has too many exceptions for it to be followed in every case. There is no doubt about the established traditional demonyms australas, –ė (: Australia), brazilas, –ė (: Brazil), and so on. When coining a new demonym not previously recorded, it is preferable to choose the more usual form with the suffix –ietis, –ė¹³. Language users do this: the internet is full of forms with the suffix –ietis, –ė, whereas shorter forms are almost nonexistent.

There are several countries with two-word names that can, in a sense, be treated as single-word names. These are names in which the second element is inflected, but the first is not; compare: Bisáu Gvinėja, Burkina Fāsas, Kòsta Rikà, San Marìnas, Sièra Leonė. Some one-word demonyms of this type have already been recorded in many written sources, e.g. kostarikietis, –ė (also compare puertorikietis, –ė: Puèrto Rìkas). By analogy, one can form bisaugvinėjietis, –ė, burkinafasietis, –ė, sanmarinietis, –ė, sieraleonietis, –ė.

A different case is the group of country names with a more complex structure (comprising several words). It would be difficult to form one-word demonyms from them, so the people of those countries can only be referred to simply as inhabitants: an inhabitant of Antigua and Barbuda¹⁴, an inhabitant of the Central African Republic¹⁵, an inhabitant of the Ivory Coast (Republic)¹⁶, an inhabitant of New Zealand

¹² The form zambis, –ė is recorded in DŽ₆e.

¹³ For more on names of this type, see Liutkevičienė D. (cited article).

¹⁴ A similar approach to demonyms for the inhabitants of this country (and other countries with names comprising several words) is taken in other languages as well; compare English of Antigua and Barbuda, Spanish de Antigua y Barbuda, Russian (from / inhabitant of) Антигуа и Барбуды (data from UNTERM). However, in some languages a demonym has nevertheless been coined; compare French Antiguais et Barbudien (data from UNTERM), English Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) (data from CIA). Nevertheless, it is probably not worth forming *antigvietis or *barbudietis in Lithuanian, since what matters is who lives in that country, not on one of its islands.

¹⁵ In some places on the internet, the inhabitants of the Central African Republic and the Republic of South Africa are called Africans. Out of context, this is imprecise, since afrikietis would then have three meanings (including “an inhabitant of the continent of Africa”). Compare the names for these inhabitants in other languages: English Central African, French Centrafricain, Spanish Centroafricano, Russian (from / inhabitant of) Центрально-африканской Республики (data from UNTERM).

¹⁶ Parentheses indicate the longer official form (as with country names); without parentheses is the shorter form.

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jas, –a¹⁷, a resident of Papua New Guinea, –a¹⁸, a resident of the Solomon Islands, –a¹⁹, a resident of Saudi Arabia, –a²⁰, etc. (see Table 3 for more).

Some of the names already discussed deserve separate consideration from a somewhat different angle, because, when presented without a definition of their meaning, they could be misleading. As mentioned at the beginning of the article, ethnonyms and names for residents often do not coincide, since it is hardly likely that there is a country inhabited by just one ethnic group. By tradition, especially when speaking of well-known countries, people say, for example, that the residents of Latvia are Latvians and the residents of Ukraine are Ukrainians, and so on, although this is not entirely true, since people of other ethnic groups also live in these countries. However, this is well known to everyone and causes no confusion. If it is necessary to refer to all the residents of a country, emphasizing that more than one ethnic group lives there, people say just that—the residents of that country. But one may not know the makeup of the population of more distant countries. Therefore, the lists at the end of the article indicate which terms are ethnonyms and which are names for residents. At first glance, some names may seem confusing—a Fijian and a Fiji resident, a Congolese and a resident of Congo, a Bosniak and a resident of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first terms denote ethnicity, while the second refer to all the residents of the country in question. This distinction is sometimes made because the ethnic group whose name is associated with the name of the country (it is not always clear which name derives from which) often makes up only half, or even less, of the country's population. Occasionally, this is also done for political reasons²¹. In these cases, two separate words or two meanings of the same word are distinguished (see Table 4 for more). A study of such names has shown that ethnonyms are most often (though not always) formed with the endings –as, –ė, –is, –ė, whereas names for residents of countries are formed with the suffix –

¹⁷ On the Internet and in the media, the form nauაზelandietis is widespread, and linguists have debated it extensively. In the author's opinion, it could be used.

¹⁸ On the Internet, one finds both papuagvinėjiečių and papuasų (but not only papuasai live there). Compare other languages: English a Papua New Guinean, French Papouan-Néo-Guinéen, Spanish de Papua Nueva Guinea; papú; papúa, Russian (из / житель) Папуа–Новой Гвинеи (data from UNTERM).

¹⁹ By analogy with maršalietis, –ė (Marshall Islands), the form *saliamonietis, –ė would be expected, but Saliamono Salos (the country) and Saliamono salos (the archipelago) overlap only partly. Therefore, the word *saliamonietis, –ė would be misleading, since it could refer to someone from the Solomon Islands archipelago (but not necessarily from the country), from the country of the Solomon Islands (but not necessarily from the archipelago), or from a part of the archipelago that belongs to the country of the Solomon Islands.

²⁰ The Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian₆e provides the form saudoarābas, –ė. Of course, the shorter form is more convenient, but by analogy with other one-word names for residents derived from two-word country names, the expected form would be *saudoarabietis, –ė. This form seems rather odd, so a compound name was chosen.

²¹ For example, it is not advisable to call a Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina a Bosniak.

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names are formed with the suffix -ietis, -ė (see Tables 1 and 2 for more). Sometimes, when it is unclear how to form a new name, this fact could perhaps also be used as a guide.

In any case, when forming or changing names for residents of countries and ethnonyms, it is important to remember that these are not isolated, individual words: they are part of a particular system (and not merely a linguistic one). If, for example, there are Fijian, Kazakh, and Macedonian languages, then the ethnic groups that speak them (not the countries' residents) are Fijians, Kazakhs, and Macedonians (not Fijians, Kazakhstanis, and Macedonians). If, for example, the residents of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago are called Trinidadians or Tobagonians, one should remember that this country consists of five other islands in addition to Trinidad and Tobago. What should the residents of those islands be called?

As mentioned at the beginning of the article, only one part of the names for residents has been discussed here. In the future, names for residents of capital cities, regions, and territories should also be standardized.

CONCLUSIONS

Certain principles can be identified for providing (standardizing) one or another name for a country's inhabitants or an ethnonym:

1) tradition – if a word is recorded in dictionaries, encyclopedias, or similar sources, there is no need to change it, unless new facts emerge that must be taken into account (for example, if a country's name changes, the name for its inhabitants (but not the people as an ethnic group) usually changes as well);

2) analogy – if a name does not appear in the sources mentioned, it is formed by analogy with other similar words already established in the language (if perujietis exists, vanuatietis is also possible; if kostarikietis exists, then sanmarinietis is correct too;

3) systematicity – if there is neither a tradition nor an analogy, but the rules of word formation allow it, the name is formed with the suffix -ietis, -ė. After all, this is the main meaning of this suffix. Moreover, ordinary language users can most easily form words of this type with it.

4) distinctiveness – if a country's name consists of several words and forming a one-word name for its inhabitant could cause some ambiguity, it is better to refer to the inhabitants of that country using a compound expression: inhabitants of a particular country.

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TABLE 1. Names of countries' inhabitants and ethnic groups formed with the suffix –ietis, –ė

Country name²²

Name for inhabitants

Ethnic group²³ name

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

Afghan, m./f. “inhabitant of Afghanistan”

People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Algerian, m./f. “inhabitant of Algeria”

Principality of Andorra

Andorran, m./f. “inhabitant of Andorra”

Republic of Angola

Angolan, m./f. “resident of Angola”

Argentine Republic

Argentine, m./f. “resident of Argentina”

Republic of Azerbaijan

Azerbaijani, m./f. “a person belonging to a people living in Azerbaijan”

Commonwealth of the Bahamas

Bahamian, m./f. “resident of the Bahamas”

Kingdom of Bahrain

Bahraini, m./f. “resident of Bahrain”

People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Bangladeshi, m./f. “resident of Bangladesh”

Barbados

Barbadian, m./f. “resident of Barbados”

Belize

Belizean, m./f. “resident of Belize”

Republic of Benin

beninese “a resident of Benin”

Republic of Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissauan “a resident of Guinea-Bissau”

²²Country names have been included in the table for two reasons: 1) it is easier to find the desired name for a resident or an ethnonym by country; 2) it is easier to understand how the names under discussion are formed and why some of them have two meanings.

²³This refers to the nation whose name (although, as already mentioned, this is not precise) is used to designate all the residents of that state. The other peoples living in that state are not discussed here.

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Continuation of Table 1

Name of state

Name for inhabitants

Name of nationality

Republic of Botswana

Botswanan “a resident of Botswana”

Brunei Darussalam

Bruneian “a resident of Brunei”

Burkina Faso

Burkina Fasoan “a resident of Burkina Faso”

Republic of Burundi

Burundian “resident of Burundi”

Kingdom of Bhutan

Bhutanese “resident of Bhutan”

Republic of Chad

Chadian “resident of Chad”

Republic of Chile

Chilean “resident of Chile”

Commonwealth of Dominica

Dominican “resident of the Commonwealth of Dominica”; resident of Dominica (the Commonwealth), ²⁴

Dominican Republic

Dominican “resident of the Dominican Republic”; resident of the Dominican Republic, ²⁵

Republic of Djibouti

Djiboutian “resident of Djibouti”

Arab Republic of Egypt

Egyptian “resident of Egypt”

Republic of Ecuador

Ecuadorian “resident of Ecuador”

Eritrea

Eritrean “resident of Eritrea”

²⁴ The compound name is used when it is unclear which Dominica’s (there are two) inhabitants are being referred to; the one-word form is used when this is clear from the context.

²⁵ See the previous note.

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Continuation of Table 1

Name of the state

Name for inhabitants

Name of nationality

Republic of the Fiji Islands

Fijian “resident of Fiji”

Republic of the Philippines

Filipino “resident of the Philippines”

Republic of Gabon

Gabonese “resident of Gabon”

Republic of Guyana

a Guyanese “a resident of Guyana”

Republic of The Gambia

a Gambian “a resident of The Gambia”

Republic of Ghana

a Ghanaian “a resident of Ghana”

Grenada

a Grenadian “a resident of Grenada”

Republic of Guatemala

a Guatemalan “a resident of Guatemala”

Republic of Guinea

a Guinean “a resident of Guinea”

Republic of Haiti

a Haitian “a resident of Haiti”

Republic of Honduras

a Honduran “a resident of Honduras”

Republic of Indonesia

Indonesian “a resident of Indonesia”

Republic of Iraq

Iraqi “a resident of Iraq”

Islamic Republic of Iran

Iranian “a resident of Iran”

State of Israel

Israeli “a resident of Israel”

Jamaica

Jamaican “a resident of Jamaica”

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Continuation of Table 1

Name of the state

Name for an inhabitant

Name for a nationality

Republic of Yemen

Yemeni “inhabitant of Yemen”

Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Jordanian “inhabitant of Jordan”

United States of America

American “inhabitant of the United States of America”

Republic of Montenegro

Montenegrin “person belonging to the people living in Montenegro”

Kingdom of Cambodia

Cambodian “inhabitant of Cambodia”

Republic of Cameroon

Cameroonian “inhabitant of Cameroon”

Canada

Canadian, -ian “resident of Canada”

State of Qatar

Qatari “resident of Qatar”

Republic of Kenya

Kenyan “resident of Kenya”

Republic of Cyprus

Cypriot “resident of Cyprus”

Republic of Kiribati

Kiribati “resident of Kiribati”

Republic of Colombia

Colombian “resident of Colombia”

Union of the Comoros

Comorian “resident of the Comoros”

Republic of the Congo

Congolese “resident of the Republic of the Congo”; resident of the Congo (Republic), -a²⁶

²⁶

The compound designation is used when it is unclear which Congo’s (there are two) inhabitants are being discussed; the one-word form is used when this is clear from the context.

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Continuation of Table 1

Country name

Name for inhabitants

Ethnonym

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Congolese “inhabitant of the Democratic Republic of the Congo”; inhabitant of the Democratic Republic of the Congo²⁷

Republic of Korea

South Korean; inhabitant of the Republic of Korea²⁸

Korean “a person belonging to the people living in the Republic of Korea and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

North Korean; inhabitant of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea²⁹

Korean “a person belonging to the people living in the Republic of Korea and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”

Kosovo³⁰

Kosovar “inhabitant of Kosovo”

Republic of Costa Rica

Costa Rican “a resident of Costa Rica”

Republic of Cuba

Cuban “a resident of Cuba”

State of Kuwait

Kuwaiti “a resident of Kuwait”

Lao People's Democratic Republic

Laotian “a person belonging to the people living in Laos”

Kingdom of Lesotho

Lesothan “a resident of Lesotho”

²⁷ See the previous note (footnote 26).

²⁸ The compound name should be used when it is unclear which Korea (there are two) is being referred to; the one-word form should be used when it is clear from the context.

²⁹ See the previous note.

³⁰ Kosovo's independence has been recognized by many countries, including the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania. However, it is not yet included in the ISO-3166 Country Names Code Standard, which is the basis of Language Commission Resolution No. 48, so the name of this new state may later appear somewhat different. For this article, however, what matters most is not the name of the state but the name of its resident.

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Table 1 continued

Name of state

Name for inhabitants

Name for nationality

Republic of Lebanon

Lebanese “resident of Lebanon”

Republic of Liberia

Liberian “resident of Liberia”

Principality of Liechtenstein

Liechtensteiner “resident of Liechtenstein”

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg

Luxembourger “resident of Luxembourg”

Republic of Madagascar

Malagasy “resident of Madagascar”

Malaysia

Malaysian “resident of Malaysia”

Republic of Malawi

Malawian “resident of Malawi”

Republic of Maldives

Maldivian “resident of the Maldives”

Republic of Mali

Malian “resident of Mali”

Republic of Malta

Maltese “a person belonging to the people living in Malta”

Kingdom of Morocco

Moroccan “resident of Morocco”

Republic of the Marshall Islands

Marshallese “resident of the Marshall Islands”

Republic of Mauritius

Mauritian “resident of Mauritius”

Islamic Republic of Mauritania

Mauritanian “resident of Mauritania”

United Mexican States

Mexican, - “resident of Mexico”

Union of Myanmar

Myanmarian, - “resident of Myanmar”

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Continuation of Table 1

Name of the state

Name for inhabitants

Name of the nationality

Federated States of Micronesia

Micronesian, - “person belonging to an ethnic group living in Micronesia”

Principality of Monaco

Monegasque, - “resident of Monaco”

Republic of Mozambique

Mozambican, - “resident of Mozambique”

Republic of Nauru

Nauruan, - “resident of Nauru”

Republic of Namibia

Namibian “resident of Namibia”

Nepal

Nepalese “resident of Nepal”

Federal Republic of Nigeria

Nigerian “resident of Nigeria”; resident of Nigeria (Federal Republic)³¹

Republic of Niger

Nigerien “resident of Niger”; resident of Niger (Republic)

Republic of Nicaragua

Nicaraguan “resident of Nicaragua”

Sultanate of Oman

Omani “resident of Oman”

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Pakistani “resident of Pakistan”

Republic of Palau

Palauan “resident of Palau”

Republic of Panama

Panamanian “resident of Panama”

31

The form Nigerian was chosen because the word *niger is unsuitable because of its politically incorrect connotation; the one-word designation is used when the context makes it clear whether the resident of Niger or Nigeria is meant. If it is unclear, a compound designation is used.

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Continuation of Table 1

Country name

Name for inhabitants

Ethnonym

Republic of Paraguay

Paraguayan “resident of Paraguay”

Republic of Peru

Peruvian “resident of Peru”

Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste

Timorese “resident of East Timor”

Republic of Rwanda

Rwandan “resident of Rwanda”

Republic of El Salvador

Salvadoran, -a “a resident of El Salvador”

Independent State of Samoa

Samoan, -a “a person of the people living in Samoa”

Republic of San Marino

Sanmarinese, -a “a resident of San Marino”

Republic of Seychelles

Seychellois, -a “a resident of Seychelles”

Republic of Senegal

Senegalese, -a “a resident of Senegal”

Saint Lucia

Saint Lucian, -a “a resident of Saint Lucia”

Republic of Sierra Leone

Sierra Leonean, -a “a resident of Sierra Leone”

Republic of Singapore

Singaporean, -a “a resident of Singapore”

Republic of Somalia

Somali, -an „a resident of Somalia“

Republic of Sudan

Sudanese, -an „a resident of Sudan“

Republic of Suriname

Surinamese, -an „a resident of Suriname“

Kingdom of Swaziland

Swazi, -an „a resident of Swaziland“

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Continuation of Table 1

Name of the state

Name for inhabitants

Name of the nationality

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan „a resident of Sri Lanka“

Kingdom of Thailand

Thai „a resident of Thailand“

United Republic of Tanzania

Tanzanian, - “a resident of Tanzania”

Republic of Togo

Togolese, - “a resident of Togo”

Kingdom of Tonga

Tongan, - “a resident of Tonga”

Republic of Tunisia

Tunisian, - “a resident of Tunisia”

Tuvalu

Tuvaluan, - “a resident of Tuvalu”

Republic of Uganda

Ugandan, - “a resident of Uganda”

Ukraine

Ukrainian, - “a person of the nation living in Ukraine”

Eastern Republic of Uruguay

Uruguayan, - “a resident of Uruguay”

Republic of Vanuatu

Vanuatuan, - “resident of Vanuatu”

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Venezuelan, - “resident of Venezuela”

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Vietnamese, - “a person belonging to a people living in Vietnam”

Republic of Zambia

Zambian, - “resident of Zambia”

Republic of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwean, - “resident of Zimbabwe”

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TABLE 2. Names of inhabitants and nationalities of states formed with the endings

-as, -ė; -is, -ė

Name of the state

Name of inhabitants

Name of nationality

Ireland

airis, -ė “a person of a people living in Ireland”

Republic of Albania

albanas, -ė “a person of a people living in Albania”

Republic of Armenia

armėnas, -ė “a person of a people living in Armenia”

Australia

australas, -ė “inhabitant of Australia”

Republic of Áustria

áustras, -ė “a person of a people living in Áustria”

Republic of Belarus

Belarusian, -ian “a person belonging to a people living in Belarus”

Kingdom of Belgium

Belgian, -ian “a resident of Belgium”

Republic of Bolivia

Bolivian, -ian “a resident of Bolivia”

Federative Republic of Brazil

Brazilian, -ian “a resident of Brazil”

Republic of Bulgaria

Bulgarian, -ian “a person belonging to a people living in Bulgaria”

Republic of Czechia

Czech, -ian “a person belonging to a people living in Czechia”

Kingdom of Denmark

Dane, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Denmark”

Republic of Estonia

Estonian, -ian “a person belonging to a people living in Estonia”

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ethiopian, -ian “a resident of Ethiopia”

Hellenic Republic

Greek, -k “a member of a people living in Greece”

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Continuation of Table 2

Country name

Name for an inhabitant

Name for an ethnic group

Georgia

Georgian, -ian “a member of a people living in Georgia”

Republic of India

Indian, -ian “a resident of India”

Republic of Iceland

Icelander, -der “a member of a people living in Iceland”

Kingdom of Spain

Spaniard, -ard “a member of a people living in Spain”

Italian Republic

Italian, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in Italy”

Japan

Japanese, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in Japan”

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Briton, -ian “a resident of Great Britain”; resident of the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), -ian³²

Briton, -ian “a resident of Great Britain”; resident of the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), -ian³²

Republic of Kazakhstan

Kazakh, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in Kazakhstan (Kazakhia)”

People’s Republic of China

Chinese, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in China”

Kyrgyz Republic

Kyrgyz, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in Kyrgyzstan”

Republic of Croatia

Croat, -ian “a person belonging to the people living in Croatia”

Republic of Latvia

Latvian “a person belonging to the people living in Latvia”

Republic of Poland

Pole “a person belonging to a people living in Poland”

³² The compound name is given because Great Britain does not include Northern Ireland.

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Continuation of Table 2

Name of state

Name for inhabitants

Name of nationality

Libyan Arab Socialist People's Jamahiriya

Libyan “a person belonging to a people living in Libya”

Republic of Lithuania

Lithuanian “a person belonging to a people living in Lithuania”

The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

Macedonian “a person belonging to a people living in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia”

Republic of Moldova

Moldovan “a person belonging to a people living in Moldova”

Mongolia

Mongol, -ian “a person of the people living in Mongolia”

Kingdom of Norway

Norwegian “a person of the people living in Norway”

Kingdom of the Netherlands

Dutchman, -woman “a person of the people living in the Netherlands (Holland)”

Portuguese Republic

Portuguese “a person of the people living in Portugal”

French Republic

Frenchman, -woman “a person of the people living in France”

Romania

Romanian “a person of the people living in Romania”

Russian Federation

Russian “a person of the people living in Russia”

Republic of Serbia

Serb “a person of the people living in Serbia”

Syrian Arab Republic

Syrian, - “a resident of Syria”

Slovak Republic

Slovak, - “a person belonging to a people living in Slovakia”

Republic of Slovenia

Slovenian, - “a person belonging to a people living in Slovenia”

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Continuation of Table 2

Name of the state

Name for inhabitants

Name of the nationality

Republic of Finland

Finn, -e “a person belonging to a people living in Finland”

Kingdom of Sweden

Swede, - “a person belonging to a people living in Sweden”

Swiss Confederation

Swiss, - “a resident of Switzerland”

Tajik, - “a person belonging to a people living in Tajikistan (Tajikistan)”

Republic of Turkey

Turk, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Turkey”

Turkmenistan

Turkmen, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Turkmenistan (Turkmenia)”

Republic of Uzbekistan

Uzbek, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Uzbekistan (Uzbekia)”

Republic of Hungary

Hungarian, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Hungary”

Federal Republic of Germany

German, -ish “a person belonging to a people living in Germany”

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TABLE 3. Names for inhabitants of states formed with the word inhabitant³³

Name of state

Name for inhabitants

Antigua and Barbuda

inhabitant of Antigua and Barbuda

Bosnia and Herzegovina

inhabitant of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Central African Republic

inhabitant of the Central African Republic

Republic of the Ivory Coast

inhabitant of the Ivory Coast (Republic)

United Arab Emirates

inhabitant of the United Arab Emirates

New Zealand

inhabitant of New Zealand

Papua New Guinea

a resident of Papua New Guinea

Republic of South Africa

a resident of South Africa

Republic of Equatorial Guinea

a resident of Equatorial Guinea

Solomon Islands

a resident of the Solomon Islands

Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe

a resident of São Tomé and Príncipe

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

a resident of Saudi Arabia

Saint Kitts and Nevis

a resident of Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

a resident of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

resident of Trinidad and Tobago (Republic), male or female

Holy See; Vatican City State

resident of Vatican City State, male or female

Republic of the Gambia

resident of the Gambia (Republic), male or female

³³The table lists only those names that have no shorter forms (names such as Dominican, male or female, resident of the Dominican Republic are not included in this table).

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TABLE 4³⁴

Country name

Name of resident

Ethnonym

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

Afghanistani, male or female “resident of Afghanistan”

Afghan, male or female “member of a people living in Afghanistan”

People’s Republic of Bangladesh

Bangladeshi, male or female “resident of Bangladesh”

Bengali, male or female “member of a people living in Bangladesh”

Bosnia and Herzegovina

a resident of Bosnia and Herzegovina

a Bosnian “a person belonging to a people living in Bosnia”

Republic of the Fiji Islands

a Fijian “a resident of Fiji”

a Fiji Islander “a person belonging to a people living in Fiji”

Kingdom of Cambodia

a Cambodian “a resident of Cambodia”

a Khmer “a person belonging to a people living in Cambodia”

Kosovo³⁵

a Kosovar “a resident of Kosovo”

an Albanian “a person belonging to a people living in Kosovo, Albania, and elsewhere”

Republic of Kiribati

a I-Kiribati “a resident of Kiribati”

a Micronesian “a person belonging to an ethnic group living in Kiribati, Micronesia, and elsewhere”

Republic of Madagascar

Madagascarian, -ian “a resident of Madagascar”

Malagasy, -y “a member of an ethnic group living in Madagascar”

Malaysia

Malaysian, -ian “a resident of Malaysia”

Malay, -ay “a member of an ethnic group living in Malaysia”

Union of Myanmar

Myanmarian, -ian “a resident of Myanmar”

Burmese, -ese “a member of an ethnic group living in Myanmar (formerly Burma)”

Principality of Monaco

Monégasque, -asque “a resident of Monaco”

Monegasque, -e “a citizen of Monaco”³⁶

³⁴This table is compiled on a different basis from the preceding ones. For some of the resident designations already discussed, it also gives the names of ethnic groups predominant in that state or associated with the state's name, since the designations listed in the table are often confused. It should be emphasized that here, unlike in the first and second tables, an ethnic designation cannot be used to refer to the inhabitants of that state.

³⁵ For Kosovo, see footnote 30 (p. 90).

³⁶ According to CIA data for 2008, they make up only 16 percent of the total population.

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Table 4 (continued)

Country name

Name for an inhabitant

Ethnonym

Republic of Nauru

Nauruan “inhabitant of Nauru”

Nauruan “member of the people living in Nauru”³⁷

Nepal

Nepalese “inhabitant of Nepal”

Nepali “member of the people living in Nepal”

Republic of Somalia

Somali “inhabitant of Somalia”

Somali “member of the people living in Somalia”

Kingdom of Swaziland

Swazi “inhabitant of Swaziland”

Swazi “member of the people living in Swaziland”

Kingdom of Thailand

Thai man, -woman “a resident of Thailand”

tãjas, -ė “a person belonging to an ethnic group living in Thailand”

ŠALTINIAI

CIA: Pasaulio faktų knyga (The World Factbook, CIA). Interneto prieiga: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bh.html

DŽ₆ₑ 2006: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vyr. red. S. Keinys. Elektroninis leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas.

LKŽₑ 2005: Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (I–XX, 1941–2002): elektroninis variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Interneto prieiga: http://www.lkz.lt

LTE: Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija 1–8, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1976–1981; 9–12, Vilnius: Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija, 1982–1984.

MLKŽ 2000: Mokomasis lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Red. R. Šepetytė. Vilnius: Baltos lankos.

TŽŽ 2001: Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Alma littera.

UNTERM: Jungtinių Tautų terminy nas UNTERM. Interneto prieiga: http://unterm.un.org/DGAACS/unterm.nsf

Valstybinės lietuvių kalbos komisijos nutarimai. Interneto prieiga: http://www.vlkk.lt/nutarimai/svetimvardziai.html

VLE I–XIII 2001–2008: Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija 1–13, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.

VV TŽŽ 2001: V. Vaitkevičiūtė. Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas, Vilnius: Žodynas.

Gauta 2008 06 27

³⁷ CIA duomenimis, Nauru gyvena kelios etninės grupės (ar tautos), viena iš jų – nauriečiai, kurie sudaro 58 proc. visų gyventojų. Likusius 42 proc. sudaro kitos etninės grupės. Taigi, tenka skirti dvi reikšmes.

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WORDS REFERRING TO NATIONALS OF COUNTRIES AND NATIONS

Summary

The paper deals with the words referring to country nationals and nations. It acknowledges two problems: first, the two words are often confused and second, out of the total number of 200 words of the lexical semantic group only about a quarter have been standardised, the remaining words are left at the user’s disposal. The paper attempts to standardise all the above words according to four main principles as identified by the author:

—tradition: if the word is found in a dictionary, encyclopaedia etc, it should not be changed, unless there are new facts to consider (e.g. a change in the name of the state leads to changing the name of its nationals, but not its nation).

—analogy: if the word is missing in the above sources, it is built by analogy with other firmly established words in the language; thus, if we have perujietis, we can also introduce vanuatietis, if we have kostarikietis, we can introduce sanmarinietis as well-formed words.

—systematicity: if the word has no tradition, neither can it be made by analogy, but the rules of word-building still apply, the word is made with the suffix -ietis, -ē. Language users coin new words according to the pattern and usually find it the easiest to apply.

—distinctiveness: if the name of the state consists of several words and the process of making a single-word name might result in ambiguities, a national of the state should be then referred to as a national of that state.

In any case, words referring to nationals of the country or nations, either in the process of building or changing them, should be treated within a system of language and beyond it.

DANUTĖ LIUTKEVIČIENĖ

Lietuvių kalbos institutas

P. Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius

[email protected]

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